ÿWPCm ©aðçð1 dÞäµ»“=å·ÎŽ7ŒÌ—§´v·3{äZêâ÷B#FÛ14 S@ž[ã;‰€2?¹?¤&0°Á2­MÇá(çC#¤²”1ˆòbâCOü›?BxT LpÍ(«¤Œ'Ñ#¬*Št~*0†ä$¤‰°ußB¤lï|Í=iˆO ‡¨½P3ýÅh*•4ÄÙœþsˆR™›ÐYà_¢Ý²—% é‘[[’µKÞ J¼õªdö.N˜/„e}ávÕ 3¹§-2ø‡îTC^zçJ2]ìÎ5Lj ànv”§ó4ÎÓÜÒ·î&'µŸ²§n‘7c+µÄý Q5ë,k´€!Ò®+Q%?²¡ |\]P-SWè!‹M” ý¾V: ´$ŒäÅI•Ít3Ñ}›åÑóÈKlÔv8—¨J3zÁÀŠ(‹+=x¥ñ€g,C/ :`ÀøÖ÷,í—m²kÈ¥—anñy¾5}¢Ÿþç•Ol‚ÄÁ]ÆäÐW®…xÿ‡:ïlet¸²›jâ2y€Í;ʱîü4´éÇ/î{ƒT-mÔ-Þ!(ö¤Žë\p}¯­u|™ÏÍSœ©\.L"±ižë³€YÖøìNq ">U:&n­` % ÂpÕ 0©Eâî 0©Ð 0y 0§ 0Ž·#ÁE(N.^ 0w<4@T mV<þ6X9`("Courier 12cpi«<þ6X9`("Courier 12cpiôÂdþ6X@Ƀ8Ç;ô@ô' É18207 2 0Linda DP ."22 pp. 1-33=   fÝ ƒÜ'ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÝ  ÝÓ'++»7c£#++7'ÓHRI/CORE/1/Add.15Ð Ø Ðpage€Ú  Ú2Ú  ÚÐ Çï Ð(2Ü$§§Ý ƒ È!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÝ  Ý ØÝ ƒÜ(ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÝ  ÝÓ! ++ŒP++7!ÓÓ$ ++ŒP++ŒÄ$ÓÓ$ ++Œÿ++ŒÄ$Óà Œ àà ÿ àHRI/CORE/1/Add.15Ð Ø Ðà Œ àà ÿ àpage€Ú  Ú4Ú  ÚÐ Çï Ð(2Ü$¨¨Ý ƒ È!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÝ  Ý(Î!2 ñ$¤¤Ý ƒ È!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÝ  ÝÓ33ÓÔ€)âXòôÄ–ÔÒ°+ÒÒ°ÅÒ€€€€òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó/(Î!2ñC$¥¥Ý ƒ È!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÝ  ÝÓ3333ÓÔ€)âXòôÄ–ÔÒ°+ÒÒ°ÅÒ€€€€òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó/#|d (fÈ$¡¡ÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈјHP LaserJet 4P,ü,,,,,ü0!P}. Jc.(¡ÔÿU‹ÿÀÀÀÝ ƒ È!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÄ–òòôÔÔ€ôÄ–òòôÄ–ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ  ÑÓ+Ó++7ÓÑbØÑщ¥Ñà Ó àDistr.Ð b Ðà Ó àGENERALÐ Qï ÐÌà Ó àHRI/CORE/1/Add.15Ð / Í Ðà Ó à30€October€1992Ð  ¼ ÐÌà Ó àOriginal:€€ENGLISHÐ ü š ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌà@  –àCORE€DOCUMENT€FORMING€PART€OF€THE€REPORTS€OF€STATES€PARTIESˆÐ …#  ÐÌà@881–àIRELANDˆÐ c ÐÌà€‰‰N$à[22€June€1992]ˆÐ Aß ÐÌà@0–àCONTENTSˆÐ ½ ÐÌà€ùùJ$àòòParagraphsóó€€€€òòPageóóˆÐ ý› ÐÌÓ$++»7c£#+Ó$ÓI.à » àThe€Irish€political,€legal€and€administrative€systemà“77H7.  Eàˆà c à€1€„€18àÑ?#?#Z£#à3ˆÐ Ûy ÐÌà » àA.€€Land€and€peopleà“77H7.''$àˆà c à€1€„€€3àÑ?#?#Z£#à3ˆÐ ¹W ÐÌà » àB.€€The€Irish€languageà“77H7.SS'àˆà c à€4€„€€5àÑ?#?#Z£#à3ˆÐ — 5 ÐÌà » àC.€€Recent€political€historyà“77H7.««-àˆà c à€€€6àÑ?#?#Z£#à4ˆÐ u" ÐÌà » àD.€€The€Constitution€of€Irelandà“77H7.××0àˆà c à€€€7àÑ?#?#Z£#à4ˆÐ S$ñ ÐÌà » àE.€€Governmentà“77H7.3 3 àˆà c à€8€„€10àÑ?#?#Z£#à4ˆÐ 1&Ï! ÐÌà » àF.€€Dail€Eireann€(House€of€Representatives)à“77H7.‡‡<àˆà c à€€11àÑ?#?#Z£#à5ˆÐ (­ # ÐÌà » àG.€€Seanad€Eireann€(Senate)à“77H7.GG,àˆà c à12€„€13àÑ?#?#Z£#à5ˆÐ í)‹"% ÐÌà » àH.€€Parliamentary€Committeesà“77H7.««-àˆà c à€€14àÑ?#?#Z£#à5ˆÐ Ë+i$' ÐÌà » àI.€€Electoral€systemà“77H7.‹‹%àˆà c à€€15àÑ?#?#Z£#à6ˆÐ ©-G&) ÐÌà » àJ.€€Civil€serviceà“77H7._ _ "àˆà c à16€„€17àÑ?#?#Z£#à6ˆÐ ‡/%(+ ÐÐ v0), Ðà » àK.€€Local€governmentà“77H7.‹‹%àˆà c à€€18àÑ?#?#Z£#à6ˆÐ F ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌGE.92„18207€€(E)Ð Ï ‰ ÐÑØbÑÌÖ€ÿÿÖà@®®*–àCONTENTS€(òòcontinuedóó)ˆÐ ­ g  ÐÌà€ùùJ$àòòParagraphsóó€€€€òòPageóóˆÐ ‹E  ÐÌII.