INTRODUCTION 1 - 7
I. LAND AND PEOPLE 8 - 187
A. Geographical data 8 - 26 B. Political and administrative structures 27 - 29 C. Data on infrastructure and services 30 - 100 D. Economic data 101 - 138 E. Demographic data 139 - 187
II. GENERAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE 188 - 474
A. History and past political developments 188 - 445 B. System of government 446 - 453 C. Structure of the organs of State: the executive, the legislature and the judiciary 454 - 466 D. The Office of the Human Rights Procurator 467 - 469 E. The Public Prosecutor's Department and the Office of the National Procurator-General 470 - 472 F. The Presidential Commission for Coordinating Executive Policy in the Field of Human Rights 473 - 474
III. GENERAL FRAMEWORK WITHIN WHICH HUMAN RIGHTS ARE PROTECTED 475 - 596
A. Rights protected by the Constitution or by a declaration of rights and provisions relating to exceptions thereto 475 - 505 B. Implementation of the principles of international instruments 506 - 508 C. Judicial, administrative and other authorities competent in matters relating to human rights 509 - 549 D. Remedies available to individuals alleging violations of any of their rights 550 - 596
IV. INFORMATION AND PUBLICITY 597 - 607
1. This report is submitted in response to the guidelines issued by the supervisory bodies established under the treaties, covenants and conventions on human rights. It is made up of chapters on the land and people, the general political structure, the general framework within which human rights are protected and information and publicity. Each chapter offers a brief informative overview of the most relevant elements within the State of Guatemala.
2. The data concerning the population must be viewed with appropriate reservations, since the sources consulted are not always up to date; in addition, some information is not available. Consequently for some items estimates have been made on the basis of data which is not always reliable.
3. The Government of Guatemala is aware of the lack of reliable sources of information, since the institutions concerned are processing data relating to 1992.
4. As regards the general political structure, a brief historical survey has been prepared covering the period running from before the arrival of the Spaniards up to the present day in order to provide a perspective permitting an understanding of the country's social, political and economic problems.
5. The section on the general framework within which human rights are protected compares international law with Guatemala's domestic legislation and shows that those rights are fully protected under the Constitution and general legislation.
6. On the subject of information and publicity, descriptions are provided of each of the individual measures in this field being taken within Guatemala in order to secure wider dissemination of information concerning knowledge of, respect for and enforcement of human rights.
7. With these considerations in mind the present report is submitted to the Commission on Human Rights.
1. Location
8. The Republic of Guatemala is the northernmost of the countries of Central America. Its boundaries touch Mexico on the north and west, the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, Honduras and El Salvador on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the south. It has a total area of 108,889 sq. km and is located between latitude parallels 13_ 44 and 18_30 N. and longitude meridians 87_ 24 and 92_ 14 W.
9. It has a land area of approximately 106,320 sq. km (equivalent to 10,639,000 ha). Lakes and rivers occupy approximately 2,569 sq. km (the equivalent of 250,060 ha).
2. Climate
10. The climate in Guatemala varies from temperate to torrid and from humid to prehumid; but there are microclimatic variations.
11. The average temperature over the year varies between 28_ C. in the coastal areas and 10_ C. in the highlands. The maximum and minimum temperatures encountered in individual regions range from 42_ C. to - 5_ C.
12. The average annual rainfall over the country as a whole is 2,218 mm. In the altiplano it averages 1,600 mm annually. There are areas with an annual rainfall of as little as 500 mm and others in which as much as 6,000 mm is reported. The principal contributory factor to the rainfall is the meeting of two tropical systems; but tropical cyclones and cold fronts of Arctic origin also have an influence.
3. Hydrography
13. The Pacific coastal region has an area of approximately 23,380 sq. km. It is a band of territory almost parallel to the Pacific coast and extending from the peak of Niquihuil, on the Mexican frontier, to close to the mountain crest marking the meeting point of the frontiers of Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras.
14. The region facing the Gulf of Mexico has an area of approximately 52,910 sq. km. Its boundary extends from the end of the Pacific coastal region to the altiplano of the department of Totonicapán; follows the crestline forming the boundaries of the catchment area of the Motagua river, which flows into the Atlantic; continues along the crestline forming the beginning of the basin of the Polochic river (which flows into Lake Izabal) and the Cahabón river; skirts the edges of the Sierra de Chamá (or Santa Cruz); and finally cuts across part of the department of El Petén and the territory of Belize.
15. The Caribbean coastal region has an area of approximately 32,610 sq. km. It consists of the basins of the rivers which flow into that sea.
16. There are over 300 lakes and lagoons in the country. The largest is Lake Izabal, with a surface area of approximately 590 sq. km. The largest river is the Usumacinta, with a reported average flow of 1,776 cu.m/sec. Other major rivers are the Motagua, with an average flow of 189 cu.m/sec, and the Cahabón, with an average flow of 166 cu.m/sec.
17. Usable underground water is found mainly in the Pacific coastal region, the volcanic valleys of the altiplano and the valleys of the principal rivers.
4. Forests
18. The inhabited (bioclimatic) areas have been classified, using the Holdridge method, in 14 major categories. These are:
- xerophytic subtropical;
- dry subtropical;
- wet temperate subtropical;
- wet warm subtropical;
- very wet warm subtropical;
- very wet cold subtropical;
- wet hilly subtropical;
- rainy hilly;
- wet mountainous subtropical;
- very wet mountainous subtropical;
- dry hilly subtropical;
- rainy subtropical;
- very wet subtropical.
5. Structural geology of regions
19. Guatemala is located between two of the principal geological plates (or faults) in the Americas : the Caribbean plate and the Cocos plate in the Pacific ocean. This location makes Guatemala an area with a high level of seismic activity. Its surface regions are:
(a) The Pacific coastal plain is a uniformly flat region lying between the coastline and the hilly area, rising to a height of 850 metres above sea level, consisting in particular of a series of closely interconnected alluvial valleys. Until some 40 years ago this region was one of thick and abundant forest. Today it is given over to intensive agriculture, stock-rearing and agro-industrial production, and mainly to the cultivation of agricultural produce for export. Typical of this region are the large areas of savanna and high water table levels and the mangrove forests in the coastal areas, where the animal wildlife generally has been decimated to such an extent that certain species have become extinct.
(b) The volcanic chain is a strip of territory consisting of mountainous volcanic slopes. It begins at the contour line of 550 metres above sea level and reaches a height of 4,211 metres above sea level at the peak of Tajamulco volcano. It consists of two regions : a lower part, adjacent to the coastal area, and a higher part covered with cloud forest. Each of the volcanoes in the country has a specific flora and fauna which together form communities; some groups have adapted to the altitude to an extent which prevents them from expanding beyond the area of their particular volcanoes. In other words, each volcano is a bio-island the population of which cannot leave it. There are 33 volcanoes in Guatemala, all of them forming part of the chain which runs parallel to the Pacific. The volcanoes of over 3,000 metres in height include Tajamulco (4,220 m), Tacaná (4,092 m), Acatenango (3,935 m), Agua (3,766 m), Fuego (3,763 m), Santa María (3,700 m) and Atitlán (3,536 m).
(c) The crystalline and sedimentary uplands form an extensive region made up of a mixture of mountain peaks and volcanic cones, plains and enclosed valleys. It comprises almost half of the country's land area and extends from the crestline of the Pacific chain in the south to the foothills of the Los Cuchumatanes, Chamá and Las Minas mountain ranges in the north. The complexity of the relief of this region has had a decisive influence on the geographical distribution of the different forms of life, particularly as different combinations of winds, temperatures, rainfall and humidity exist in particular areas.
(d) The lowlands of El Petén form a large region extending northwards from the foothills of the Cuchutumanes system and the northerly limit of the uplands. They embrace the northern areas of the departments of Huehuetenango, El Quiché and Alta Verapaz and the department of El Petén. They include the lowlands along the Atlantic coastline and the catchment area comprising Lake Izabal, the Dulce river, the Polochic river delta and the lower part of the Motagua valley.
6. Terrain
20. According to the FAO/UNESCO system of soil classification there are 13 types of terrain in Guatemala. Seventy per cent of the land is suitable for forestry and 26% for intensive agricultural production. The most fertile terrains are used for the cultivation of agricultural produce for export and for stock-rearing.
21. Intensive agriculture is also engaged in to produce crops for domestic consumption; the principal crops are maize and kidney beans (frijoles). These are grown in areas in which the population density is highest, i.e., in the altiplano. In these areas the soil is deteriorating rapidly on account of slash-and-burn cultivation methods and contamination through the use of agrochemicals to increase productivity; the vegetable topsoil is being lost, forestry production and water supplies are diminishing, the soil temperature is rising and components of the ecosystem and elements of biodiversity are being destroyed, affecting the quality of life of humans.
22. The classification of terrains in Guatemala is as follows:
(a) First-quality arable land: approximately 9,456 sq. km. Most of this land is flat; slopes are of less than 4%. This land is for intensive agriculture and stock-rearing.
(b) Second-quality arable land: approximately 8,532 sq. km. This consists of gently undulating plains with slopes of less than 8%. Intensive and highly intensive use.
(c) Forest and multiple-use land: approximately 29,667 sq. km. Feasibility studies are needed to determine its true potential for agriculture, forestry and stock-rearing. No descriptive studies have been undertaken on these lands to obtain basic information.
(d) Primarily forest land: approximately 46,996 sq. km. These lands are destined for forestry, although small areas within them could be adapted for agricultural purposes.
(e) Karst: approximately 18,259 sq. km., being part of these 46,996 sq. km. which fall within the category of primarily forest land. This is the most fragile ecosystem in Guatemala.
(f) Land to be managed in the light of environmental conditions: approximately 10,818 sq. km. These lands are suitable mainly for the planting of deciduous trees, but there are small areas suitable for coniferous and mixed planting. The topography varies from intricate to highly intricate.
(g) Wetlands and marshland: approximately 2,625 sq. km. If properly drained they could be used intensively; they are natural "cushion" zones.
7. Flora
23. Guatemala has a wide variety of types of geographical zones; this has permitted the development of an extremely varied flora. In addition to those which are indigenous to the area, there are a number of species which originally developed in Europe or the East.
24. There are many different types of ornamental and medicinal flowers; their number is estimated at approximately 10,000. The varieties indigenous to Guatemala include flor de peña, annatto, katurai, cuscuta, agave, broom, various varieties of palm, liana, snapdragons, monte de oro, campanula, flowering banana, guayacum, flowering cacao, mano de león, matilaguate, acamayo, matapalo, houndstooth, tronadora, flor de muerto and poinsettia.
