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Ðà $ à€€€€with€jurisdiction€affecting€human€rights€.€.€.€€€€€48€„€49€€€€€€€7Ð Fn" ÐÌà $ àB.€€Remedies€available€to€an€individual€who€claimsÐ Ôü$ Ðà $ à€€€€that€any€of€his€rights€have€been€violated€andÐ ›Ã% Ðà $ à€€€€systems€of€compensation€and€rehabilitation€à“E.€€Aàˆà < à€50€„€52€€€€€€€7Ð bŠ& ÐÌà $ àC.€€Protection€of€the€rights€referred€to€in€the€Ð ð ( Ðà $ à€€€€various€human€rights€instruments€à“E.˜˜7àˆà < à€€€€53€€€€€€€€€8Ð ·!ß) ÐÌà $ àD.€€Way€in€which€human€rights€instruments€are€madeÐ E#m!+ Ðà $ à€€€€part€of€the€national€legal€system€à“E.üü8àˆà < à€€€€54€€€€€€€€€8Ð  $4", ÐÌÌÌÌÌGE.92„17581€€(E)Ð ¶(Þ&2 ÐÌÌÑØbÑÑ}‰ÑÔ_ÔHRIÔ_Ô/CORE/1/Add.12Ð  +3)5 Ðpage€iiÐ Ò+ú)6 ÐÌÐ `-ˆ+8  ÐÒ+ÌÒÒÅ•ÒÑ€,Ñà@®®*–àCONTENTS€(òòcontinuedóó)ˆÐ Ø ÐÌà ƒ à€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€òòParagraphsóó€€€òòPageÐ fŽ ÐÌóóà ƒ àE.€€Can€the€provisions€of€the€human€rightsÐ ô Ðà ƒ à€€€€instruments€be€invoked€before,€or€directlyÐ »ã Ðà ƒ à€€€€enforced€by,€the€courts€or€administrativeÐ ‚ª Ѐ€€€€€€€€€authorities,€or€must€they€be€transformedÐ Iq Ðà ƒ à€€€€into€internal€laws€or€administrative€Ð 8 Ðà ƒ à€€€€regulations€in€order€to€be€enforced€byÐ ×ÿ  Ðà ƒ à€€€€the€authorities€concerned?€à“ooFo.ŸŸ2àˆà › à€€€€55€€€€€€€€€8Ð ž Æ  ÐÌà ƒ àF.€€Institutions€or€national€machinery€withÐ , T  Ðà ƒ à€€€€responsibility€for€overseeing€the€Ð ó   Ðà ƒ à€€€€implementation€of€human€rights€à“ooFo.//6àˆà › à€€€€56€€€€€€€€€9Ð º â  ÐÌ€IV.à ƒ àInformation€and€publicity€à“ooFo.««-àˆà › à€57€„€61€€€€€€€9€€€Ð Hp  Ѐ€ÌÐ  Öþ  ÐÑ,Ñâ ,âÑØØÑÑ}}Ñâ ,âÑ  ÑÔ_ÔÖ€-ÿÿÖÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÖ€/ÿÿÖÔ_ÔØØÓH.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!ÌÌ$<HÓà@àà+–àI.€€LAND€AND€PEOPLEˆÐ Ô ÐÌ1.à b àAccording€to€the€results€of€the€eleventh€general€population€and€housingÐ bŽ Ðcensus,€the€population€of€Mexico€is€81,140,922,€49.1percent€of€whom€are€maleÐ )U Ðand€50.9percent€female.€€On€the€basis€of€these€figures,€the€populationÐ ð Ðdensity€is€41.25inhabitants€per€Ô_Ôkmòò2Ô_Ôóó.Ð ·ã ÐÌ2.à b àMales€aged€under€15€account€for€19.4€per€cent€of€the€population€andÐ E q Ðfemales€18.9percent€i.e.38.3percent€of€the€total.€€The€male€populationÐ  8 Ðaged€over€65€represents€1.9percent€and€the€female€population€2.3percent,Ð Ó ÿ  Ði.e.only€4.2percent€of€the€total.€€The€rest€of€the€population,Ð š Æ  Ði.e.57.5percent,€is€aged€between16€and64.Ð a   ÐÌ3.à b àThe€population€growth€rate€declined€gradually€from€3.2percent€inÐ ï  Ðtheperiod€between€1950€and€1970€to€2.6percent€in€the€last€twoÐ ¶â  Ðdecades,1970-1990.€€It€is€expected€that€this€downward€trend€will€continueÐ }©  Ðandthat,€by€the€last€five€years€of€the€century,€population€growth€will€haveÐ Dp  Ðdropped€to€1.8percent.€€Consequently,€it€is€estimated€that,€in€theÐ  7  Ðyear2000,€Mexico's€population€will€be€slightly€over€100million.Ð Òþ  ÐÌ4.à b àIn€1950,€the€life€expectancy€of€a€newborn€Mexican€was,€given€prevailingÐ `Œ Ðhealth€conditions,€47years.€€Nowadays,€thanks€to€the€benefits€of€theÐ 'S Ðcountry's€development,€the€generation€of€Mexicans€born€in€1990€may€expect€toÐ î Ðlive€for€approximately€70years,€23€more€than€in€1950.Ð µá ÐÌ5.à b àBoth€the€crude€death€rate€and€infant€and€maternal€mortality€have€declinedÐ Co Ðand€show€a€steady€downward€trend.€€According€to€the€Ministry€of€Health,Ð  6 Ðmortality€levels€have€declined€significantly€as€a€result€of€Mexico'sÐ Ñý Ðdevelopment.€€Infant€mortality€is€a€highly€sensitive€indicator€and€is€closelyÐ ˜Ä Ðlinked€to€Ô_ÔsocioÔ_Ô„economic€factors.€€The€infant€mortality€rate€is€25€below€theÐ _‹ Ðage€of€one€year€per€thousand€live€births.€€The€maternal€mortality€rate€hasÐ &R Ðfallen€steadily.€€In€the€Ô_Ô1980sÔ_Ô,€it€was€below€10€per€10,000€live€births.€Ð í ÐIn1980,€the€percentage€was€9.5€and,€by€1987,€it€had€fallen€to€5.5.€€The€mainÐ ´à  Ðcauses€of€maternal€mortality€are:€€complications€during€labour,€complicationsÐ {§! Ðduring€pregnancy,€abortion€and€complications€during€normal€childbirth.