à » àThe€general€legal€framework€within€which€human€rightsÐ i#  Ðà » àare€protectedà“77H7.Ï Ï àˆà c à19€„€65àÑ?#?#Z£#à7ˆÐ X  ÐÌà » àA.€€The€Constitution€of€Irelandà“77H7.××0àˆà c à19€„€20àÑ?#?#Z£#à7ˆÐ 6ð ÐÌà » àB.€€Court€systemà“77H7.û û !àˆà c à21€„€28àÑ?#?#Z£#à7ˆÐ Î ÐÌà » àC.€€International€human€rights€law€in€the€Irish€legalÐ ò¬ Ðà » à€€€€frameworkà“77H7.Ï Ï àˆà c à29€„€33àÑ?#?#Z£#à9ˆÐ á› ÐÌà » àD.€€Fundamental€human€rights€in€Irish€lawà“77H7.¿¿:àˆà c à34€„€41àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à11ˆÐ ¿y ÐÌà » àE.€€Judicial€remedies€for€breaches€of€human€rightsà“77H7.CCCàˆà c à€€€42àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à14ˆÐ W ÐÌà » àF.€€Judicial€review€of€legislation€and€legislativeÐ {5 Ðà » à€€€€proposalsà“77H7.Ï Ï àˆà c à43€„€53àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à15ˆÐ j$ ÐÌà » àG.€€Judicial€review€of€delegated€legislationà“77H7.ëë=àˆà c à54€„€55àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à18ˆÐ H! ÐÌà » àH.€€Constitutional€review€of€administrative€orÐ &#à  Ðà » à€€€€executive€actionà“77H7.‹‹%àˆà c à56€„€57àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à19ˆÐ $Ï! ÐÌà » àI.€€Remediesà“77H7.k k àˆà c à€€€58àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à20ˆÐ ó%­ # ÐÌà » àJ.€€Judicial€reviewà“77H7.''$àˆà c à59€„€60àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à20ˆÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐÌà » àK.€€Injunctionsà“77H7.— — àˆà c à€€€61àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à20ˆÐ ¯)i$' ÐÌà » àL.€€Damagesà“77H7.  àˆà c à62€„€64àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à21ˆÐ +G&) ÐÌà » àM.€€Information€and€publicityà“77H7..àˆà c à€€€65àÑÛ"Û"Y£#à21ˆÐ k-%(+ ÐÌÓ-++»ç £#++»7c£#-ÓList€of€annexes€*à“ç ç Tç .Ï Ï àˆàÑÛ"Û"Y£#à22ˆÐ I/*- ÐÐ 80ò*. ЇÌÌÌÌÌòò€€€€€€€€€óóÐ ƒ« ÐÌà » à*€€The€annexes,€as€received€in€English€from€the€Government€of€Ireland,€areÐ a‰ Ðavailable€for€consultation€in€the€files€of€the€UnitedNations€Centre€forÐ P x ÐHumanRights.€€They€are€common€to€this€document€and€to€the€initial€report€ofÐ ? g  ÐIreland€(CCPR/C/68/Add.3).Ð  . V  ÐÑ}‰ÑÖ€ÿÿÖÓH.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!++»ç £#HÓà@¦ ¦ –àI.€€THE€IRISH€POLITICAL,€LEGAL€AND€ADMINISTRATIVE€SYSTEMˆÐ F ÐÌà@àà+–àA.€€òòLand€and€peopleóóˆÐ $Þ ÐÌÓB.++»™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!++7BÓ1.à » àThe€island€of€Ireland€is€situated€in€the€north„west€of€the€continent€ofÐ  ¼ ÐEurope€and€has€a€total€area€of€84,421€square€kilometres.€€A€strong€maritimeÐ ñ « Ðinfluence€and€the€presence€of€the€Gulf€Stream€assure€an€equable€moist€climateÐ à š Ðfree€from€extremes€of€cold€and€heat.€€The€country€is€historically€divided€intoÐ Ï ‰ Ðfour€provinces,€each€roughly€equivalent€with€the€four€primary€points€of€theÐ ¾ x Ðcompass,€i.e.€Ulster€(North),€Munster€(South),€Connaught€(West)€andÐ ­ g  ÐLeinster(East).€€Under€Article€2€of€the€Constitution€of€Ireland,€"theÐ œV  Ðnational€territory€consists€of€the€whole€island€of€Ireland,€its€islands€andÐ ‹E  Ðthe€territorial€seas".