25. Monja blanca is an orchid and is considered as the national flower. There is a great variety of orchids; 242 different varieties are to be found in the following departments: Alta Verapaz : 111 in Izabal; 110 in Huehuetenango; 116 in Guatemala City; 75 in Chimaltenango; 72 in Chiquimula and Zacapa; 72 in Quetzaltenango; 59 in San Marcos; 58 in Santa Rosa; 57 in El Petén; 47 in Sololá and 40 in the rest of the country.
8. Fauna
26. As a result of the variety of climatic conditions in the country, a wide range of animal species are found. These include:
(a) mammals: opossum, shrews, bats, pacas, coyote, mountain cat, badger, squirrel monkey, skunk, weasel, puma, ocelot, mountain lion, jaguar, deer, squirrel, marmot, mountain and water rats;
(b) birds: these are found in the different regions as follows:
(i) In the Totonicapán highlands: ocellated turkey, reyezuelo hummingbird, mountain partridge, mountain starling, raven, woodland shara, robin, fishing hawk, savanna doves;
(ii) In the Caribbean lowlands: cobancho, common turkey, white hummingbird, harpy eagle, Yucatan shara, red parakeet, marsh cock, large partridge, scarlet macaw, Petén turkey, yellow-headed lory, jaulín collarejo, savanna doves;
(iii) In the Pacific lowlands: red hummingbird, red parakeet, green virello, marsh cock, red-beaked dove, orange-crested partridge, magpie, chinchirrin, savanna dove, white-crested lory, torrejo de antifaz;
(iv) In the arid zones: orange-crested partridge, jaulín collarejo, tolobajo, fishing hawk, red hummingbird, torrejo de antifaz.
(c) Species in danger of extinction:
(i) Reptiles: cecilia, sea turtle, river and marsh crocodiles, cayman, iguana, scorpion, masacuata, sumbador, lizard, snakes such as coral snakes, emerald boa, rock snake, rattlesnake, puff adder;
(ii) Mammals: howler monkey, Central American coypu, mountain lion, manatee, ant-bear, dolphin, wild pig, wild boar;
(iii) Birds: Barbary duck, jabirú, harpy eagle, peregrine falcon, ocellated turkey, green guacamaya, hawk eagle, partridge, lory, budgerigar, tecolote and buho owls, barn owl, dove, sparrow, hummingbird.
1. Departments and numbers of inhabitants
27. Guatemala is divided into 22 departments as follows:
Department No. of inhabitants
1. Guatemala City 1,932,953
2. Alta Verapaz 538,772
3. Baja Verapaz 179,472
4. Izabal 179,427
5. Zacapa 102,672
6. Chiquimula 169,697
7. El Progreso 124,672
8. Jutiapa 273,172
9. Jalapa 241,272
10. Santa Rosa 254,272
11. Sacatapéquez 224,772
12. Escuintla 566,972
13. Chimaltenango 168,972
14. Quetzaltenango 443,772
15. San Marcos 623,772
16. Totonicapán 282,672
17. Sololá 235,272
18. Retalhuleu 307,672
19. Suchitipéquez 282,672
20. Huehuetenango 652,272
21. El Quiché 538,572
22. El Petén 280,111
Total 8,663,859
2. Regional divisions
28. Article 3 of Congressional Decree No. 70-86 (Preliminary Regionalization Act) provides that "for the purposes of the administrative structuring of the territory and the functioning of the Regional Urban and Rural Development Councils, regions are hereby established, to be constituted preferably on a basis of interrelationships between urban centres and the development potential of the surrounding areas, as follows:
I. Metropolitan region: to consist of the department of Guatemala City.
II. Northern region: to consist of the departments of Alta and Baja Verapaz.
III. North-eastern region: to consist of the departments of Izabal, El Progreso, Zacapa and Chiquimula.
IV. South-eastern region: to consist of the departments of Santa Rosa, Jutiapa and Jalapa.
V. Central region: to consist of the departments of Chimaltenango, Sacatapéquez and Escuintla.
VI. South-western region: to consist of the departments of San Marcos, Quetzaltenango, Totonicapán, Sololá, Retalhuleu and Suchitipéquez.
VII. North-western region: to consist of the departments of Huehuetenango and El Quiché.
VIII. Petén region: to consist of the department of El Petén."
3. Municipalities
29. Administratively, the country is divided into 330 municipalities, which enjoy self-government and implement their own development plans, for which purposes they use their own resources and 8% of the national income and expenditure budget as provided for in the Political Constitution of the Republic.
1. Road and transport system
30. Their are approximately 12,238 linear km of roadways, of which 25% are paved roads, 42% all-weather unpaved roads and 33% unpaved roads usable only in dry weather.
31. The road network links Guatemala City with the rest of the country, and particularly with the departmental capitals, the principal ports and the most important frontier posts.
32. The regions with the lowest road network densities are regions II, III, VII and VIII; these are precisely the regions with the highest proportions of unpaved roads usable only in dry weather.
33. The departments with the lowest road network densities (even of unpaved roads usable only in dry weather) are: El Petén, Izabal, Alta Verapaz, Huehuetenango, El Quiché and Baja Verapaz.
34. Passenger transport services are provided to a considerable degree by interurban buses, which also transport goods.
35. Transport services operate mainly to and from Guatemala City, and to a lesser degree to and from Quetzaltenango City. This explains why 60% of all public transport vehicles are concentrated in regions I and VI.
36. In 1987, there were 2,848 interurban buses in Guatemala, transporting 364,544 passengers every day (an average of 128 passengers per vehicle and per day).
37. Mixed transport modes constitute a transport network of considerable economic importance. Although they do not of themselves constitute an actual transportation system, they do carry a substantial proportion of goods transported as well as passengers.
38. On the national plane, lorries are the principal means of transport of goods.
39. Air transport consists of commercial, private and military services. Commercial air transport operates on an international basis directly with 20 companies and with 5 others through stopovers.
40. In 1989, 17,749 international flights into and out of La Aurora airport were recorded.
41. At the regional level the main component of traffic is tourist traffic, mainly on the Guatemala City - Tikal route (the principal destination being Santa Elena).
42. There is little private traffic; services are offered by small private aircraft. They cater for agro-industrial production areas or zones which, for ecological operating reasons or on account of accessibility problems, use small aircraft regularly to carry loads averaging 1,000 kg. Thus at the national level the areas principally served are the coastal areas in regions V and VI and parts of regions I, III, VII and VIII.
43. The military transport services participate in support activities for local peasant production in some areas which are difficult of access, principally in regions II, VII and VIII.
44. There are two international airports in the country: the most important (La Aurora) is at Guatemala City, and the other is at San Benito, Petén (region VIII). Both are mixed (civil and military).
45. The lesser aerodromes are concentrated for the most part in region VI (34% of all airstrips) and mainly in the departments of Escuintla, Retalhuleu, Suchitipéquez, San Marcos, Izabal, Quiché and Poptún (Petén). Four of them are for military use only.
2. Railways and rail transport
46. Rail transport is an alternative mode for passengers and for the transport of heavy, non-perishable goods.
47. The railway network consists of four lines, three of which are operational: (1) Guatemala City - Puerto Barrios, which serves regions I and III and carries the greatest volume of goods (principally bananas); (2) Escuintla -Tecún Umán, which serves regions V and VI; it carries an average volume of goods, mainly coffee and sugar; and (3) Guatemala City - San José, which serves regions I and V.
48. The technology base is diesel traction, and the tracks are narrow-gauge. In 1987 the rail network transported 700,000 metric tons of goods, but in 1988 it transported only 425,000 tons - 275,000 tons less. Of these totals, 16% consisted of bananas, 25% other export products, 29% imported products, 27% domestically-produced goods in local transport and 3% parcel post.
3. Seaports and water transport routes
49. Guatemala currently has an operating capacity of 8.7 million metric tons at its seaports.
50. On the Atlantic seaboard, serving region III, there are two ports - Santo Tomás de Castilla and Puerto Barrios, which between them possess 42.5% of the country's total capacity and in 1988 handled 75% of all the country's port traffic. On the Pacific coast, serving region V, there are three seaports - San José, Quetzal and Champerico, with respectively 11.5%, 34.0% and 11.5% of the country's port traffic capacity.
4. Transport by water
51. In Guatemala the principal rivers and lakes are used for local and regional transportation of goods and passengers. The principal inland waterways used are: the Usumacinta (region VIII), the Sarstún (region III), the Polochic (regions II and III), the Motagua (regions I, II and III), the Dulce (region III) and the Chiquimulilla canal (regions IV and V). The principal lake transport routes are on lakes Flores (region VIII), Izabal (region III) and Atitlán (region VI).
5. Electric power supplies
52. The electricity-generating capacity of the country is 59% hydro-electric, 22% from gas turbines and 15% from steam power.
53. Electricity generation is distributed by region as follows: 35.9% in region V, 34.0% in region II and 14% each in regions I and VI.
54. The largest producer of electricity is the department of Alta Verapaz, which generates 29% of national consumption and 57.3% of the country's hydroelectric power, followed by Santa Rosa (14% of national consumption and 23.5% of the country's hydroelectric power) and Escuintla (12.8% of national production and the greatest diversity of sources of power, including in particular 64.3% of gas turbine generation).
55. The transmission networks centre mainly on region I, part of region VI and the departmental capitals.
56. Region I has the highest consumption, followed by regions V, III and VI in that order.
57. There are manifest supply shortages, especially in region VII, where only 4.7% of population centres are connected to the electricity supply network; and region II, where only 7.3% of the population centres in Alta Verapaz and 7.5% of those in Baja Verapaz are supplied. This situation is all the more striking as this region is the country's largest producer of electric power.
58. The National Electrification Institute has plans to extend the network and to facilitate access by means of transformer substations and through the national grid.
59. Total electricity consumption in the country, according to data for 1986, is 1,493,198,4 thousand kW. Consumption by the industrial sector amounts to 528,660,3 thousand kW (35.4% of the total) and domestic consumption to 456,443.1 thousand kW. The latter figure reflects the fact that only 18% of households in the country receive electricity supplies.