Ð Bn" ÐÌ6.à b àThe€fertility€rate,€based€on€the€total€number€of€children€born€live€toÐ Ð ü$ Ðwomen€aged€over€12,€was€an€average€of€2.5€children€per€woman€in€1990.Ð —!Ã% ÐÌ7.à b àThe€urban€population€is€57,959,791.€€The€country€has€2,586towns€whichÐ %#Q' Ðhave€2,500inhabitants€or€more€and€which€make€up€only€1.7percent€of€theÐ ì#( Ðtotal€number€of€towns,€but€which€account€for€71.3percent€of€the€population.€Ð ³$ß) ÐMexico's€main€cities€are€MexicoCity,€with€a€population€of€17million;Ð z%¦ * ÐGuadalajara€with€3.8million;€and€Monterrey€with€3.1million.€€Almost€oneÐ A&m!+ ÐÔ_Ôthird€of€Mexico's€population€lives€in€these€cities.€€The€1990€censusÐ '4", Ðalsoidentified€154,016rural€towns€with€fewer€than€2,500inhabitants,Ð Ï'û"- Ðrepresenting€98.3percent€of€the€total€number€of€towns€and€only€28.7percentÐ –(Â#. Ðof€the€population€or€23,289,924€persons.Ð ])‰$/ ÐÌ8.à b àThe€economically€active€population€is€composed€of€24,063,283personsÐ ë*&1 Ðaged12€and€over,€i.e.43percent€of€that€age€group.€€Mexico's€labour€forceÐ ²+Þ&2 Ðhas€been€increasing€at€an€average€annual€rate€of€1.6percent.€€The€primaryÐ y,¥'3 Ðsector€occupies€22.6percent€of€the€employed€population,€the€secondaryÐ @-l(4 Ðsector27.9percent€and€the€tertiary€sector€46.1percent.€€The€predominanceÐ Ô Ðof€young€people€in€the€population€pyramid€is€reflected€in€the€structure€of€theÐ ›Ç Ðlabour€force.Ð bŽ ÐÌ9.à b àAccording€to€the€1990€census,€employment€increased€slightly€in€comparisonÐ ð Ðwith€1970,€from€96.2percent€to€97.3percent.€€The€annual€unemploymentÐ ·ã Ðratewas€2.8percent€and,€until€the€first€half€of€1991,€2.5percent.€Ð ~ ª ÐUnemployment€was€higher€among€women€than€among€men,€the€percentagesÐ E q Ðbeing2.9percent€and€2.5percent.Ð  8 ÐÌ10.à b àIn€1989€and€for€the€third€consecutive€year,€Mexico's€economy€showed€anÐ š Æ  Ðincrease€in€production.€€Gross€domestic€product(GDP)€rose€by€3.9percentÐ a   Ðin1990€to€a€total€of€5,236.3billionpesos.€€In€1991,€GDP€increasedÐ (T  Ðby3.6percent.€€In€addition,€percapita€income€rose€by€2percent€over€1990,Ð ï  Ðto€approximately€$2,500peryear.Ð ¶â  ÐÌ11.à b àDespite€Mexico's€efforts,€inflation€remained€high€throughout€the1980s,Ð Dp  Ðreaching€159percent€in€1987.€€In€December€1987,€the€Government€introducedÐ  7  Ðthe€economic€solidarity€agreement€(now€called€the€stability€and€economicÐ Òþ  Ðgrowth€agreement)€which€combines€restrictive€and€monetarist€policies,€theÐ ™Å Ðliberalization€of€trade€and€a€price€and€wage€agreement€between€the€Government,Ð `Œ Ðworkers€and€entrepreneurs€and€reduced€inflation€to€29.9percent€in€1990€andÐ 'S Ðto€19.9percent€in€1991.Ð î ÐÌ12.à b àThere€was€a€change€in€development€financing.€€Mexico€contracted€lessÐ |¨ Ðexternal€debt€and€obtained€better€terms€from€its€international€creditors€forÐ Co Ðthe€existing€debt.€€As€a€result,€external€debt€fell€from€$107.5billioninÐ  6 ÐDecember1987€to€$67.5billionon€31December1991.Ð Ñý ÐÌ13.à b àOne€of€the€main€elements€of€the€strategy€to€bring€about€and€consolidateÐ _‹ Ðthe€structural€change€in€the€economy€was€the€renegotiation€of€the€externalÐ &R Ðdebt,€which€was€completed€on€4February1990.€€The€agreement€made€it€possibleÐ í Ðto€reduce€the€transfer€of€resources€abroad,€considerably€to€improve€publicÐ ´à  Ðfinances€and€the€balance€of€payments€and€to€encourage€productive€investmentÐ {§! Ðand€domestic€saving.€€It€also€led€to€a€favourable€change€in€the€conduct€of€theÐ Bn" Ðparticipants€in€the€country's€economic€and€financial€activity.Ð  5# ÐÌ14.à b àAccording€to€the€1990€census,€87.1percent€of€the€Mexican€populationÐ —!Ã% Ðbetween€the€ages€of€6€and€14€is€literate;€if€children€aged€under€8€areÐ ^"Š& Ðexcluded,€the€figure€is€over€90percent.€€Literacy€rates€for€the€twosexesÐ %#Q' Ðare€similar,€although€they€are€slightly€higher€for€women€than€for€men.€Ð ì#( ÐSince1970,€illiteracy€has€declined€considerably€in€Mexico.€€In€1970,€theÐ ³$ß) Ðilliteracy€rate€was€25.8percent,€as€against€12.4percent€in€1990Ð z%¦ * Ð(9.6percent€of€men€and€15percent€of€women).