€€Article€3€of€the€Constitution€States:Ð z4  ÐÌà0 » à"Pending€the€reintegration€of€the€national€territory,€and€withoutÐ X  Ðprejudice€to€the€right€of€the€Parliament€and€Government€established€byÐ G Ðthis€Constitution€to€exercise€jurisdiction€over€the€whole€of€thatÐ 6ð Ðterritory,€the€laws€enacted€by€that€Parliament€shall€have€the€like€areaÐ %ß Ðand€extent€of€application€as€the€laws€of€Saorstt€Eireann€and€the€likeÐ Î Ðextra„territorial€effect".н»$»$ ÐÌThe€current€area€of€application€of€the€laws€enacted€by€the€Oireachtas€(IrishÐ á› ÐParliament)€covers€26€of€the€32€counties;€the€remaining€north„eastern€countiesРЊ Ðform€part€of€the€jurisdiction€of€the€United€Kingdom.Ð ¿y ÐÌ2.à » àThe€1991€population€census€estimated€the€population€at€3,523,400.€€TheÐ W Ðmajor€population€centres€are€Dublin,€Cork,€Galway,€Limerick,€and€Waterford.€Ð ŒF ÐAn€examination€of€the€census€records€trends€similar€to€those€in€other€EuropeanÐ {5 Ðcountries,€e.g.€high€life€expectancy,€low€death€rate,€low€infant€and€maternalÐ j$ Ðmortality€(see€Annex€1).€€The€census€also€reveals€a€high€dependency€ratio€asÐ Y  Ðcan€be€seen€in€the€large€percentage€of€the€population€which€is€under€15€andÐ H! Ðover€65.€€In€1990,€57percent€of€the€population€lived€in€urban€areas.€Ð 7"ñ ÐApproximately€79percent€of€all€homes€are€owner€occupied,€a€high€figure€byÐ &#à  Ðinternational€standards.€€Information€on€economic€indicators€is€provided€inÐ $Ï! Ðannex€II.€Ð %¾" ÐÌ3.à » àThe€majority€of€Irish€people€belong€to€Christian€religious€denominations.€Ð â&œ!$ ÐThe€1981€census€showed€that€93percent€of€the€population€were€Roman€CatholicÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðand€3.4percent€belonged€to€various€Protestant€denominations.€€The€remainderÐ À(z#& Ðbelonged€either€to€smaller€religious€groups,€or€had€no€specific€religiousÐ ¯)i$' Ðbeliefs.Ð ž*X%( ÐÌà@JJ)–àB.€€òòThe€Irish€languageóóˆÐ |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ Ð4.à » àThe€two€official€languages€are€Irish,€which€is€the€national€language,€andÐ F ÐEnglish.€€Irish€is€a€Celtic€language,€closely€related€to€Scottish€Gaelic,Ð 5ï ÐWelsh€and€Breton.€€The€1986€census€showed€that€30percent€claimed€to€have€anÐ $Þ Ðadequate€command€of€the€language.€€Irish€is€spoken€as€the€first€language€inÐ Í Ðareas€known€as€the€Gaeltacht,€situated€mainly€along€the€western€seaboard€andÐ  ¼ Ðin€isolated€pockets€in€other€parts€of€the€country.€€Ð ñ « ÐÌ5.à » àA€Minister€is€in€charge€of€a€separate€Government€Department€withÐ Ï ‰ Ðresponsibility€for€the€economic,€social€and€cultural€development€of€theÐ ¾ x ÐGaeltacht€(i.e.€Irish„speaking)€areas€and€for€promoting€the€use€of€the€IrishÐ ­ g  Ðlanguage€throughout€the€country.€€The€Minister€has€two€statutory€bodies€underÐ œV  Ðhis€aegis.€€Udars€na€Gaeltachta€(the€Gaeltacht€Authority)€is€primarilyÐ ‹E  Ðconcerned€with€the€promotion€of€industrial€development€in€Gaeltacht€areas€andÐ z4  ÐBord€na€Gaeilge€(the€Irish€Language€Board)€promotes€the€use€of€IrishÐ i#  Ðthroughout€the€country.Ð X  ÐÌà@&–àC.