60. The energy generation potential of the country depends on the flow of the watercourses in each region.
6. Water supplies, irrigation, sewerage
61. As a rule, the administrative centre of each municipal area and each of the principal population centres in the country has at least one aqueduct. In most cases these are managed by the municipal authorities concerned, but there are a few in private hands. However, with a few exceptions all of them are poorly operated and maintained, with the result that levels of water wastage are high.
62. It is estimated that 848,178 dwellings are not connected to the water mains; in other words, 67.34% of the country's population do not have water supplies in their homes.
63. According to data for 1986, 126,782 ha of land are under irrigation throughout the country. Privately-owned systems cover 34,417 ha. Irrigation takes place mainly in regions III (principally in Zacapa), IV (in Jutiapa) and VI (Quetzaltenango).
64. The density of the drainage network in the population centres is lower than that for water supplies. The great majority of drains empty directly into natural water catchment areas without previous treatment of the drainage, with ensuing water contamination.
65. Sewerage exists only in urban areas, and only 15.78% of dwellings have sewerage facilities. In rural areas and in other urban households the majority use cesspools or earth latrines. However, it occasionally happens that, even where a sewerage network has been installed, dwellings situated in the area covered by it have not been connected to it.
7. Telephone, television, radio, postal and telegraph infrastructures and services
66. The majority of the lines in the telephone system are concentrated in region I. Out of the 131,867 lines installed in 1987 in the country as a whole, 82.82% were in the metropolitan region (mainly in Guatemala City itself). Thus most of the developments have fewer than 2,500 lines.
67. The Guatemala Telecommunications Company (GUATEL) has 61 buildings for offices and plant; these also provide operator-assisted telephone services and payphones and community telephones. These buildings are concentrated principally in region VI (17 agencies), region III (13), region V (11) and region I (8). The current telephone technology is being replaced by the digital system.
68. The Government of Guatemala, through GUATEL, is a member of the International Telecommunication Union. International communications are effected through the INTERSALT satellite. GUATEL owns two land-based stations for communication via satellite.
69. Thanks to the international satellites the population is able to use parabolic aerials to receive signals from stations in other countries (both commercial and pay stations). There are also individual firms supplying services of this kind to the urban population. The government supervises this process to ensure compliance with the international regulations on the subject.
70. There are five VHF and four UHF television stations in the country. One of them is governmental.
71. There are 82 FM and AM radio transmitters in the metropolitan area. One of them is national. In the rest of the country there are 70 FM or AM transmitters. Three of them - located in the departments of Quetzaltenango, Totonicapán and El Petén - are national.
72. The Directorate-General for Posts and Telegraphs, which forms part of the Ministry of Communications, Transport and Public Works, has postal and telegraph offices in the administrative centres of a large number of municipal areas.
73. The postal service has a nation-wide average of 1.26 postman and 0.97 letter-box per 10,000 inhabitants. Region I is the best served (with 3.43 postmen per 10,000 inhabitants) and region VII the worst (0.44 postman). The national average for postboxes is 9.50 per 10,000 inhabitants; but the actual density ranges from 29 per 10,000 in region I to 0.67 in region IV.
74. Postal traffic is concentrated in region I, which is the region of origin of 60% of all traffic and the destination of 62%. The maximum density of telegraphic traffic is found in region VI, from which 22% of all telegrams emanate and which receives 29%.
75. There are four daily newspapers appearing in the morning - El Gráfico, Prensa Libre, La República and Siglo Veintiuno - and one evening paper (La Hora). There is an official journal (Diario de Centroamerica) which is published daily.
76. There are several magazines : Crítica, Crónica, Contacto deportivo, Polémica, Adonde Guatemala, Tinamit.
77. Six of the principal radio news bulletins are transmitted in the mornings, at midday and in the evenings. The television systems transmit five local news bulletins and an additional one by cable.
8. The banking system
78. The country's banking system is made up of national and private banks. There is also a wide-ranging network of financial institutions. The system is regulated by Congressional Decree No. 315, which lays down the respective rights and obligations of banks and customers arising from credit and financial transactions. The banks themselves may be commercial, mortgage-orientated, fiduciary or mixed. Thus most banks belong to the private sector; a smaller number of them are subject to a measure of State intervention.
79. The Banking Supervisory Authority is the body responsible for supervision and control of the banking system generally. It supervises and inspects banks, credit institutions, financial establishments, insurance bond companies and other institutions falling within the scope of the relevant legislation. The Monetary Board is responsible for determining the country's monetary and exchange rate policy and for ensuring the stability of and strengthening national savings.
80. The Bank of Guatemala is the financial agency of the State and as such regulates the national economy.
81. Under constitutional reforms designed to safeguard the monetary stability and the creditworthiness of the nation, the Monetary Board is debarred from authorizing the Bank of Guatemala to grant, directly or indirectly, any advance, guarantee or endorsement of a commitment to the State or its decentralized or autonomous agencies or to any private non-banking entity.
82. The national banks are: Banco de Guatemala, Crédito Hipotecario nacional, Banco Nacional de la Vivienda, Banco Nacional de Desarrollo Agrícola, Banco de los Trabajadores.
83. The private banks are: Banco Granai y Townson S.A., Banco Industrial S.A., Banco del Café S.A., Banco del Ejército S.A., Banco de Occidente S.A., Banco Inmobiliario S.A., Banco Agrícola Mercantil S.A., Lloyds Bank plc (Guatemala branch), Banco Uno S.A., Banco del Agro S.A., Banco Internacional S.A., Banco Metropolitano S.A., Banco de la Construcción S.A., Banco Promotor S.A., Citibank S.A. (Guatemala branch), Banco Reformador S.A., Multibanco S.A., Banco Corporativo S.A., Banco Empresarial S.A., Banco del Nororiente S.A., Banco de Comercio S.A., Primer Banco de Ahorro y Préstamo para la Vivienda Familiar S.A., Banco de la República S.A., Banco de Exportación S.A., Banco del Quetzal S.A., Banco Continental.
84. The financial institutions are: Financiera Industrial y Agropecuaria S.A., Financiera Guatemalteca S.A., Financiera Industrial S.A., Financiera de Inversión S.A., Financiera del País S.A., Financiera de Occidente S.A., Financiera de Capitales S.A., Financiera Metropolitana S.A., Corporación Latinoamericana de Servicios Financieros S.A., Financiera Reforma S.A. There are other institutions awaiting authorization and/or about to begin operations.
85. The deposit takers are: Almacenadora Guatemalteca S.A., Compañia Almacenadora S.A., Almacenadora de Occidente S.A., Almacenes de Depósito de El Crédito Hipotecario Nacional, Almacenes Generales S.A., Almacenadora des Norte S.A., Almacenes y Servicios S.A., Almacenadora del País S.A., Almacenadora de Inversión S.A., Almacenadora Internacional S.A., Centroamericana de Almacenes S.A.
86. The insurance companies are: Seguros de Occidente S.A., Seguridad de Centroamérica S.A., Empresa Guatemalteca CIGNA de Seguros S.A., Seguros Panamericana S.A., Compañía de Seguros Generales Granai y Townson S.A., La Alianza, Aseguradora General S.A., Seguros Universales S.A., Aseguradora Guatemalteca S.A., Departamento de Seguros y Previsión de El Crédito Hipotecario Nacional, Comercial Aseguradora Suizo Americana S.A., Seguros El Roble S.A., Aseguradora La Ceiba S.A.
87. The bonding companies are: Afianzadora Granai y Townson S.A., Fianzas El Roble S.A., Departamento de Fianzas de El Crédito Hipotecario Nacional, Comercial Afianzadora S.A., Fianzas Universales S.A., La Seguridad de Centroamérica S.A., Compañía de Fianzas S.A., Afianzadora Central S.A., Fianzas de Occidente S.A., Afianzadora General S.A., Afianzadora Guatemalteca S.A., Unión Central de Pilotos Automovilistas.
88. There are other credit and financial institutions, namely Instituto de Fomento de Hipotecas Aseguradas (FHA), Departamento de Monte de Piedad de El Crédito Hipotecario Nacional, Casa de Cambio CEI, Servicios Internacionales, Casa de Cambio FOREX S.A., SAQS Casa de cambio, MONEX Casa de Cambio.
9. Health installations and services
89. The Ministry of Public Health and Social Assistance has 785 health centres located throughout the country, while the Social Security Institute has 6 health centres and 16 first-aid posts. At the secondary level there are 220 health centres under the Ministry of Public Health - 32 of type A, with 20-30 beds, and the rest of type B, without in-patient facilities. The Social Security Institute has 35 consultation centres. At the tertiary level there are 35 hospitals under the Ministry of Public Health (7 of them specialized hospitals) with a total of 8,726 beds. The Social Security Institute has 27 hospitals with 2,237 beds. In the private sector there are 83 hospitals with a total of 2,434 beds and between 5,000 and 6,000 doctors practising.
90. Nationwide there are 7.2 doctors, and 1.2 hospital beds, per 1,000 inhabitants. There is an overall deficit of 609 doctors and 4,549 beds.
10. Educational installations and services
91. At the bilingual pre-primary level there are 1,992 schools with 2,341 classrooms. At the nursery pre-primary level there are 750 establishments with 1,541 classrooms. The primary education sector is the one with the largest numbers of establishments - 7,996, with 30,069 classrooms. At the basic comprehensive (básico y diversificado) level there are 583 establishments with 3,843 classrooms and at the comprehensive (diversificado) level there are 115 establishments with 1,016 classrooms.
92. In the bilingual pre-primary system there are 262 establishments with 270 classrooms. At the nursery pre-primary level there are 1,039 establishments with 2,919 classrooms. In the primary sector there are 2,092 establishments, with 8,406 classrooms. At the basic level there are 946 establishments with 5,335 classrooms and at the comprehensive level there are 664 establishments with 4,176 classrooms.
93. There are 5 universities (one State and four private) with a total of 85,000 students. Seventy-five per cent of all the students are at the National University. Each of the universities has its own campus.
11. Recreational and cultural installations and services
94. There is a national theatre in the capital with seating for 1,200 persons which can present artistic performances of any kind. There are also five small theatres and one open-air theatre within the Miguel Angel Asturias cultural centre. There also theatres in the departments; the largest are those in Totonicapán and Quetzaltenango.
95. As regards recreation, there are football grounds in all the departments, at which national and local competitions take place. In Guatemala City there is the Mateo Flores stadium with seating for 40,000 persons. This stadium forms part of a sorts complex which is equipped for practically all official sports practised on an international basis.