Ð A&m!+ ÐÌ15.à b àThe€official€language€in€Mexico€is€Spanish.€€However,€the€1990€censusÐ Ï'û"- Ðshowed€that€7.5percent€of€the€population€aged€over€five€spoke€anÐ –(Â#. Ðindigenouslanguage.€€Of€this€figure,€80.2percent€also€speak€Spanish€andÐ ])‰$/ Ðonly€15.8percent€are€monolingual.€€The€predominant€indigenous€language€isÐ $*P%0 ÐNahuatl€(22.7percent),€followed€by€Maya€(13.5percent),€MixtecÐ ë*&1 Ð(7.3percent),€Zapotec€(7.2percent)€and€Otomi€(5.3percent).€€The€rest€ofÐ ²+Þ&2 Ðthe€more€than€40other€indigenous€languages€spoken€in€Mexico€account€for€fewerÐ y,¥'3 Ðthan€5percent.Ð @-l(4 Ї16.à b àAs€far€as€religion€is€concerned,€the€results€of€the€1990€census€show€thatÐ Ô Ðthe€majority€of€Mexico's€population€is€Catholic,€which€is€the€religionÐ ›Ç Ðindicated€by€89.7percent€of€respondents;€4.9percent€said€that€they€areÐ bŽ ÐProtestant,€while€1.5percent€have€other€religions,€including€Judaism,Ð )U Ðand3.9percent€said€that€they€had€no€religion€or€did€not€say€which€one.Ð ð ÐDifferences€between€the€sexes€in€respect€of€religion€are€slight:€Ð ·ã Ð89.3percent€of€men€and€90percent€of€women€are€Catholic;€4.7percent€ofÐ ~ ª Ðmen€and€5.1percent€of€women€are€Protestant;€and€1.5€per€cent€of€menÐ E q Ðand1.6percent€of€women€are€Jewish€or€have€other€religions.Ð  8 ÐÌà@VV$–àII.€€GENERAL€POLITICAL€STRUCTUREˆÐ š Æ  ÐÌ17.à b àThe€Constitution€of€the€UnitedMexican€States€provides€that€the€countryÐ (T  Ðis€a€representative,€democratic€and€federal€republic€composed€of€31states€andÐ ï  Ða€Federal€District€where€the€Federal€ÓE1ÌÌ: q ¨ ßM„»ò)`—!Î#++7EÓÑ€0ÑGovernment€is€located.€€Power€isÐ ¶â  Ðexercised€through€the€legislative,€executive€and€judicial€branches.Ð }©  ÐÌ18.à b àThe€President€of€the€Republic€heads€the€executive€branch€of€governmentÐ  7  Ðand€is€elected€by€direct€popular€suffrage€for€a€non„renewable€six„year€term.€Ð Òþ  ÐFor€the€performance€of€administrative€functions,€the€executive€branchÐ ™Å Ðhas17ministries.Ð `Œ ÐÌ19.à b àLegislative€power€is€vested€in€the€Congress,€which€is€divided€into€twoÐ î Ðchambers.€€The€Chamber€of€Deputies€has€500members€who€are€elected€for€aÐ µá Ðthree„year€term€and€may€not€be€elected€for€two€consecutive€terms.€€The€SenateÐ |¨ Ðhas€64members,€two€for€each€state€and€the€federal€district.€€Senators€areÐ Co Ðelected€for€a€six„year€period€and€may€not€be€elected€for€two€consecutiveÐ  6 Ðterms.Ð Ñý ÐÌ20.à b àThe€21„member€Supreme€Court€heads€the€judicial€branch€of€government.Ð _‹ ÐÌ21.à b àThe€31states€that€make€up€the€Republic€are€free,€sovereign€andÐ í Ðautonomous.€€Each€one€has€its€own€constitution€and€the€same€division€of€powerÐ ´à  Ðas€the€national€Government.€€The€states€are€divided€into€municipalities,€whichÐ {§! Ðare€governed€by€municipal€councils.€€Mexico€City€is€governed€by€the€Head€ofÐ Bn" Ðthe€Federal€District€Department,€who€is€appointed€by€the€President,€and€has€anÐ  5# ÐAssembly€of€Representatives€with€66members€elected€by€direct€suffrage.Ð Ð ü$ ÐÌ22.à b àMexico€has€a€wide€range€of€political€parties€that€reflect€the€differentÐ ^"Š& Ðideologies€in€the€country.€€They€are€all€legally€registered€and€have€to€obtainÐ %#Q' Ðat€least€1.5percent€of€the€total€number€of€votes€in€order€to€continue€to€beÐ ì#( Ðregistered.€€At€present,€six€political€parties€are€fully€registered€in€Mexico:€Ð ³$ß) Ðthe€Partido€Revolucionario€Institucional€(PRI),€the€Partido€Accið;ðn€NacionalÐ z%¦ * Ð(PAN),€the€Partido€Popular€Socialista€(PPS),€the€Partido€Autntico€de€laÐ A&m!+ ÐRevolucið;ðn€Mexicana€(PARM),€the€Partido€del€Frente€Cardenista€deÐ '4", ÐReconstruccið;ðn€Nacional€(PFCRN)€and€the€Partido€de€la€Revolucið;ðn€DemocrticaÐ Ï'û"- Ð(PRD).€€In€recent€years,€the€following€parties€have€been€established€andÐ –(Â#. Ðregistered€conditionally€because€they€have€not€obtained€at€least€1.5percentÐ ])‰$/ Ðof€the€national€vote€in€the€elections€in€which€they€took€part:€€the€PartidoÐ $*P%0 ÐRevolucionario€de€los€Trabajadores,€the€Partido€del€Trabajo,€the€Partido€VerdeÐ ë*&1 ÐEcologista€Mexicano€and€the€Partido€Demð;ðcrata€Mexicano.