€€òòRecent€political€historyóóˆÐ 6ð ÐÌ6.à » àIreland€has€been€inhabited€for€approximately€9,000€years€and€its€historyÐ Î Ðis€marked€by€successive€movements€of€peoples€from€continental€Europe€includingÐ ½ Ðthe€Celts,€the€Vikings,€Normans€and€English.€€In€l92l,€after€a€War€ofÐ ò¬ ÐIndependence€a€treaty€was€signed€with€Britain:€€the€Irish€Free€StateÐ á› Ð(26counties)€gained€independence€from€Britain€while€Northern€IrelandРЊ Ð(6counties)€remained€in€the€United€Kingdom.€€The€adoption€of€the€ConstitutionÐ ¿y Ðof€Ireland€in€1937€and€the€Republic€of€Ireland€Act,€1948,€severed€Ireland'sÐ ®h Ðlast€formal€links€with€Britain.€€Ireland€remained€neutral€during€theÐ W ÐSecondWorld€War€and€does€not€belong€to€any€military€alliance.€€Ireland€becameÐ ŒF Ða€member€of€the€United€Nations€in€1955€and€joined€the€European€CommunityÐ {5 ÐÓ33Óin1973.Ð j$ ÐÌà@ˆˆ%–àD.€€òòThe€Constitution€of€IrelandóóˆÐ ú ´ ÐÌÓ33Ó7.à » àThe€basic€law€of€the€State€is€the€Constitution€of€Ireland€adopted€byÐ Š"D  Ðreferendum€in€1937.€€It€is€the€successor€of€the€1919€Constitution€of€DailÐ y#3! ÐEireann€(the€House€of€Representatives)€and€of€the€1922€Constitution€of€theÐ h$"" ÐIrish€Free€State.€€The€Constitution€states€that€all€legislative,€executive€andÐ W% # Ðjudicial€powers€of€Government€derive€from€the€people.€€It€sets€out€the€form€ofÐ F&!$ ÐGovernment€and€defines€the€powers€of€the€President€of€Ireland,€the€ParliamentÐ 5'ï!% Ð(in€the€Irish€language,€Oireachtas)€and€of€the€Government.€€It€also€definesÐ $(Þ"& Ðthe€structure€and€powers€of€the€Courts,€sets€out€fundamental€rights€ofÐ )Í#' Ðcitizens€and€contains€a€number€of€directive€principles€of€social€policy€forÐ *¼$( Ðthe€general€guidance€of€the€Oireachtas.€€The€Constitution€outlines€what€areÐ ñ*«%) Ðconsidered€the€fundamental€rights€of€the€citizen.€€The€definition€of€rightsÐ à+š&* Ðcovers€five€broad€headings:€€Personal€Rights,€The€Family,€Education,€PrivateÐ Ï,‰'+ ÐProperty€and€Religion.€€See€Part€II€General€Legal€Framework,€for€furtherÐ F ÐÓ33Ódetails.Ð 5ï ÐÌà@ÚÚ-–àE.€€òòGovernmentóóˆÐ Å ÐÌÓ33Ó8.à » àIreland€is€a€sovereign,€independent€parliamentary€democracy.€€The€nationalÐ U  ÐParliament€(Oireachtas)€consists€of€the€President€and€two€Houses:€€a€House€ofÐ D þ ÐRepresentatives€(Dail€Eireann)€and€a€Senate€(Seanad€Eireann).€€The€functionsÐ 3 í Ðand€powers€of€the€President,€Dail€and€Seanad€derive€from€the€Constitution€ofÐ " Ü ÐIreland€and€law.€€All€laws€passed€by€the€Oireachtas€must€conform€to€theÐ  Ë  ÐConstitution.Ð º  ÐÌ9.à » àUnder€the€Constitution,€the€sole€power€of€making€laws€is€vested€in€theÐ Þ˜  ÐOireachtas.€€The€only€exception€is€in€the€area€of€European€Community€law€whereР͇  Ðcertain€measures€taken€by€the€European€Communities€have€direct€application€inÐ ¼v  ÐIreland.€€This€exception€necessitated€an€amendment€to€the€Constitution€in€1972Ð «e  Ðwhich€was€approved€by€a€referendum.