96. In the departments the basic and comprehensive schools have sports facilities which can be used by the general public.
97. In the administrative centres of the municipal areas there are parks for rest and recreation and children's playgrounds as well as areas and installations for sports activities. For more active recreational activities there are multi-purpose halls, and sometimes libraries as well. However, in rural areas these services are not available in sufficient quantities, or else they are poorly located.
12. Housing
98. At the national level there is an estimated shortage of 790,700 housing units. This shortage relates primarily to quality and ownership considerations, since the people of the country are housed in informal and formal units often inhabited by several family groups living together.
99. The shortage is increasing every year on account of population growth. This implies that, in order just to keep the growth of the shortage at zero level, at least 42,800 housing units would have to be built every year. In practice this need is met in the majority of cases by informal housing construction, as construction of formal and State housing is limited.
100. It should be mentioned that construction of formal housing is concentrated in region I and, to a much lesser degree, in regions III, V and VI.
101. According to Bank of Guatemala figures, economic activity within the country, measured in terms of real gross domestic product (GDP at 1958 prices), rose by 4.6% in 1992.
102. This was to be attributed to a considerable degree to the recovery in domestic demand, the level of which is closely associated with the strength of private investment and the increase in private consumer expenditure, which is the principal element in overall demand. The expansion of private investment was due mainly to an increase in construction and in purchases of imported capital goods, while private consumption was stimulated by the slowdown in inflation and in wage and salary adjustments, and in particular the maintenance of earnings in public and private employment at 348 quetzals per month and the approval in November of new minimum wage levels for most branches of activity. Total bank credit to the private sector increased by 34.7% in response to demand from the production, commercial and consumption sectors.
103. During 1992, according to figures on persons covered by the Guatemalan National Social Security Institute, 8,805 new jobs were created in the different branches of economic activity.
104. Between 1989 and 1992 the number of persons covered increased by 7,341, while during the same period the economically active population increased by 241,734. Out of every 100 persons seeking employment for the first time, only 26 were covered by the social security scheme. During this period only 3% of the additions to the economically active population gained admission to the scheme.
105. During the period 1989-1992 the number of persons employed in the agricultural and stock-rearing sectors decreased by 70,299 (24.1%). The demand for manpower increased by 29,409 in manufacturing, 28,207 in the services sector and 13,183 in commerce.
106. Private investment increased to 15.8% above its 1991 level, while public investment increased by 4.9%.
107. Exports of goods and services increased by 5.7%. The export sector developed almost continuously without significant checks.
108. In constant terms the agricultural and stock-rearing sector expanded at a rate of 2.9%. This figure is indicative of a measure of slowdown related to trends in external demand for traditional export products such as cotton, sugar, coffee and bananas.
109. Agricultural production in 1993 (in quintals) was as follows: sugar, 23,600,000; coffee, 4.400,000; bananas, 9,471,400; cotton, 560,000; maize, 28,722,300; beans and whole rice, 2,600,502 and 1,158,600 respectively.
110. The industrial sector expanded at a rate of 2.9%; demand for electric power in that sector during the year was 21% higher than that for 1991 (556,836 mWh). Consumption of diesel fuel was also 21% higher than in 1991.
111. Industrial production is concentrated mainly in the food and drink, textiles and clothing and non-metallic minerals sectors. Its contribution to GDP was 2,452.8 million quetzals (12.7% of GDP).
112. In the manufacturing subsector of industrial production, reference is made to goods produced with middle-level technology and labour-intensive methods employing five or more persons. In 1987 there were 1,612 industrial establishments in this subsector, 184 of which were employing more than 20 persons. Most of these establishments are concentrated in region I; a lesser concentration is found in region IV.
113. Mining production is subdivided into extraction of metalliferous and non-metalliferous minerals. The regions in which mining is carried on are: region VII (mainly in Huehuetenango), region III (in Chiquimula, Zacapa, Izabal and El Progreso), region 2 (Alta and Baja Verapaz) and region I (in Guatemala City).
114. The principal metals extracted in the country are lead, zinc, silver, antimony, tungsten and iron. The principal non-metalliferous minerals extracted are baryte, quartz, mica, feldspar, gypsum, witherite, dolomite, talcum, marble and sand.
115. In December 1991 construction work of a value of 41,327.9 million quetzals was performed by the private sector. Of this total, 34,225.7 million quetzals were invested in urban areas and 7,102.2 million in rural areas. Public-sector investment amounted to 75,366.8 million quetzals.
116. The total amount of electric power generated during 1992 was 2,430,745.7 mWh, of which thermally generated electricity constituted 841,480.2 mWh and hydroelectricity 1,589,265.5 mWh.
117. The country produces 4,000 barrels of oil daily in regions II (Rubelsalto, Chinajá and Yalpemech) and VIII (Caribe, Tierra Blanca, Xan and Chocop). Total oil production during 1992 was 1,764,900 barrels. In the same year, 1,663,600 barrels were exported. Oil imports cost US$ 97,160,500 in 1992 and US$ 80,016,000 in 1993.
118. Consumption of oil-based fuels amounted to 10,569,100 gallons in 1992 and 10,173,800 gallons in 1993.
119. Foreign currency earnings from the tourism sector as at September 1992 amounted to US$ 170,282,500; outgoings during the same period were US$ 74,456,100. In absolute figures, the net credit balance under this head as at September 1992 was US$ 95,826,400.
120. In 1992 the general level of consumer prices rose to 14.2% over the 1991 level - thus exceeding the target of 10%.
121. The balance of payments for 1992 showed a foreign exchange deficit of US$ 54.8 million. A number of factors contributed to this negative result for 1992; chief among these was a 35.2% increase in imports while exports increased by only 4.7%. Another contributory factor was the slowdown in capital flows, the net balance of which fell by 33% (the equivalent of US$ 233.5 million), principally in the private capital sector. The balance of payments was in deficit in 1992, since the level of imports of goods was US$ 2,262,000 and that of exports US$ 1,287,100.
122. The net balance on services was negative in 1992 (US$ 59.1 million) -double that for 1991 (US$ 30.9 million). The net balance on transfers (which includes an element of family remittances) for 1992 was US$ 388.6 million.
123. During 1992, a total of US$ 1,251.8 million flowed into the country; of that total, US$ 607.7 million was private capital and US$ 644.1 million official or bank capital. Capital outflows totalled US$ 775 million.
124. The principal products exported to Central American countries during 1991 were: chemical products (22.2%), foodstuffs (13.2%), building materials (10%), textiles, thread and yarn (7%), plastics articles (5.2%), cosmetics (4.5%) and clothing (4.3%).
125. Private, official and bank capital transactions totalled US$ 476.8 million less than in 1991 (US$ 710.3 million). The positive net flow of private capital transactions in 1992 was down to US$ 565.4 million.
126. Trends in foreign trade in 1992 led to an outflow of foreign exchange reserves amounting to US$ 54.8 million.
1. Monetary aggregates
127. Means of payment increased by 13.9%, and cash in circulation fell by 88.8 million quetzals, in comparison with 1991.
2. Bank credit
128. Credit extended to the private sector totalled 7,253.4 million quetzals.
129. Net credit to the public sector showed a debit balance reaching 235.5 million quetzals in November 1992. Under the credit policies laid down by the monetary authorities, the central government was allowed a debit balance of 460 million quetzals with the Bank of Guatemala as at December 1992.
3. Interest rates
130. The maximum interest rate permitted by the Monetary Board reached 24.4% at the end of November 1992; the rate of interest paid on deposits rose to 10.9%. The rate of interest on Bank of Guatemala open-market operations ranged between 16% and 16.5% during November 1992.
131. The weighted rate of interest on deposits (savings accounts) was 10.9% and the anticipated rate of inflation was 12.8%.
132. Outflows in respect of imports totalled US$ 1,851.3 million as at November 1992. The total value of exports was US$ 1,230 million.
133. The average level of purchases of foreign currency as at November 1992 was US$ 148.41. The average amount of suchpurchases during the same period in 1991 was US$ 128.41.
134. At the end of November 1992 the exchange rate of the quetzal stood at 5.292 for US$ 1.
135. Gross foreign exchange reserves fell to US$ 380.1 million at the end of November.
136. The price index had risen by 11.73% by the end of November 1992.
137. Budget revenue as at the end of August 1992 totalled 3,695.5 million quetzals; expenditure totalled 3,340 million. The budget surplus was 355.5 million quetzals.
138. In September 1992 outstanding external public debt totalled US$ 2,165.5 million.
1. Population growth
139. In 1989 Guatemala had a population of 8,663,859 persons. The rate of population growth is 3.13%, which means that the population is increasing by 1 million every four years. If this rate of increase is maintained, it is estimated that the population could reach 12.7 million by the year 2000.
140. The principal factor influencing population trends is the fecundity rate (inasmuch as women remain fertile from age 15 to age 49). The overall fecundity rates by area and degree of poverty are 6.8 among poor women (77.5% of the total) and 3.3 among better-off women (22.4%).
141. Eighty-seven per cent of the population professes the Roman Catholic religion; the remainder belong to various Christian and non-Christian sects.
2. Population density
142. The current population density is 80 persons per sq. km. (as compared with 27 in 1950); in other words, it has trebled since 1950. It is increasing annually at a rate of approximately 1.4 persons per sq. km.
143. However, the population distribution is uneven. For example, the metropolitan area (region I) has 1,932,953 inhabitants, giving a density of 1,023 per sq. km. It should be mentioned that this region offers the most attractions to the migrant population, absorbing 58.4% of the better-off population and 44.9% of the poor. The altiplano in the centre and North-western part of the country, where most of the smallholdings are located, has a population density of 221.7 persons per sq. km. In the latifundia regions the density is 113.68 persons per sq. km. Guatemala is the country with the second highest population density in Latin America (after El Salvador).
144. The population density per unit of arable land is 3.3 persons/ha.
3. Social indicators
145. There are 1,710,000 households in Guatemala living in poverty and 869,655 in extreme poverty. The North-western and South-western regions comprise 46% of the households living in extreme poverty. The lowest concentration is found in the metropolitan region, which contains 12% (100,788) of households living in extreme poverty.
146. The age structure of the population living in poverty is marked by the high proportion of young people. The effect of the fecundity rate is reflected in the high proportion of the population (49.1%) under age 14; among the better-off the percentage is lower in the middle levels of the age structure pyramid up to age 64, where it stands at 60.5%.