Ð ²+Þ&2 ÐòòÌÐ @-l(4 ÐÑ0Ñâ 0âÑØØÑÑ¥}Ñâ 0âÑ  ÑHistorical€overviewóóÐ Ô ÐÌ23.à b àThe€territory€of€what€is€now€Mexico€has€been€inhabited€for€atÐ bŽ Ðleast11,000years.€€Centuries€ago,€it€was€part€of€the€region€known€asÐ )U ÐMesoamerica,€where€major€civilizations€such€as€the€Olmec,€Maya,€Zapotec€andÐ ð ÐAztec,€developed€as€from€the€third€centuryA.D.òòóóÐ ·ã ÐÌ24.à b àThe€colonial€period€began€with€the€Spanish€conquest,€which€started€inÐ E q Ðearly€1519€with€the€explorations€carried€out€by€HernnCorts€and€theÐ  8 Ðestablishment€of€VillaRica€de€la€Vera€Cruz,€the€first€European€settlement€inÐ Ó ÿ  ÐMexico.€€Physical€conquest€was€followed€by€spiritual€conquest€and€theÐ š Æ  Ðreligious€conversion€to€Christianity€meant€combating€the€age„old€polytheisticÐ a   Ðbeliefs€of€the€indigenous€civilizations.Ð (T  ÐÌ25.à b àThe€viceroyalty€was€founded€when€Antonio€de€Mendoza,€the€firstÐ ¶â  Ðrepresentative€of€the€Spanish€monarch,€was€sent€to€Mexico€in€1535.€€When€theÐ }©  ÐBourbons€acceded€to€the€Spanish€throne,€a€new€territorial€and€administrativeÐ Dp  Ðdivision€of€intendancies€and€mayoralties,€was€introduced€for€the€purpose€ofÐ  7  Ðbringing€the€viceroyalty€under€tighter€control,€but€it€also€helped€to€increaseÐ Òþ  Ðunrest.Ð ™Å ÐÌ26.à b àIn€the€first€few€years€of€the€nineteenth€century,€Napoleon's€invasion€ofÐ 'S ÐSpain€encouraged€the€start€of€the€struggle€for€independence.€€Once€theÐ î Ðstruggle€for€political€independence€began,€demands€for€social€change€were€alsoÐ µá Ðmade.€€After€10years€of€fighting,€independence€was€achieved€only€as€a€resultÐ |¨ Ðof€the€agreement€between€Creoles€and€insurgents€brought€about€in€1821€byÐ Co ÐAgustn€de€Iturbide,€who€proclaimed€himself€emperor€one€year€later€and€wasÐ  6 Ðthen€overthrown€by€a€military€revolt€in€1823.Ð Ñý ÐÌ27.à b àThe€Republic€was€founded€in€January1824.€€The€federalist€ConstitutionÐ _‹ Ðwas€promulgated€in€October€and€Guadalupe€Victoria€became€President€of€Mexico.€Ð &R ÐThe€decades€to€come€were€nevertheless€a€time€of€political€infighting€among€theÐ í Ðdifferent€factions.€€The€federalists€and€liberals€on€one€side€and€theÐ ´à  Ðcentralists€and€conservatives€on€the€other€took€power€in€a€succession€ofÐ {§! Ðòòcoupsd'tatóó,€thus€preventing€any€overall€Government€policy€from€being€fullyÐ Bn" Ðimplemented.€€This€domestic€situation,€which€was€typical€of€a€State€in€theÐ  5# Ðmaking,€was€aggravated€by€foreign€aggression:€€attempted€reconquest,€loss€ofÐ Ð ü$ Ðterritory,€European€intervention€and€invasion€by€the€UnitedStates.Ð —!Ã% ÐÌ28.à b àDomestic€unrest€was€accompanied€by€the€Indian€war€in€Yucatn€in€1847.€Ð %#Q' ÐHowever,€the€bloodiest€civil€war€Mexico€experienced€following€its€independenceÐ ì#( Ðwas€the€Reform,€which€lasted€threeyears€and€affected€the€entire€country.€€ItÐ ³$ß) Ðwas€the€culmination€of€the€fight€between€the€conservatives€and€the€liberals.€Ð z%¦ * ÐWar€broke€out€with€the€promulgation€of€the€1857€Constitution,€which€providedÐ A&m!+ Ðimplicitly€for€freedom€of€worship€and€empowered€the€Government€to€enactÐ '4", Ðlegislation€relating€to€religion.€€In€1860,€the€liberals€came€out€the€winners,Ð Ï'û"- Ðbut€the€conservatives€stayed€on€a€war€footing€and€gave€their€support€to€FrenchÐ –(Â#. Ðintervention€to€establish€an€empire€under€Maximilian€of€Habsburg.Ð ])‰$/ ÐÌ29.à b àIn€1863,€the€French€army€occupied€the€country's€capital,€where€MaximilianÐ ë*&1 Ðfounded€the€SecondEmpire€in1864€with€the€support€of€NapoleonIII.€€NeitherÐ ²+Þ&2 Ðthe€empire€nor€the€invaders€ever€successfully€completed€their€occupation€ofÐ y,¥'3 Ðâ âthe€national€territory€and,€in€1866,€the€withdrawal€of€the€invading€troops€was€Ð @-l(4 Ðimmediately€followed€by€the€defeat€of€the€imperial€forces€and€the€capture€andÐ Ô Ðexecution€by€a€firing€squad€of€Maximilian€and€the€conservative€generalsÐ ›Ç ÐMiramð;ðn€and€Meja€in€July1867.Ð bŽ Ðâ âÌ30.à b àWith€the€triumph€of€the€Republic,€the€country€was€consolidated€as€aÐ ð Ðnation€and€entered€a€period€of€stability€with€the€implementation€of€theÐ ·ã Ðliberal€programme.