€€A€further€referendum€in€1987€approved€anÐ šT Ðadditional€amendment€to€the€Constitution€which€enabled€the€State€to€ratifyÐ ‰C Ðamendments€to€the€European€Community€treaties€set€out€in€the€Single€EuropeanÐ x2 ÐAct,€which€extended€the€scope€of€measures€by€the€European€Community€which€haveÐ g! Ðdirect€application€in€Ireland.Ð V ÐÌÓH.++™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!++»™ ‹7HÓ10.à  àThe€President€is€Head€of€State;€the€office€does€not€have€executiveÐ 4î Ðfunctions.€€The€President€must€generally€act€on€the€advice€and€authority€ofÐ #Ý Ðthe€Government.€€On€the€nomination€of€Dail€Eireann€the€President€appoints€theÐ Ì ÐTaoiseach€(Prime€Minister)€and,€on€the€advice€of€the€Taoiseach€and€with€theÐ » Ðprior€approval€of€Dail€Eireann,€the€President€appoints€members€of€theÐ ðª ÐGovernment.€€Government€policy€and€administration€may€be€examined€andÐ ß™ Ðcriticized€in€both€Houses,€but€under€the€Constitution€the€Government€isРΈ Ðresponsible€to€the€Dail€alone.€Ð ½w ÐÌà@0 0 –àF.€€òòDail€Eireannóó€(òòHouse€of€Representativesóó)ˆÐ ›!U ÐÌ11.à  àDail€Eireann€has€166€members€called€Teachtai€Dala€(TDs).€€Members€areÐ y#3! Ðreturned€by€the€41€constituencies€into€which€the€country€is€at€present€dividedÐ h$"" Ðand€no€constituency€may€return€less€than€three€members.€€The€total€number€ofÐ W% # Ðmembers€of€the€Dail€may€not€be€fixed€at€less€than€one€member€for€eachÐ F&!$ Ð30,000of€the€population€or€more€than€one€member€for€each€20,000€of€theÐ 5'ï!% Ðpopulation.€Ð $(Þ"& ÐÌà@PP'–àG.€€òòSeanad€Eireannóó€(òòSenateóó)ˆÐ *¼$( ÐÌ12.à  àSeanad€Eireann€has€60€members.€€Eleven€are€nominated€directly€to€theÐ à+š&* ÐHouse€by€the€Taoiseach€(Prime€Minister).€€Forty„three€are€elected€by€membersÐ Ï,‰'+ Ðof€Dail€Eireann,€by€outgoing€members€of€the€Seanad,€by€county€and€boroughÐ F ÐCouncil€members,€from€five€panels€of€candidates€„€the€Cultural€and€EducationalÐ 5ï ÐPanel,€the€Agricultural€Panel,€the€Labour€Panel,€the€Industrial€and€CommercialÐ $Þ ÐPanel€and€the€Administrative€Panel.€€Each€panel€contains€the€names€of€personsÐ Í Ðwith€knowledge€and€practical€experience€of€the€interests€represented€by€theÐ  ¼ Ðpanel.€€The€remaining€six€are€elected€by€the€graduates€of€universities€„€threeÐ ñ « Ðby€the€National€University€of€Ireland€and€three€by€the€University€of€Dublin.€Ð à š ÐÌ13.à  àThe€powers€of€the€Seanad,€as€defined€by€the€Constitution€are,€in€general,Ð ¾ x Ðless€than€those€of€the€Dail.€€It€has€complementary€powers€with€the€Dail€inÐ ­ g  Ðbroad€areas€such€as€the€removal€from€office€of€a€President€or€a€judge;€theÐ œV  Ðdeclaration€and€termination€of€a€state€of€emergency;€the€initiation€of€BillsÐ ‹E  Ðother€than€Money€Bills;€and€the€annulment€of€statutory€instruments.€€It€has€noÐ z4  Ðpowers€in€relation€to€financial€matters.€Ð i#  ÐÌà@&–àH.€€òòParliamentary€CommitteesóóˆÐ G ÐÌ14.à  àThere€is€a€system€of€Parliamentary€Committees€in€operation€within€theÐ %ß ÐOireachtas.€€Under€standing€orders€four€committees€must€be€appointed,€onÐ Î ÐSelection,€on€Public€Accounts,€on€Procedure€and€Privileges€and€onÐ ½ ÐConsolidation€Bills.€€Other€committees€may€be€established€by€a€resolution€ofÐ ò¬ Ðthe€Dail.