147. In 1989 the urban population was 3,013,697 and the rural population was 5,650,162.
148. The population distribution by sex is 4,245,859 males and 4,418,826 females.
149. The distribution by poverty level is as follows:
No. of persons Percentage
In poverty 6,922,243 80
In extreme poverty 5,138,679 59
Not in extreme poverty 1,783,564 21
Better-off 1,741,616 20
150. The geographical distribution of the poor is as follows:
In urban areas: 2,017,718
In rural areas: 4,004,525
151. The distribution of the population by ethnic origin is as follows:
Indigenous: 5,448,011
Non-indigenous: 3,215,848
152. The distribution of the population by age is as follows:
Age group (years) No. of persons
0-14 4,013,197
14-64 3,953,918
64 or older 305,256
4. Education
153. The literacy rate among persons aged 7 and upwards is 60% (3,985,449 persons); 44% of the population (2,686,903 persons) is illiterate. In rural areas the illiteracy rate is 70%, in urban areas 30%. Of the indigenous population aged 25 and upwards, 40% are illiterate in the Spanish language.
154. The distribution of the population aged 7 and upwards by level of education is as follows:
Without any education 2,829,414
With primary education:
(1 - 3 years of education) 1,783,333
(4 - 6 years of education) 1,275,862
With secondary education:
(1 - 3 years of education) 352,171
(4 - 7 years of education) 310,419
With higher education:
(Uncompleted) 73,837
(Completed) 47,316
155. The different levels of education are: (a) pre-primary; (b) primary; (c) basic; (d) comprehensive; (e) university.
156. The coverage of the educational system does not include the whole of the population of school age. Only 56.5% of the group of children aged 7 are registered within the system. The highest level of coverage is reached at age 10; 76% of children of that age are registered. Beyond age 12, coverage falls to 43.3% of children aged 14.
157. As regards educational services, ir is reported that 79,312 children registered at the bilingual pre-primary level; 88.4% of these were registered in State schools.
158. In all, there were 189,760 children in pre-primary education; of this total, 79,312 children were registered in bilingual pre-primary schools and 110,448 in nursery schools. At the primary level there were 1,340,657 pupils registered; at the basic level, 112,319; and at the comprehensive level, 41,525.
159. There were in all 218,022 pupils registered in the basic cycle and 104,622 registered in the comprehensive cycle.
160. There is a State university, which bears the name of San Carlos de Guatemala; there are also four private universities (Rafael Landívar, Francisco Marroquín, Mariano Gálvez and Del Valle). The San Carlos de Guatemala and Rafael Landívar universities have subsidiary establishments in a number of departments in the Republic. These universities cater for 85,000 students; 75% of all students are at San Carlos de Guatemala University.
161. The educational system is structured as follows:
(a) First level: pre-primary education (ages 5-6 and upwards)
(b) Second level:ages 7-14, grades 1-6;
(c) Third level:middle-level education (ages 14-18); basic 3 years (years 1-3); comprehensive (grades 4-6).
162. The options in comprehensive education are: Certificates of Education in Science and Letters, Industry, Marketing Techniques, General Mechanics, Construction, Tourism, Communication Sciences, Municipal Administration, Computer Science, Vocational Guidance, Community Development, Bilingual Technology, Cosmetology, Natural Resources, Industrial Administration, Hotel Management and Domestic Science, Technical Draughtsmanship and Construction, Electricity, Mechanics, Agriculture.
163. The different categories of primary school teachers are: pre-primary, urban primary, rural primary, domestic science, physical education, musical education.
164. The categories of specialist teachers are: bookkeeping, administration, publicity, industrial, agro-industrial, community development, police techniques, commercial administration, administrative management, business administration, agricultural bookkeeping, optometry, dental hygiene.
165. The categories of secretarial employees are: commercial, executive, technical and bilingual.
166. University courses are given in the following disciplines: medicine, legal and social, humanities, economics, business management, chemistry and pharmacy, civil, electrical, mechanical, electronic and industrial engineering, systems analysis, veterinary medicine and zootechny, architecture, psychology, politics and sociology.
5. Health
167. The general level of health in the country is poor. Although the indicators show that there has been a slight improvement during the last few years, the level is still unacceptable. In addition, it is well below that of the majority of Latin American countries.
168. The principal cause of sickness and death is the inadequate consumption of food, housing, education and employment. This leads to high levels and incidence of nutritional, infectious and perinatal ailments; these cause nearly 40% of the deaths occurring in the country. The principal group affected is the group of persons under age 5. These factors are also the principal cause of death among persons aged over 60 in some parts of the country.
169. Chronic diseases are prevalent principally among town dwellers over age 45, especially in the nation's capital.
Ordinary violence is a general problem throughout the country; the numbers of traffic accidents are also high.
170. The numbers of victims of sickness or accidents in 1992 were as follows:
By sex Total
Men 297,119
Women 338,970
Both sexes (total) 636,089
By area Numbers
Urban 256,089
Rural 380,000
171. The places where treatment was provided were:
Place Nos. treated
Hospital 163,780
Health centre 180,126
IGSS 124,403
Private clinics 130,559
Nursing homes 17,361
Other 19,820
172. The anticipated expectancy of life for 1990-1995 is 66 years.
173. The infant mortality rate was 48.5 per 1,000 live births.
174. The fecundity rate was 5.4%.
175. The birth rate was 35.6 per 1,000.
176. The death rate was 8.4 per 1,000.
6. Cultural diversity
177. Guatemala is rich in traces of Meso-American culture. Indigenous groups make up approximately 37% of the population, and the majority of them live in rural areas.
178. Although the official language of Guatemala is Spanish, 21 languages of Maya origin and two of non-Maya origin (xinca and guarífuna) are also spoken. In some parts of the country (for instance, in Alta and Baja Verapaz, where the predominant language is kekchí) the proportion of monolingual persons is estimated to be very high - as much as 90% in certain cases.
179. The population distribution by ethnic origin is as follows: indigenous, 5,448,011; non-indigenous, 3,215,848.
180. The principal non-Hispanic groups can be classified as follows:
(a) quichelenses: quichés, kachiqueles, zutujiles, sacapultecos;
(b) mames, man, ixil;
(c) kekchíes;
(d) "Kanjobales", kanjobal, jacalteca, chuj;
(e) pocomán: pocomanes, poconchíes;
(f) chortís;
(g) caribes or garífuna;
(h) xincas.
7. Social organizations
181. Employers' organizations are made up of members of legally constituted enterprises. The groupings are as follows:
Organization Membership
Chamber of Commerce 2,900
Chamber of Industry 1,275
Miscellaneous services 902
National Transport Corporation 600
Small Enterprises Federation 510
Chamber of Construction Enterprises 450
Chamber of Tourism 265
General Association for Agriculture 125
182. The workers' organizations are made up of trade unions which have complied with the requirements of the law and of the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance. They exist in the following sectors:
Sector Number
Agriculture 440
Industry 136
Personal services 100
Transport 40
Financial services 28
Unspecified 20
Commerce 17
Construction 16
Electricity 6
Mining 3
In all, these organizations have 77,113 members, of whom 70,013 are women.
183. There are in all 806 unions, 717 in the private sector and 89 in the public sector. There are other workers' organizations, such as federations (31) and confederations (5).
184. There are cooperative organizations distributed over the departments of the Republic as follows:
Department Total number
Guatemala City 231
Alta Verapaz 105
El Quiché 90
Chimaltenango 59
Huehuetenango 81
Quetzaltenango 80
El Petén 47
Totonicapán 44
Sololá 43
Suchitipéquez 42
Escuintla 39
Santa Rosa 32
Sacatapéquez 26
Retalhuleu 26
San Marcos 25
Izabal 22
Baja Verapaz 20
Jalapa 19
Zacapa 19
Jutiapa 28
Chiquimula 16
El Progreso 9
There are in all 1,103 cooperative organizations with a total of 243,284 members.
185. The cooperative federations are:
Name - Number of members
National Federation of Savings and Credit Cooperatives (FENACOAC) - 72
Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives of Coffee Growers of Guatemala (FEDECOCAGUA) - 67
Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives of Guatemala (FEDECOAG) - 54
Federation of Cooperatives of Alta and Baja Verapaz (FEDECOVERA) - 29
Federation of Consumer Cooperatives (FEDECON) - 26
Federation of Handicraft Production Cooperatives (ARTEXCO) - 21
Federation of Housing Cooperatives (FENACOVI) - 20
El Quetzal Federation of Marketing Cooperatives (FECOMERQ) - 12
Federation of Regional Agricultural Cooperatives (FECOAR) - 6
Federation of Pacific Coast Fishing Cooperatives (FEDEPESCA) - 3
There are 310 cooperative organizations in all.
186. There are 900 non-governmental organizations engaged in :
(a) human resources development: training for employment, management training, formal education, communication;
(b) health: preventive and curative action;
(c) social work: orphanages, hostels and creches, scholarships;
(d) production: production projects, marketing, land purchase;
(e) direct consumption: nutrition, food aid for families of modest means;
(f) religious studies and socio-economic activities;
(g) science and technology: control and management of natural resources, appropriate applications and technologies;
(h) human rights;
(i) basic infrastructure;
(j) housing;
(k) family planning.
The indigenous peoples' movement consists of the following organizations:
(a) Council of Maya Organizations of Guatemala (COMG)
(b) MAJAUIL QIJ (New Dawn) Maya Co-ordinating Organization
(c) Guatemalan National Council of Widows (COMNAVIGUA)
(d) Guatemalan National Council of Displaced Persons (CONDEG)
(e) Peasant Unity Committee (CUC)
(f) Runujel Junan Council of Ethnic Communities (CERJ)
(g) Coordinating Body of Integrated Development Associations of South-western Guatemala (CADISOGUA)
(h) The Highland Communities in Resistance.
187. With respect to organizations of graduate professionals, all such persons are required by the Constitution to belong to the collegiate bodies of their respective professions. Bodies of this kind exist for architects, doctors and surgeons, lawyers and notaries, engineers, agronomists, chemical engineers, dentists, humanists, pharmaceutical and other chemists, economists, public accountants and auditors, veterinary surgeons and animal health specialists.
188. Guatemalan society has lived through a number of clearly defined historical periods, running from the primitive Maya-Quiché period to the present time. In this historical survey the different periods are easy to distinguish.