€€In€1876,€Porfirio€Daz€became€president€by€means€of€aÐ ~ ª Ðòòcoupd'tatóó€and€held€power,€except€for€the€period€between€1880€and€1884,Ð E q Ðuntil1911.€€During€this€time,€the€country's€economy€grew€considerably,€butÐ  8 Ðhuge€estates€and€enormous€dispossessed€rural€masses€also€came€into€being.Ð Ó ÿ  ÐÌ31.à b àDaz's€long€period€in€power,€the€absence€of€democracy€and€theÐ a   Ðexploitation€and€impoverishment€of€large€sectors€of€rural€and€urban€societyÐ (T  Ðgave€rise€to€considerable€popular€unrest€which€ended€in€the€world's€firstÐ ï  Ðsocial€revolution€this€century.€€Daz€stepped€down€in€1911€and€left€theÐ ¶â  Ðcountry.€€The€acting€president,€Francisco€Leð;ðn€de€la€Barra,€called€electionsÐ }©  Ðthat€were€won€by€Madero,€who€took€office€on€6November1911.Ð Dp  ÐÌ32.à b àThe€Madero€regime's€foundations€were€undermined€by€various€plots€and€heÐ Òþ  Ðwas€assassinated€in€1913.€€After€the€military€coup,€Victoriano€Huerta€tookÐ ™Å Ðover€the€office€of€president.€€The€revolutionary€leaders€who€had€collaboratedÐ `Œ Ðin€the€overthrow€of€Porfirio€Daz€again€took€up€arms€and€set€in€motion€aÐ 'S Ðmovement€of€unprecedented€proportions.Ð î ÐÌ33.à b àThe€leader€of€the€Constitutionalist€Army,€Venustiano€Carranza,€undertookÐ |¨ Ðto€pacify€the€country.€€The€that€end,€he€convened€a€constituent€congress€whichÐ Co Ðdrafted€and€promulgated€the€new€Constitution€on€5February1917.€€TheÐ  6 ÐConstitution€contained€what€were€then€pioneering€social€measures€and€providedÐ Ñý Ða€framework€for€action€by€the€Governments€that€came€after€Carranza's.Ð ˜Ä ÐÌ34.à b àIn€1929,€Plutarco€Elas€Calles€proposed€that€a€political€body€should€beÐ &R Ðset€up€to€centralize€all€political€initiatives€by€military€and€civilianÐ í Ðleaders€and€make€it€possible€to€consolidate€peace€and€usher€in€a€period€ofÐ ´à  Ðnational€reconciliation.€€The€proposal€led€to€the€establishment€of€the€PartidoÐ {§! ÐNacional€Revolucionario,€which€became€the€Partido€de€la€Revolucon€Mexicana€inÐ Bn" Ð1938€and€the€Partido€Revolucionario€Institucional€in€1946.Ð  5# ÐÌ35.à b àThere€were€nine€Governments€in€the€period€that€followed.€€Lzaro€CrdenasÐ —!Ã% Ð(1934„1940)€ordered€the€expropriation€of€the€petroleum€industry€for€theÐ ^"Š& Ðbenefit€of€the€nation;€he€also€encouraged€the€establishment€of€worker€andÐ %#Q' Ðpeasant€groups€which€are€still€pillars€of€popular€support€for€the€Government.Ð ì#( ÐÌ36.à b àPresident€Manuel€Avila€Camacho€(1940„1946)€adopted€a€policy€of€nationalÐ z%¦ * Ðunity€and€rejection€of€national€socialism€which€led€to€the€declaration€of€warÐ A&m!+ Ðon€the€Axis€powers€during€the€Second€World€War.Ð '4", ÐÌ37.à b àThe€Government€of€Miguel€Alemn€Valds€(1946„1952)€intensified€theÐ –(Â#. Ðprocess€of€industrialization€and€the€building€of€the€infrastructure€needed€toÐ ])‰$/ Ðmodernize€the€country.€€Adolfo€Ruz€Cortines€(1952„1958)€resolutely€pursuedÐ $*P%0 Ðthe€same€policy€and€one€of€his€Government's€main€achievements€was€itsÐ ë*&1 Ðrecognition€of€the€right€of€women€to€vote.Ð ²+Þ&2 ÐÌ38.à b àUnder€the€administration€of€Adolfo€Lð;ðpez€Mateos€(1958„1964),€the€electricÐ @-l(4 Ðpower€industry€was€nationalized€and€an€outward„looking€foreign€policy€wasÐ .3)5 Ðadopted€to€establish€closer€links€with€all€the€countries€in€the€world.Ð Î.ú)6 Ї39.à b àUnder€Gustavo€Daz€Ordaz€(1964„1970),€the€construction€of€a€highlyÐ Ô Ðdeveloped€communications€and€transport€network€continued€and€privateÐ ›Ç Ðenterprise€was€given€every€encouragement.Ð bŽ ÐÌ40.à b àThe€"shared€development"€model€was€introduced€during€the€term€of€officeÐ ð Ðof€Luis€Echeverra€Alvarez€(1970„1976).€€The€period€was€also€characterized€byÐ ·ã Ðintense€international€activity€in€connection€with€foreign€policy.Ð ~ ª ÐÌ41.à b àThe€discovery€and€exploitation€of€major€oilfields€enabled€PresidentJosÐ  8 ÐLðAðpezPortillo€(1976„1982)€to€develop€the€Mexican€economy.€€The€subsequentÐ Ó ÿ  Ðdrop€in€energy€prices€and€the€resulting€world€crisis€also€affected€Mexico€andÐ š Æ  Ðbrought€about€a€sharp€increase€in€its€external€debt.