€€To€enable€them€to€report€and€make€recommendations€to€Parliament,Ð á› Ðthey€are€empowered€to€request€official€papers€and€to€hear€evidence€fromРЊ Ðindividuals.€€Their€findings€are€not€binding.€€The€reports€of€the€CommitteesÐ ¿y Ðare€laid€before€the€Oireachtas€which€decides€what€action,€if€any,€is€Ð ®h Ðnecessary.€€It€is€a€matter€for€the€Oireachtas€to€decide€upon€the€number€andÐ W Ðrange€of€Committees€which€should€be€established,€together€with€their€terms€ofÐ ŒF Ðreference.Ð {5 ÐÌà@®®*–àI.€€òòElectoral€SystemóóˆÐ Y  ÐÌ15.à  àIn€Ireland,€citizens€have€the€opportunity€to€take€part€in€the€politicalÐ 7"ñ Ðprocess€by€casting€a€vote€in€five€decision„making€procedures:Ð &#à  ÐÌÓH.++ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!++™ ‹7HÓà0  à(a)à  àthe€election€of€the€President€every€seven€years;€Ð%¾"$$ ÐÌà0  à(b)à  àreferenda€on€proposed€constitutional€amendments;€Ðâ&œ!$$$ ÐÌà0  à(c)à  àelections€to€local€authorities,€usually€every€five€years;€ÐÀ(z#&$$ ÐÌà  à(d)à  àparliamentary€elections,€which€occur€under€present€legislation€atÐ ž*X%( Ðleast€every€five€years;€Ð +G&) Ðà0  àÐ $$ Ðà  à(e)à0  àelections€to€the€European€Parliament,€every€five€years.€Ðk-%(+ $ $ ЇThe€electoral€system€in€Elections€to€the€Dail€is€proportional€representationÐ F Ðby€means€of€the€single€transferable€vote€in€multimember€constituencies.€€It€isÐ 5ï Ðalso€used€for€the€election€of€49€of€the€60€members€of€the€Seanad,€members€ofÐ $Þ Ðthe€Local€Authorities€and€of€the€President.€Ð Í ÐÌà@||*–àJ.€€òòThe€Civil€ServiceóóˆÐ ñ « ÐÌ16.à  àThe€legal€basis€for€the€present€Irish€system€of€public€administration€isÐ Ï ‰ Ðcontained€in€the€Ministers€and€Secretaries€Act€of€1924.€€This€Act,€and€itsÐ ¾ x Ðsubsequent€amendments,€provide€a€statutory€classification€of€the€functions€ofÐ ­ g  ÐGovernment€under€the€various€Departments€of€State.€€Ministers€are€responsibleÐ œV  Ðfor€all€the€actions€of€their€Departments.€€€However,€the€day„to„dayÐ ‹E  Ðadministration€of€a€Department's€functions€is€overseen€by€its€Secretary,€whoÐ z4  Ðis€a€civil€servant.€Ð i#  ÐÌ17.à  àThe€Civil€Service€is€independent€in€the€performance€of€its€functions€andÐ G Ðcivil€servants€are€precluded€from€involvement€in€party€political€activity.€Ð 6ð ÐRecruitment€to€the€Civil€Service€is€by€open€public€competition€administered€byÐ %ß Ðan€independent€State€commission.€€The€Civil€Service€comprises€a€number€ofÐ Î Ðgrades€with€different€functions.€€The€principal€grade€categories€are:€Ð ½ Ðadministrative,€responsible€for€policy€formulation;€technical€and€scientific,Ð ò¬ Ðproviding€specialist€advice€within€the€Civil€Service;€executive,€involved€inÐ á› Ðthe€implementation€of€policy;€and€clerical,€responsible€for€general€duties.€Ð Њ ÐAt€present€there€are€approximately€27,000€people€employed€in€the€CivilÐ ¿y ÐService.€€€€€Ð ®h ÐÌà@®®*–àK.€€òòLocal€GovernmentóóˆÐ ŒF ÐÌ18.à  àLocal€government€is€administered€by€113€local€authorities€funded€partlyÐ j$ Ðby€State€grants€and€partly€by€local€taxes€on€non„residential€property.€€LocalÐ Y  Ðgovernment€has€responsibility€for€public€housing,€water€and€sanitation,€roadÐ H! Ðmaintenance,€vocational€education€and€certain€other€services.