1. The pre-Hispanic era
189. The data available suggest that between the third and the second millennium B.C. the Mayas developed their agricultural system in the uplands of Guatemala; as is well known, this system was to have an impact on the development of the civilizations of these peoples. The period which Morley has designated as "pre-Maya" reaches from those remote times until 317 A.D.
190. The pre-Maya (or pre-classical) period runs from approximately 3100 B.C. until 317 A.D. The first signs of a culture were found in the Pacific lowlands and the central uplands.
191. It is estimated that the Mayas began to turn to agriculture during the period 1900-1000 B.C. Their principal crop was maize, which gradually became their staple food and the ideological and religious basis of their culture, together with settlement in specific areas. Pottery production (the first evidence of which is found during the period 2300-2200 B.C.) also developed. Subsequently the ceremonial urban centres developed; the most important of these during that period was Kaminal Juyú, which is situated to the south-west of Guatemala City.
192. The old (preclassical) empire lasted through the period 317-987 A.D. It embraced the northern part of El Petén - a region in which the Mayas developed their monumental architecture. The principal Maya centres of this period were Tikal and Uaxuctun, which dates from 328 B.C. In 790 A.D. the Maya culture attained its broadest geographical coverage, founding as many as 19 cities.
193. The year 909 A.D. is considered to be the year in which the decline of the Maya empire began, ending in the complete abandonment of the region. Various theories concerning the collapse of the old Maya empire have been advanced, but do far no scientific explanation of the causes of its disappearance has been found.
194. The New (classical) Maya Empire lasted through the years 1007-1697 A.D. The collapse of the Old Empire forced the population to emigrate to the north, where they settled in Yucatán (Mexico). There they founded what is now known as the New Empire; its principal ceremonial centres were Chichén Itzá, Uxmal and Mayapán.
195. The Maya people only mastered fire and agriculture. They knew nothing of the domestication of animals, the use of the wheel or metal instruments. The social structure consisted or lords and priests, who lived within the cities; the people lived in areas outside the cities.
196. When the Spaniards first reached the lands which now form part of Guatemala in 1524, they found a Quiché civilization which extended from the Pacific coast to the area of El Petén. In the east the Cakchiqueles - at the time rivals of the Quichés - had settled. The area was also inhabited by the Tzutuhiles, who had settled in the neighbourhood of Lake Atitlán; and the Pocomanes, whose territory extended as far as Lake Amatitlán and the mountains closest to the present-day Guatemala City. The western part of the country was inhabited by the Mames, whose territory covered the Guatemalan departments of Huehuetenango, San Marcos and Soconusco and the south-eastern part of Chiapas (in Mexico). In the north there were the Quekchíes and the Pocomchíes, living in an area corresponding to that of the departments of Alta and Baja Verapaz.
197. According to the Memorial de Sololá, until the mid-15th century the Cakchiqueles and the Quichés had remained closely united; but with the decline of the power of the reign of Quicab (a Quiché king) caused by a general wave of discontent (with which Quicab's own sons associated themselves), the Cakchiqueles took advantage of the situation to break away; they moved to Iximché, at some distance from the Quiché kingdom.
198. All these peoples, which had attained high levels of culture, formed what is today referred to as the Maya-Quiché civilization. As regards the origins of these peoples, it has been established that their presence is the result of migrations by the old Mayan peoples of the North from the Mexican region. The Quiché and Cakchiquel documents which have come down to us match with those in Yucatán (Mexico), which unquestionably establish a common origin for all these peoples, who covered the territory of the central meseta in Mexico and the northern half of Central America - an area referred to in a historical context as Mesoamerica.
199. The Popol Vuh, the Memorial de Sololá and the writings of Chilam Balan all agree that the human groups which populated Yucatán and the Republic of Guatemala came from the Tula region, which is to the north of Mexico City and is currently the equivalent of the State of Hidalgo, and that they stopped for some time by Lake Términos.
200. It has not been determined when the tribes migrated to the territory which is now Guatemala; however, it has been established that these peoples began to emigrate during the 7th century A.D., i.e., at the same time as the departure of the peoples who were eventually to inhabit Uxmal and Chichén Itzá in the New Mayan Empire. According to the Popol Vuh, the tribes which took the road to Guatemala belonged to the Yaki or Toltec nation.
201. From the writings of Chilman Balam we learn that the Otza peoples who inhabited El Petén - the centre of the Old Mayan Empire - undertook a pilgrimage, following the course of the principal rivers. It is known that they lived for several centuries in the region referred to as Chakanputún, which researchers have identified as the present-day Champotón, situated in the Mexican State of Campeche. Thence they moved eastwards together with the groups guided by Quetzalcoatl, who was of Toltec origin. During the 10th century they moved down towards the Veracruz coastline. Some tribes may have settled on the Tabasco and Campeche coasts, not far from Lake Términos, and thence have emigrated towards Guatemala, where, divided into the Quiché, Cakchiquel, Tzutuhil, Kekchí, Mam and Pocomam tribes, they encountered the Spaniards.
202. The Maya-Quiché culture contains elements of the old Maya civilization of the Old Empire and of that of the Toltecs. It bears the mark of a more extensive culture than that of the ancient Maya people, combined with Toltec culture, which made its own mark on the earlier culture during a later period.
203. The principal sources of information on the Maya-Quiché culture are the Popol Vuh (Book of the Council), the Memorial de Sololá (or Annals of the Cakchiqueles) and the Title of the Lords of Totonicapán. The most important of these three is the Popol Vuh, the first edition of which (recorded by Fr. Ximénez at the beginning of the 18th century and entitled History of the Origin of the Indians of This Province of Guatemala) is in the Newberry Library in Chicago. The Popol Vuh was hidden for over 150 years (since it is estimated to have been written in 1550). It is believed that, following the burning of Utatlán by the conquistador Alvarado, the Indian nobles moved to Chuilá the present-day Chichicastenango), where Fr. Ximénez discovered it and saved it for posterity. In 1861 a French-language version was published by Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg.
2. The colonial period
204. The colonial period in Guatemala covers the period running from 1524 to 1821 (the year in which Central America declared its independence) and includes the first stages of the Spanish conquest. It begins with the establishment of the first permanent conquistador settlement in Iximché, to which they gave the name of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. The township was founded on 25 July 1524 by Pedro de Alvarado, who took advantage of the hospitality offered by the Cakchiqueles in what was their principal city.
205. The men who made up the conquistador expedition which arrived in Guatemala under the leadership of Pedro de Alvarado were uncouth, little educated and fiercely Christian. As, moreover, 16th-century Spain had not yet escaped from the shackles of medievalism, the forms of exploitation which the expeditions imposed in her colonies fell within patterns of production typical of feudalism, when they did not regress into patterns of absolute slavery.
206. The first colonizers robbed the indigenous peoples of their lands and their possessions and reduced them to a condition of virtual slavery.
207. The royal decrees urging better treatment of the Indians were ignored by the masters of the encomiendas, which for them were merely a means of enrichment.
208. The evangelizing missions did a certain amount of cultural dissemination among the indigenous peoples; but they were not behindhand in matters relating to encomiendas and repartimientos. The religious orders were assigned lands to exploit, and they carried on that activity by means of methods similar to those of the others. The natural reluctance of the Indians to accept the new religion imported by their conquerors was punished by sentencing to slavery.
209. In Guatemala the principles underlying the institution of the encomienda were those of slavery. The Indians were branded and sold; and in addition to having to perform forced personal labour for their master, the latter could hire them out to other persons, in exchange for which he received some remuneration.
210. The Indians sometimes received education in the convents; but it consisted of no more than a basic knowledge of religious doctrines and dogmas. To this end the monks learned the principal Indian languages in use at the time.
211. Secondary education was imparted in the convent colleges and university-level colleges (colegios mayores). The Dominican, Franciscan and Jesuit orders were outstanding in this field. The colleges began their work at the beginning of the second half of the 16th century.
212. San Carlos University was founded by Royal Decree dated 31 March 1676. Previously to its foundation responsibility for providing higher education lay with the university-level colleges of Santo Tomás, San Borja, San Buenaventura and San Lucas. Its foundation marked the beginning of a new era in the cultural development of Guatemala which reached its zenith during the second half of the 18th century.
213. Another event of major importance which occurred during the 17th century was the introduction of the printing press. The first texts were published in 1663; later textbooks for use in schools were printed. In 1729 the first newspaper to appear in Guatemala (La Gaceta) was printed.
214. The first governor of Guatemala was Pedro de Alvarado; his period of office lasted from 1524 until 1541, when he died tragically. From 17 September 1541 until 17 May 1542 government was in the hands of Bishop Francisco Marroquín and Licenciado Francisco de la Cueva. In 1552 Alonso de Maldonado took over as governor.
215. After the destruction of the capital by flooding caused by a volcanic eruption the captaincy-general was transferred from the place presently known as Ciudad Vieja to the Panchoy valley (the site of present-day Old Guatemala City), which was considered safer.
216. The initial periods of Spanish domination were marked by the cruelty and the religious fanaticism shown by the conquerors. Cultural transfer in Guatemala took on special features. The dynamism of the indigenous culture enabled it to survive and even to influence the Spanish culture. The colonists effected cultural dissemination through the evangelizing missions. The repressive methods used by the priests against the Indians were no less cruel than those used by the masters of the encomenderos, to such a degree that in 1561 the King intervened, issuing a Royal Decree, dated 4 August of that year, prohibiting the maintenance in convents of prisons for the punishment of Indians.
217. Fr. Las Cases states that during the early years following the conquest there were over 5 million people living in the region now known as Central America and that that population was decimated on account of the cruelty of the encomenderos, working in the mines and mass deportations of Indians, either to South America or to the West Indies when the Indian populations of that region were close to extinction.
218. An encomienda of Indians consisted of a grant to a Spaniard of a variable number of Indians for use as labour. The system was proposed by Ferdinand V (known as "the Catholic King") and ratified by Philip II in April 1580 as a measure for the defence and protection of the Indians. The initial Act states that "now that pacification has been completed and the natives have been reduced to obedience to Us as required by the laws on the subject, the captain-general, governor or pacifier so empowered shall distribute the Indians among the settlers so that each one shall take into his care those within his holding, defend and protect them and provide priests to teach them the Christian doctrine". However, the encomenderos were anything but protectors of Indians. In practice they became slavemasters, and the Indians were reduced to slavery on the pretext that they were being protected and introduced to the Christian faith. Sometimes they even demanded that the Indians hand over their own children in payment of taxes; these were then shipped to Panama and Peru as slaves.