Ð a   ÐÌ42.à b àConsequently,€President€Miguel€de€la€Madrid€(1982„1988)€introduced€anÐ ï  Ðausterity€plan€to€tackle€economic€problems€through€the€Short„Term€EconomicÐ ¶â  ÐRestructuring€Programme€and€the€National€Development€Plan.€€Other€seriousÐ }©  Ðproblems,€such€as€the€aftermath€of€the€1985€earthquakes,€also€had€to€be€dealtÐ Dp  Ðwith.€€However,€there€was€no€uncontrollable€social€unrest;€the€new€mechanismsÐ  7  Ðset€up€by€the€Government€and€the€political€reforms€it€brought€about€allowedÐ Òþ  Ðfor€greater€pluralism.Ð ™Å ÐÌ43.à b àCarlos€Salinas€de€Gortari€became€President€in€1988€with€a€politicalÐ 'S Ðplatform€aimed€at€modernizing€the€country€and€fully€integrating€it€into€theÐ î Ðnew€international€setting,€both€economically€and€politically.€€The€programmeÐ µá Ðhinges€on€the€implementation€of€a€modern€policy,€the€decentralization€ofÐ |¨ ÐMexican€society€and€the€liberalization€of€the€economy€to€make€the€country€moreÐ Co Ðcompetitive.€€Three€years€into€the€programme,€it€is€clear€that€major€stridesÐ  6 Ðhave€been€made€in€the€economic€sphere€now€that€inflation€has€been€checked€andÐ Ñý Ðmeasures€have€been€taken€to€boost€non„petroleum€exports.€€Enormous€effortsÐ ˜Ä Ðhave€also€been€made€to€open€up€new€markets€and€obtain€better€internationalÐ _‹ Ðterms€for€products€of€developing€countries.Ð &R ÐÌ44.à b àMexico's€foreign€policy€is€based€on€principles€which€are€rooted€in€itsÐ ´à  Ðhistory€and€reflected€in€the€provisions€of€its€Constitution:€Ð {§! Ðself-determination€of€peoples,€non„intervention,€peaceful€settlement€ofÐ Bn" Ðdisputes,€legal€equality€of€states,€international€cooperation,€prohibition€ofÐ  5# Ðthe€threat€or€use€of€force€and€action€to€achieve€world€peace€and€security.Ð Ð ü$ ÐÌ45.à b àMexico's€international€practice€also€includes€other€principles,€which€areÐ ^"Š& Ðshared€by€the€overwhelming€majority€of€nations€and€which€are€essential€for€theÐ %#Q' Ðsmooth€functioning€of€relations€among€the€members€of€the€internationalÐ ì#( Ðcummunity:€€sovereignty€over€natural€resources,€the€right€of€asylum,Ð ³$ß) Ðinternational€economic€justice,€the€protection€of€human€rights,€respect€forÐ z%¦ * Ðideological€pluralism,€a€democratic€approach€to€decision„making€in€theÐ A&m!+ Ðinternational€cummunity€and€Latin€American€solidarity.Ð '4", ÐÌ46.à b àOn€the€basis€of€these€principles€and€precepts,€Mexico€has€endeavoured€toÐ –(Â#. Ðmaintain€good€relations€with€all€countries€in€the€world.€€Its€present€foreignÐ ])‰$/ Ðpolicy€is€characterized€by€its€clear„cut€objective€of€diversification€toÐ $*P%0 Ðenable€it€to€establish€closer€ties€with€all€parts€of€the€world,€withoutÐ ë*&1 Ðrestricting€itself€to€any€one€of€them€and€without€any€exclusive€commitment€toÐ ²+Þ&2 Ðany€bloc€or€common€market.€€The€aim€of€this€international€policy€is€to€promoteÐ y,¥'3 ÐMexico's€interests€throughout€the€world€and€to€glean€elements€from€otherÐ @-l(4 Ðcountries€which€Mexicans€regard€as€important€for€playing€an€active€role€in€theÐ .3)5 Ðmodern„day€international€community.Ð Î.ú)6 Ї47.à b àMexico€has€thus€established€closer€ties€with€Latin€America,€North€AmericaÐ Ô Ðand€the€countries€of€Europe€with€which€it€has€a€common€culture€and€traditions.€Ð ›Ç ÐIt€has€also€tried€to€establish€closer€relations€with€the€Pacific€region€andÐ bŽ Ðthe€rest€of€Europe.€€In€addition,€it€has€appointed€two€roving€ambassadors,€oneÐ )U Ðfor€Africa€and€one€for€the€Caribbean,€who€will€take€part€in€the€work€ofÐ ð Ðcreating€links€with€these€two€important€regions.€€Ð ·ã ÐÌà b àIII.€€GENERAL€LEGAL€FRAMWORK€WITHIN€WHICH€HUMAN€RIGHTS€ARE€PROTECTEDÐ E q ÐÌà b àA.à0 ™ àòòJudicial€and€administrative€authorities€with€jurisdiction€affectingÐ Ó ÿ  Ðhuman€rightsóóК Æ ™ $™ $ ÐÌ48.à b àThe€federal€judiciary€is€composed€of€the€Supreme€Court€of€Justice,€theÐ (T  Ðcollegiate€and€unipersonal€circuit€courts,€the€district€courts,€the€Office€ofÐ ï  Ðthe€Attorney„General€of€the€Republic,€the€Office€of€the€Government€ProcuratorÐ ¶â  Ðof€the€Federal€District,€the€Office€of€the€Government€Procurator€of€the€StatesÐ }©  Ðof€the€Republic€and€the€Public€Prosecutor's€Office.