€€Health€servicesÐ 7"ñ Ðare€provided€by€eight€Health€Boards€organized€on€a€regional€basis€and€fundedÐ &#à  Ðby€the€Department€of€Health.€€Other€aspects€of€administration€operated€on€aÐ $Ï! Ðregional€basis€include€tourism€promotion,€industrial€development€and€fisheryÐ %¾" Ðconservation.Ð ó%­ # ÐÐ  â&œ!$ Ðà@NN–àII.€€GENERAL€LEGAL€FRAMEWORK€WITHIN€WHICH€HUMAN€RIGHTS€ARE€PROTECTEDˆÐ F ÐÌà@ˆˆ%–àA.€€òòThe€Constitution€of€IrelandóóˆÐ $Þ ÐÌ19.à  àIreland's€basic€law€is€contained€in€the€Constitution€of€Ireland,€enactedÐ  ¼ Ðby€plebiscite€in€1937.€€Relevant€Articles€of€the€Constitution€are€set€out€inÐ ñ « Ðthis€report€as€occasion€requires.€€The€Constitution€sets€out€the€essentialÐ à š Ðrules€governing€the€most€important€institutions€of€State,€the€President€andÐ Ï ‰ Ðthe€two€houses€of€the€Oireachtas€(Parliament),€the€Government€and€theÐ ¾ x ÐJudiciary,€and€the€relationship€between€these€institutions.€€It€also€containsÐ ­ g  Ða€comprehensive€code€for€the€protection€of€human€rights,€which€is€dealt€withÐ œV  Ðin€more€detail€in€paragraphs€34„41€below.€Ð ‹E  ÐÌ20.à  àThe€Constitution€of€Ireland€can€be€amended€only€following€the€passage€ofÐ i#  Ða€Bill€to€amend€the€Constitution€by€a€simple€majority€of€both€Houses€of€theÐ X  ÐOireachtas€and€the€subsequent€approval€of€the€proposal€by€a€majority€of€thoseÐ G Ðvoting€in€a€referendum.€€Accordingly,€the€process€of€Constitutional€amendmentÐ 6ð Ðis€a€difficult€one€and€the€Constitution€has€been€amended€on€onlyÐ %ß Ðeightoccasions€since€1941.€€On€only€one€occasion€did€an€amendment€to€theÐ Î ÐConstitution€affect€in€a€fundamental€way€the€provisions€concerning€humanÐ ½ Ðrights.€€That€was€the€insertion€in€1983€of€a€provision€intended€to€protect€theÐ ò¬ Ðright€to€life€of€the€unborn.€€The€Constitution€cannot,€therefore,€be€amendedÐ á› Ðby€ordinary€legislation,€and€legislation€which€conflicts€with€the€ConstitutionРЊ Ðis€invalid€to€the€extent€of€such€inconsistency.€€The€Courts€are€empowered€toÐ ¿y Ðdeal€with€the€issue€of€constitutionality€of€law€and€legislation.€€JudicialÐ ®h Ðreview€of€ordinary€law€on€grounds€of€alleged€unconstitutionality€is€dealt€withÐ W Ðfurther€in€paragraphs€43„55€below.€Ð ŒF ÐÌà@vv,–àB.€€òòCourt€systemóóˆÐ j$ ÐÌ21.à  àAt€this€point,€it€may€be€convenient€to€give€a€brief€description€of€theÐ H! Ðsystem€of€courts€in€Ireland€and€the€place€of€the€judiciary€in€the€IrishÐ 7"ñ Ðconstitutional€framework.€€The€basic€structure€of€courts€in€Ireland€hasÐ &#à  Ðfourlevels,€the€District€Court,€the€Circuit€Court,€the€High€Court€and€theÐ $Ï! ÐSupreme€Court.€€There€is€also€a€Court€of€Criminal€Appeal.€€A€Special€CriminalÐ %¾" ÐCourt€deals€with€terrorist€offences.€€The€District€and€Circuit€Courts€areÐ ó%­ # Ðcourts€of€local€and€limited€jurisdiction€established€by€statute€law.€€The€HighÐ â&œ!$ ÐCourt€is,€by€virtue€of€Article€34.3.1€of€the€Constitution€of€Ireland,€investedÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðwith€full€original€jurisdiction€in€and€power€to€determine€all€matters€andÐ À(z#& Ðquestions€whether€of€law€or€fact,€civil€or€criminal.