219. In most of the towns and villages the Spaniards maintained the Indian political and economic structures; they could thus make use of the authority of the chiefs for purposes of exploitation.
220. The basis of the economy during the colonial period was agriculture; the main products were maize, cocoa, indigo, cotton, sugar cane and tobacco. Later stock-rearing and mining were developed.
221. According to the historian Remesal, the first wheat seeds were brought to Guatemala by Francisco de Castellanos. However, other sources attribute the merit to a friar, Benito de Villacañas, of whom it is recorded that he brought the seed from Mexico in 1529.
222. It is also recorded that the same Francisco de Castellanos (who was the first royal treasurer) introduced sheep for the first time. In 1630 Francisco de Zorrilla introduced the first merino lambs. Beef cattle were brought in for the first time in 1530 from Mexico; cattle-rearing was developed along the southern coastline of Guatemala and along the banks of the Michatoya river. According to Archbishop García Peláez, the breeding of beef cattle was considerably expanded by Héctor de la Barreda, who brought specimens into Guatemala from Cuba. Initially breeding took place in the Valle de las Vacas (close to the present-day Guatemala City), but its expansion was such that there were soon cattle of this type in Escuintla and Amatitlán.
223. The principal products mined were gold and silver, followed by lead. As a result of the development of mining, many craftsmen skilled in the working of gold and silver emerged. A guild of silver workers was founded, and the local authorities, in pursuance of their powers to regulate all the noble crafts, appointed an assayer for silverware manufactured in the city in September 1553.
224. The encomienda system continued to develop towards its culmination. New methods of extorting even more from the Indians were rapidly invented. Other procedures - the mandamiento, the repartimiento and the habilitación - appeared alongside the encomiendas.
225. There were two forms of mandamiento. Under the first, Indians were sent by the authorities to the estates of landowners; under the second, the encomendero received a tax from the Indians; thus some of them were landless.
226. Under a repartimiento the mayor distributed among the natives goods such as matchets, shears, seed, clothing, beads and other trinkets, which the Indians accepted against their will; but that same mayor ruthlessly exacted payment for them when the natives brought in their crops of cocoa or maize. The encomenderos also indulged in practices of this kind, which survived until the end of the 18th century. In some places the repartimientos effected by mayors or encomenderos consisted of distributions of yarn or raw cotton from which the Indians were expected to make textiles or yarn respectively, in return for which they received tiny payments.
227. During the first half of the 16th century the processing of indigo began in Guatemala; large amounts of manual labour were required for its collection. For this purpose Indians were moved from place to place; as a result, they became sick, and not a few died. Indigo (jiquilite) is a dye-producing plant which the Indians had known since pagan times. During the early years of the 17th century there were 18 indigo-processing plants in the neighbourhood of Escuintla, Guazacapán and Jalpatagua.
228. Another crop which was developed considerably during the middle years of the 17th century was cocoa; some 200,000 loads were exported to New Spain every year.
229. The cultivation of cochineal was of considerable importance during the colonial period. Cochineal from Chiapas, which at that time formed part of the Captaincy-General of Guatemala, was famous.
230. Escuintla and Amatitlán were particularly famous for the production of sugar cane. The juice was extracted by presses operated by oxen or mules.
231. During the same century mining developed considerably, and in particular the gold mines at Mataquescuintla and San Marcos. The gold-washing plants in Las Vacas, Pinula and Jilotepeque were of almost equal importance.
232. Sheep rearing flourished in Quetzaltenango and Totonicapán, where the Indians had taken up the spinning and weaving of wool as industries of their own. It is known that "at the beginning of the 17th century one landowner sold 8,000 head of sheep at a single fair"; from this it may be inferred that this branch of the economy had developed considerably.
233. The development of population centres led to an increase in the number of craftsmen such as shoemakers, tailors, harness makers, barbers and carpenters. The craftsmen formed guilds, which were duly registered by the local authorities. These guilds sought to exercise control over their members, who were rigidly registered as master craftsmen, journeymen and apprentices.
234. To achieve promotion to the rank of journeyman, an apprentice had to undergo 12 years of strict training, at the end of which he was formally presented to the guild by his master. A journeyman could become a master craftsman on submitting, as a proof of his skill, a "masterpiece" which was closely examined. New masters took the places of those who had retired or died.
235. The domestic trade handled by the Indians consisted of the transport of produce grown in the colder uplands down to the coastal areas and vice versa. They transported the goods by beast of burden or on their own backs. External trade was conducted via the Gulf of Mexico; goods were transported to Omoa and Puerto Cabello, where goods brought from Spain were disembarked. The other principal trade route was that leading to New Spain, which passed through Soconusco, Chiapas, Oaxaca and Veracruz. These routes were followed by mule trains which transported and brought back different products.
3. The period of independence
The independence of Central America
236. The achievement of independence in Central America was not an isolated event in the context of the other independence revolutions which broke out in the Spanish colonies between 1810 and 1826. As in the other countries of the Americas, it was a rebellion against the established order - a replica of the feudal system of exploitation, introduced by the colonial authorities - and a protest against the economic restrictions imposed by antiquated legislation.
237. In the Kingdom of Guatemala, as occurred in the other independence movements in the Americas, a number of patriots were killed, imprisoned or exiled for campaigning in favour of the emancipation of the Central American peoples. The groups working for independence - ranging from the Indians struggling to throw off the crushing burden of slavery under which they lived to the nascent bourgeoisie seeking to secure greater opportunities for development - were responding to the need to improve their economic condition. On the other side were ranged the Spanish authorities, the clergy, the big landowners and a group of merchants. In their view it was distinctly dangerous to allow the people to begin taking sovereign measures which might subsequently threaten their enormous economic interests.
238. It is understandable that opposition to the colonial system was widespread, as the latter involved many interests. The conquistadores had established a colonial regime in Latin America which remained practically unchanged during its three centuries of predominance. The natives were subjected to a feudal regime, and black slaves were imported to develop human exploitation further.
239. In addition, commerce between the metropolis and the colonies was subject to strict regulations which were highly unfavourable to the latter. The Court of Contracts in Seville was concerned exclusively with the safeguarding of royal interests and those of the great Spanish trading companies, and trade between colonies was prohibited.
240. Political and administrative activities were controlled by the great landowners, who were masters of the lands on which the slaves lived and worked. The clergy were equally energetic in this field; it is estimated that during the final years of the colonial regime the Church owned one third, and in some cases half, of all the arable land.
241. The Creoles were generally excluded from participation in the government of the colonies. During the 300 years of Spanish domination, only 4 out of the 170 viceroys and 17 out of the 602 governors were Creoles.
242. The war of independence began with uprisings among the Indians and the Negroes and revolts and plotting among the Creoles and mestizos.
243. The development of a republican political awareness in Guatemala certainly took its origin from the books and papers which found their way into the country during the colonial period. From the very beginning the colonial authorities were aware of the danger. Thus the Kingdom of Guatemala received a notice of prohibition - especially for the natives - on reading books containing "romances, profane material or legends .. and books by Amidase and other books of the same kind containing historical fabrications". Likewise, the whole of title XIV of the legislation concerning Indians was devoted to the expurgation of books. However, the Crown was extremely liberal in the enforcement of those provisions. Apart from the attack on Antonio de Remesal, the first historian of Central America (to which he devoted five cartons of his Historia General de las Indias Occidentales y Particular de la Provincia de San Vicente de Chiapas y Guatemala, there are few recorded cases. However, from 1770 onwards the numbers of denunciations, searches and reports increased dramatically; on the average, three edicts concerning the censorship and banning of books were issued each year. Fr. Martín Mérida - an important actor in the reform process - drew up a list of documents, books and prints of the Inquisition Commission in Guatemala which, together with newly-discovered documents, enables us to reconstruct the republican ideological sources within the country. The most significant authors seem to have been Rousseau, the Abbé Pradt, Montesquieu, Voltaire and Jeremy Bentham. The most representative ideas were those of the social covenant or contract, popular sovereignty, the separation of powers, natural rights and constituent authorities. It is curious to observe the modern manner in which these instruments have been handled. Rousseau's Social Contract, which was first translated into Spanish in 1779 by Spanish exiles in London, was known in Guatemala only four years later - a very short time when one considers the difficulties of printing, circulation and transport. Special mention must be made of the correspondence of Bentham with two or three inhabitants of the Americas whom he considered important - among them José Cecilio del Valle, who was undoubtedly the best-organized leader of the time, and with whom he exchanged information, documentation and ideas.
244. Many years before independence was achieved the ideological ferment in Guatemala had reached a pitch hardly surpassed anywhere else in Spanish America. The opportunity of participating in the first Spanish constituent congress, in which an important place was given to the colonies, added fuel to that ferment. The documents which Antonio Larrazabál, a deputy for Guatemala, submitted in Cadiz in 1811 are models of seriousness and competence; in addition, they enable us to identify the origin of the different tendencies in political thinking and the different ideological sources underlying republican organization - the French example and English liberalism.
245. Under the direction of José María Peynado, the municipal council in the capital drew up some instructions for its deputy to the Cadiz Parliament which clearly reflect political thinking along the lines of the French model. They included a Declaration of the Rights of Man - the first in Latin America - and a complete draft of a 105-article constitution, together with a large number of considerations of an economic and social character.
246. On 15 September 1821 a group of notabilities, in accordance with the custom of the time, met in the capital city (the present Guatemala City) and declared independence from Spain. The general picture was similar to that in other places - an uncertain authority, which had lost its links with the metropolis; the higher clergy and the Spanish officials, who remained faithful to the Crown to the last; and popular pressure for independence, finding voice in impromptu public speakers emerging from the middle classes.
247. In the record of the day's events the word "republic" does not appear once. The conservatives who controlled the movement made the declaration of independence subject to ratification by a congress in the hope that before it was constituted some event would occur which would enable them to maintain their position. A classical withdrawal by the dominant group - an antidote against radical proclamations. Valle, the writer of the record, urged the group to proclaim independence before the people themselves did so.
248. It was the same Spanish authorities, which had survived through these radical changes, which, in alliance with the conservatives, encouraged the rapprochement with the Mexican empire of Agustín Iturbide. Gabino Gaenza, the former Spanish governor, who had become the head of the new country, hastened, on 18 September 1821, to inform the Mexican Emperor that his country was joining his empire, and the authorities of the capital city - which were controlled by the conservatives - decreed on 5 January 1822, after a discussion of doubtful validity, that Central America was annexed to Mexico. The proponents of these measures were unambitious. One wanted the title of the empire to associate the names of Mexico and Guatemala; another, on a more domestic plane, requested that the emperor's son should be granted the title of Prince of Guatemala, "in the same manner as the son of the Emperor of Austria in Spain".