Ð Dp  ÐÌ49.à b àThe€National€Human€Rights€Commission€(CNDH)€is€the€main€administrativeÐ Òþ  Ðbody€responsible€for€proposing€and€ensuring€compliance€with€the€nationalÐ ™Å Ðpolicy€of€respect€for€and€the€protection€of€human€rights.€€To€this€end,€itÐ `Œ Ðimplements€preventive,€remedial€and€coordination€measures€to€safeguard€theÐ 'S Ðhuman€rights€of€Mexicans€and€of€foreigners€in€Mexican€territory;€in€the€latterÐ î Ðcase,€it€acts€in€coordination€with€the€Ministry€of€Foreign€Affairs.Ð µá ÐÌà b àB.à ™ àòòRemedies€available€to€an€individual€who€claims€that€any€of€hisÐ Co Ðà b àà ™ àrights€have€been€violated€and€systems€of€compensation€andÐ  6 Ðà b àà ™ àrehabilitationóóÐ Ñý ÐÌ50.à b àTòòóóhe€Constitution€of€the€United€Mexican€States€protects€all€human€rightsÐ _‹ Ð(individual€guarantees)€and€the€legislation€regulating€the€relevant€articlesÐ &R Ðguarantees€such€protection.€€The€legislation€also€offers€a€variety€of€remediesÐ í Ðand€procedures€to€ensure€full€protection€of€human€rights.Ð ´à  ÐÌ51.à b àIf€an€individual€alleges€that€his€human€rights€have€been€violated,€heÐ Bn" Ðmust€appeal€to€the€appropriate€authority€for€the€appropriate€remedies:€€inÐ  5# Ðcriminal€cases,€the€appropriate€remedies€are€reconsideration,€complaint€forÐ Ð ü$ Ðrefusal€of€leave€to€appeal€and€òòamparoóó;€and€in€civil€cases,€reconsideration,Ð —!Ã% Ðappeal,€special€appeal,€complaint,€judicial€liability€and€òòamparoóó.€€TheÐ ^"Š& Ðcomplainant€may€also€appeal€to€CNDH,€which€will€provide€him€with€advice€on€theÐ %#Q' Ðlegal€measures€available€to€him€and€on€how€to€use€them€or,€if€all€legalÐ ì#( Ðremedies€have€been€exhausted,€it€will€investigate€the€case€and€make€aÐ ³$ß) Ðrecommendation.Ð z%¦ * ÐÌ52.à b àWhen€the€investigation€leads€to€the€identification€of€the€offender,Ð '4", Ðcompensation€may€be€claimed.€€For€example,€article€10€of€the€Federal€Act€forÐ Ï'û"- Ðthe€Prevention€and€Punishment€of€Torture€reads:Ð –(Â#. ÐÌà0 b à"A€person€who€commits€any€of€the€offences€covered€by€this€Act€shall€beÐ $*P%0 Ðliable€for€the€legal,€medical,€funeral,€rehabilitation€and€any€otherÐ ë*&1 Ðexpenses€incurred€by€the€victim€or€his€relatives€as€a€result€of€theÐ ²+Þ&2 Ðoffence.€€He€shall€also€be€required€to€make€good€the€damage€and€toÐ y,¥'3 Ðprovide€compensation€for€the€loss€or€injury€suffered€by€the€victim€or€hisÐ @-l(4 Ðeconomic€dependents,€in€the€following€cases:Ð.3)5b$b$ ÐÐ Î.ú)6 Ðà b ààÐ5 5 ™ àIˆ.à Ð àLoss€of€life;Ð Ô ÐÌà b ààÐÑÑ™ àIIˆ.à Ð àImpairment€of€health;Ð bŽ ÐÌà b ààÐmm™ àIIIˆ.à Ð àLoss€of€freedom;Ð ð ÐÌà b ààÐÑÑ™ àIVˆ.à Ð àLoss€of€income;Ð ~ ª ÐÌà b ààÐ5 5 ™ àVˆ.à Ð àIncapacity€for€work;Ð  8 ÐÌà b ààÐÑÑ™ àVIˆ.à Ð àLoss€of€or€damage€to€property;Ð š Æ  ÐÌà b ààÐmm™ àVIIˆ.à Ð àDefamation€of€character.Ð (T  Ðà b àÌà0 b àà ™ àIn€determining€the€corresponding€amounts,€the€judge€shall€takeÐ ¶â  Ðaccount€of€the€extent€of€the€damage.Ð}© b$b$ ÐÌà0 b àà ™ àUnder€article€32,€section€VI,€of€the€Penal€Code€for€the€FederalÐ  7  ÐDistrict€in€respect€of€ordinary€law€and€for€the€Republic€as€a€whole€inÐ Òþ  Ðrespect€of€federal€law,€the€State€shall€bear€subsidiary€liability€forÐ ™Å Ðmaking€good€the€damage."Ð`Œb$b$ ÐÌÌà b àC.à0 ™ àòòProtection€of€the€rights€referred€to€in€the€various€human€rightsÐ µá ÐinstrumentsóóÐ|¨™ $™ $ ÐÌ53.à b àHuman€rights€are€protected€by€articles€1€to€29€of€the€Constitution,€fromÐ  6 Ðwhich€derogation€is€possible€in€the€event€of€invasion€or€serious€disturbanceÐ Ñý Ðof€public€order€or€for€any€other€reason€that€places€society€in€grave€danger€orÐ ˜Ä Ðat€risk€of€conflict.€€Only€the€President€of€the€United€Mexican€States€may,Ð _‹ Ðwith€the€agreement€of€the€Ministers€of€State,€the€Administrative€DepartmentsÐ &R Ðand€the€Office€of€the€Attorney„General€of€the€Republic€and€with€the€approvalÐ í Ðof€Congress€or,€if€Congress€is€not€in€session,€that€of€the€Standing€Committee,Ð ´à  Ðsuspend,€either€throughout€the€country€or€in€a€particular€place,€theÐ {§! Ðguarantees€that€are€an€obstacle€to€the€prompt€and€smooth€handling€of€theÐ Bn" Ðsituation,€but€he€may€do€so€only€for€a€limited€time€and€by€means€of€generalÐ  5# Ðmeasures€so€that€the€suspension€does€not€affect€a€particular€individual.Ð Ð ü$ ÐÌà b àD.à0 ™ àòòWay€in€which€human€rights€instruments€are€made€part€of€the€nationalÐ ^"Š& Ðlegal€systemÐ%#Q'™ $™ $ ÐÌóó54.à b àArticle€133€of€the€Constitution€states€that€all€treaties€which€are€inÐ ³$ß) Ðkeeping€with€the€Constitution€and€which€have€been€or€may€be€concluded€by€theÐ z%¦ * ÐPresident€of€the€Republic€with€the€approval€of€the€Senate€are€the€supreme€lawÐ A&m!+ Ðof€the€Union.Ð '4", ÐÌà b àE.à0 ™ àòòCan€the€provisions€of€the€human€rights€instruments€be€invokedÐ –(Â#. Ðbefore,€or€directly€enforced€by,€the€courts€or€administrativeÐ ])‰$/ Ðauthorities,€or€must€they€be€transformed€into€internal€lawsÐ$*P%0™ $™ $ Ðà b àà0 ™ àor€administrative€regulations€in€order€to€be€enforced€by€theÐ ë*&1 Ðauthorities€concerned?в+Þ&2™ $™ $ ÐÌóó55.à b àIn€line€with€the€answer€given€in€the€preceding€paragraph,€human€rightsÐ @-l(4 Ðinstruments€become€part€of€internal€law€as€soon€as€they€have€been€ratified€byÐ .3)5 Ðthe€Senate.€€The€courts€of€each€state€will€rule€on€the€basis€of€theÐ Î.ú)6 ÐConstitution,€laws€and€treaties,€notwithstanding€any€provisions€to€theÐ Ô Ðcontrary€that€may€exist€in€state€Constitutions€or€laws.Ð ›Ç ÐÌà b àF.à0 ™ àòòInstitutions€or€national€machinery€with€responsibility€forÐ )U Ðoverseeing€the€implementation€of€human€rightsóóÐð™ $™ $ ÐÌ56.à b àThe€National€Human€Rights€Commission,€which€was€set€up€in€June€1990,€isÐ ~ ª Ðthe€institution€responsible€for€overseeing€the€implementation€of€human€rightsÐ E q Ðthroughout€the€country.Ð  8 ÐÌà@ºº%–àIV.€€INFORMATION€AND€PUBLICITYˆÐ š Æ  ÐÌ57.à b àThe€Government€of€Mexico€has€made€efforts€to€inform€the€population€of€theÐ (T  Ðrights€contained€in€the€various€human€rights€instruments.€€CNDH€has€publishedÐ ï  Ðdocuments,€some€in€indigenous€languages,€to€promote€respect€for€human€rightsÐ ¶â  Ðas€part€of€its€programmes€relating€to:€€complaints,€indigenous€affairs,€theÐ }©  Ðprison€system€and€the€protection€of€children€and€migrant€workers.Ð Dp  ÐÌ58.à b àIn€Mexico's€education€system,€primary€schools€use€a€free€textbook€issuedÐ Òþ  Ðby€the€National€Technical€Council€on€Education.€€During€its€fourth€semester€ofÐ ™Å Ðactivity,€the€National€Human€Rights€Commission€transmitted€a€document€to€theÐ `Œ ÐCouncil€entitled€"Human€rights€in€the€free€textbook:€€a€proposal".€€TheÐ 'S ÐCouncil€is€contributing€to€the€"ongoing€project€to€enhance€civic€awareness€inÐ î Ðprimary€schools".Ð µá ÐÌ59.à b àDuring€that€semester,€142€human€rights€training€courses€were€provided,Ð Co Ðwith€a€total€of€543€course/hours€for€19,461€participants,€an€increase€ofÐ  6 Ð317percent€over€the€previous€semester.€€The€courses€were€attended€by€personsÐ Ñý Ðfrom€various€social€sectors€and€by€federal,€State€and€municipal€officials.€Ð ˜Ä ÐTwo€video€training€tapes€were€produced€on€research€techniques€and€"HumanÐ _‹ Ðrights€and€the€National€Human€Rights€Commission".€€The€second€tape,€whichÐ &R Ðlasts€18€minutes,€is€broadcast€daily€on€television€throughout€the€country.Ð í ÐÌ60.à b àDuring€the€semester,€the€National€Commission€also€organized€fiveÐ {§! Ðsymposiums€and€seminars€and€two€diploma€courses€with€academic€establishments,Ð Bn" Ðas€well€as€the€first€series€of€films€on€Mexican€prisons.€€It€continued€toÐ  5# Ðplace€great€emphasis€on€its€publications€programme,€which€includes€the€SundayÐ Ð ü$ Ðsupplement€to€the€òòEl€Nacionalóó€newspaper,€weekly€òòRadio€Educacið;ðnóó€and€òòRadioÐ —!Ã% ÐUniversidad€Nacional€Autð;ðnoma€de€Mxicoóó€coproductions€and,€in€particular,€theÐ ^"Š& Ðpublication€of€51€new€works,€1,170,000€copies€of€which€were€distributed.Ð %#Q' ÐÌ61.à b àGenerally€speaking,€CNDH€successfully€carried€out€95percent€of€itsÐ ³$ß) Ðpublications€programmes€and,€in€some€cases,€went€beyond€the€targets€set.Ð z%¦ * ÐÌÌà@881–à„„„„„€€