249. The annexation to Mexico brought conservatives and liberals into opposition with one another for the first time. The latter, firmly established in San Salvador, repudiated the decision of the authorities in the capital and declared that no authority could reverse the September decisions. The conservatives in fear appealed for the protection of the imperial army, which, under the command of Vicente Filísola, did in fact occupy the capital and undertook a war, which was protracted but not very bloody, against the dissident provinces. One of the events of this turbulent period was a failed attempt by El Salvador to have itself annexed by the United States, decided upon by a revolutionary congress as a safeguard against "Mexican imperialism".
250. In February 1823, after a long year of campaigning, Filísola entered San Salvador, but in doing so only scored a Pyrrhic victory, as just at that moment the empire collapsed and he was forced to return to Guatemala City. In March, on Good Friday, he received news from Mexico that the People's Junta had repudiated the imperial authority of Iturbide. His own authority lapsed; and, seeing no other solution, he resurrected the September declaration and hastened to declare independence from Mexico and from any other power in either the Old or the New World; he also declared that the provinces of Guatemala were not, and were not to be, the property of any individual or family. José Cecilio de la Valle sums up the proceeding thus: "He initiated the third stage in the history of Guatemala. After being a province of Spain, it had become a province of Mexico. The time had come to transform itself into a free republic".
251. In what is today the main hall of the Faculty of Laws of the University of San Carlos, on 11 benches set out in the style of the English Parliament, the liberals gathered after their victory in the national elections, which had taken place in an atmosphere of nationalist euphoria. Of particular importance was the political participation of the population of the capital, where the existence of a public opinion (now traditional) was apparent. The liberals, in their natural style, settled down to the production of abundant legislation. In 19 months they prepared 784 laws, 137 decrees and 1,186 orders - and also, naturally, a constitution deriving in its general style and inspiration from the operative part of the United States Constitution and the new constitutionalist movement in Spain. The committee which drafted the text explicitly acknowledged this in the following terms: "In preparing our plan, we adopted for the most part that of the United States - a worthy model for independent peoples".
252. The principal question facing both liberals and conservatives in the constituent assembly was the choice for or against federalism. After many discussions, the conservatives began to seek a formula for a new type of authoritarian power which would replace that of the overthrown kings and empire, which they called a "republican concept of monarchy". The liberals were obsessed with devising a machinery of government which would act as a bar to absolutism; the only way to prevent a dictatorship was to break up the power structure. Underlying this strictly political line of argument was the suspicion of the capital, where the economic system was centralized, in the provinces.
253. The triumphant liberals made the first attempt to reform the outdated power structure. Looking through the catalogues of laws of Alejandro Mature or Pineda y Montt one is struck by the extent of the reforms undertaken. Their reforming zeal extended from the great reform of the judicial system - with the introduction of the codes which Livingston had drafted for Louisiana - to the preparation of topographical plans and drawings of our old colonial monuments in Iximché, Mixco Viejo and Copán. The recognition of habeas corpus and civil marriages, the reform of education, freedom of commerce, the abolition of State monopolies, the beginning of the liquidation of Church assets and the distribution of ownerless and uncultivated lands are examples of the contents of the programme which Francisco Morazán presented at the regional level (and Mariano Gálvez at the local level) in what was to become the Republic of Guatemala.
254. The abolition of certain religious holidays and the problems to which the implementation of the new legislation - which introduced the jury system within an illiterate population - gave rise led to a reaction which the liberal group, which was internally divided and had no real power base, was unable to control. The year 1838 thus saw the beginning of the break-up of the Central American Federation; this strengthened the position of the conservatives at the local level and thus restored de facto the former regime.
255. Guatemala was the largest province in Central America in terms both of geographical area and population. Guatemala City was not only the political capital but also the commercial, cultural and religious capital of the new nation; but the latter was divided between powerful groups of conservative aristocratic families and liberal activists. The latter could become extremely powerful politically if they could succeed in turning the ordinary people away from their traditional leaders - the aristocracy and the higher clergy. In addition, the liberals in Guatemala could count on the support of those in the other States of Central America in weakening the influence of the powerful conservative groups in the capital. The leaders of the liberal movement in Guatemala were the Bedoyas, Dr. Pedro Molina and Dr. José Francisco Barrundia.
256. The conservatives, for their part, were led by the Aycinena family, which had substantial interests in the indigo trade and one of whose members had been ennobled with the title of marquis at the end of the colonial period. As was seen earlier, José Cecilio del Valle and Manuel José Arce played an important role at his side, and President Morazán played an equally important role on the liberal side.
257. After 1830 Dr. Mariano Gálvez became the most important figure in local politics. He developed a programme of social, political and economic reforms which served as a model for the liberals of Central America throughout the 19th century. The programme included plans for settlement, public education, the secularization of the university, colleges and schools, religious freedom, civil marriages, divorce, reform of the penal codes and proceedings, etc.
258. In 1838 the Gálvez government was brought down by a coalition of liberals and conservatives, and Rafael Carrera, the mestizo chief of the highland peoples, made his first appearance in urban political life at the side of José Francisco Barrundia, the inspired revolutionary tribune of the liberal party, whose activities in the cause of independence had won him notoriety ever since the Belize conspiracy.
259. In the meantime the federation came to an end in San Salvador following the secession of Nicaragua, Honduras and Costa Rica.
260. The State of Guatemala did not immediately join the separatist movement, as it was under the weak leadership of Vicejefe Pedro José Valenzuela, who had to deal with the problem of the creation of the Sixth State (Los Altos), which divided the State of Guatemala into two parts, separating off the western provinces of the country (Quetzaltenango, Totonicapán and Sololá), which had large Indian populations. The secession of the Sixth State was approved by the Federal Congress on 5 June 1838; its legislature was installed on 23 December of the same year; and Marcel Molina was elected Head of State on 28 December.
261. Carrera and the conservative party disapproved of the creation of the new State, above all because Dr. Mariano Gálvez, José Francisco Barrundia and the most prominent Guatemalan liberals had taken refuge there.
262. Valenzuela then demanded the assistance of Morazán and the federal army, as Dr. Gálvez had done earlier; but the President was unwilling or considered that he could not intervene successfully in face of the guerilla tactics of the highlanders. In addition, he was faced with extremely difficult political problems which required his presence in the capital, which had been moved to San Salvador.
263. However, Rafael Carrera was defeated at the battle of Villa Nueva, in the neighbourhood of Guatemala City, by General Carlos Salazar, who was raised to the rank of Head of State on 10 September 1838.
264. The tenacious guerillero then withdrew into the more distant regions, such as Santa Ana and Ahuachapán, and seized the town of Chiquimula, attacking it and then withdrawing. General Agustín Guzmán pursued him closely, following the traces of the highlanders, and eventually compelled Carrera to accept on 23 December 1838 the Treaty of El Rinconcito, in which he committed the political error of recognizing his official capacity as military commander of Mita.
265. After rebuilding his forces, Carrera marched on Guatemala City and seized it on 13 April 1839. Mariano Rivas Paz was then elected Head of State. Four days later the latter declared that the State of Guatemala was resuming its full sovereignty and leaving the Central American union. Carrera went on to march against the State of Los Altos, the secession of which under pressure could not be considered valid, since, as was explained earlier, the sole purpose of the division of the State of Guatemala was to obtain a better distribution of votes in the Federal Congress.
266. The Los Altos army was defeated at Panajachel, and its commander, General Agustín Guzmán, was captured at Sololá. Ten days later, Carrera arrived in the town of Quetzaltenango and took the members of the government into custody.
267. Morazán, who had been elected Head of State of San Salvador, considered the invasion of Los Altos sufficient justification to attack Guatemala; and, as seen earlier, he captured the capital city on 18 March 1840. Carrera encircled Morazán's forces and crushed them. Only Morazán and a handful of officers and soldiers managed to escape.
268. When the news that Morazán has recaptured Guatemala City reached the State of Los Altos, the municipal council of Quetzaltenango immediately issued a declaration of secession. A few days later Carrera arrived in the town and executed the mayor, Roberto Molina, and two councillors.
269. In December 1840 Venancio López was elected Head of State of Guatemala; following his resignation in 1842, Mariano Rivera Paz once again became Head of State, elected by the legislature.
270. During this period Mexican troops invaded the district of Soconusco - the only district of the State of Chiapas which had remained under the jurisdiction of Guatemala. The Rivera Paz government protested against this incursion, which had been launched on the direct orders of the President of Mexico, Antonio María López de Santa Ana. At the same time, news arrived from Costa Rica that the former President of the federation, General Francisco Morazán, had been executed. The general panic which spread throughout Central America momentarily prevented the Government of Guatemala from defending its rights over Soconusco; the Head of State confined himself to denouncing the deed and repeating that Guatemala would negotiate with Mexico to secure the return of the territory of Soconusco by peaceful means.
271. Rivera Paz ordered the reestablishment of the Dominican, Franciscan and other religious orders, including the Jesuits, who had been expelled by the Spanish Crown as early as 1767.
4. The contemporary period
272. In December 1844 General Rafael Carrera was formally elected Head of State of Guatemala. In fact, he had been the strong man of the conservative party during the preceding years. On 22 March 1847, following the breakdown of the Chinandega conference, the creation of the Republic of Guatemala was decreed, and General Rafael Carrera became the first President of the new republic. But peace and order were far from having been established.
273. A rebellion of peasants or highlanders, known as the Lucíos, was continuing in the eastern part of the country. It was a movement of liberal inspiration whose leader, Serapio Cruz, was seeking to consolidate the secession of the State of Los Altos to increase his personal prestige. Cruz was soundly beaten by Carrera at Patzún, sought refuge in the Verapaz mountains and continued the struggle against the conservatives at different times and in different places until his death in Palencia in 1869.
274. Carrera resigned from office on 15 August 1848, and Juan Antonio Martínez was elected President. He sent a new army commanded by Colonel Mariano Paredes into Los Altos, which defeated the forces of that unfortunate region at San Andrés on 21 October 1848, capturing its leaders. But the reaction of the liberals in the legislature was so violent that President Martínez was forced to offer his resignation