€€The€Supreme€Court€is€theÐ ¯)i$' Ðcourt€of€final€appeal€and€is€established€pursuant€to€Articles€34.2€and€34.4.1Ð ž*X%( Ðof€the€Constitution.€€A€more€detailed€description€of€their€workings€andÐ +G&) Ðjurisdiction€is€as€follows:Ð |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ Ðà@JJ)–à1.€€òòThe€District€CourtóóˆÐ F ÐÌ22.à  àIreland€is€divided€into€24€Districts€each€of€which€has€its€own€DistrictÐ $Þ ÐCourt€which€sits€in€different€venues€in€the€district.€€The€Court€hasÐ Í Ðjurisdiction€in€civil€claims€up€to€a€value€of€ð ðIr5,000.€€It€can€dealÐ  ¼ Ðsummarily€with€minor€criminal€offences.€€It€cannot€impose€a€penalty€of€moreÐ ñ « Ðthan€12months'€imprisonment€for€any€1offence,€or€consecutive€sentencesÐ à š Ðtotalling€more€than€2years,€and€the€maximum€fine€that€can€be€imposed€for€theÐ Ï ‰ Ðoffences€triable€in€the€District€Court€generally€does€not€exceed€ð ð1,000.€€AnÐ ¾ x Ðappeal€by€way€of€rehearing€lies€in€all€cases€to€the€Circuit€Court.€€TheÐ ­ g  ÐDistrict€Court€can,€and€in€certain€cases€must,€seek€an€opinion€from€the€HighÐ œV  ÐCourt€on€points€of€law€which€arise€in€the€course€of€hearings.€€This€is€knownÐ ‹E  Ðas€"stating€a€case".€€The€High€Court€will€rule€on€the€point€of€law€and€remitÐ z4  Ðthe€case€to€the€District€Court€to€decide€based€on€that€ruling.€€The€DistrictÐ i#  ÐCourt€also€has€an€extensive€licensing€jurisdiction.€Ð X  ÐÌà@||*–à2.€€òòThe€Circuit€CourtóóˆÐ 6ð ÐÌ23.à  àIreland€is€divided€into€eightareas,€in€each€of€which€the€Circuit€CourtÐ Î Ðsits€in€a€number€of€different€venues.€€The€Court€has€the€appellateÐ ½ Ðjurisdiction€already€described.€€When€an€appeal€is€heard€the€Circuit€CourtÐ ò¬ ÐJudge€sits€without€a€jury.€€Its€decision€on€appeals€from€the€District€Court€isÐ á› Ðfinal.€€The€Circuit€Court€has€an€original€jurisdiction€in€civil€matters€up€toРЊ Ða€maximum€claim€of€ð ð30,000.€€It€also€sits€with€a€jury€to€try€all€indictableÐ ¿y Ðcrime€except€trials€for€treason,€murder,€manslaughter,€rape€and€certain€otherÐ ®h Ðserious€sexual€offences.€€An€appeal€by€way€of€rehearing€lies€in€civil€cases€toÐ W Ðthe€High€Court.€€An€appeal€in€criminal€cases€lies€to€the€Court€of€CriminalÐ ŒF ÐAppeal.€€The€Circuit€Court€may€also€"state€a€case"€to€the€Supreme€Court.€Ð {5 ÐÌà@+–à3.€€òòThe€High€CourtóóˆÐ Y  ÐÌ24.à  àIt€has€the€appellate€functions€from€the€Circuit€Court€and€(by€way€of€caseÐ 7"ñ Ðstated)€from€the€District€Court€already€described.€€Its€decisions€on€appealÐ &#à  Ðare€final.€€The€High€Court€has,€as€already€stated,€a€full€originalÐ $Ï! Ðjurisdiction€in€all€civil€and€criminal€matters.€€When€the€High€Court€sits€withÐ %¾" Ða€jury€to€try€crimes€it€is€known€as€the€òòCentral€Criminal€Courtóó.€€Treason,Ð ó%­ # Ðmurder,€manslaughter,€rape€and€certain€other€serious€sexual€offences€must€beÐ â&œ!$ Ðtried€there.€€An€appeal€lies€from€the€High€Court€in€civil€matters€to€theÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐSupreme€Court€and€in€criminal€cases€to€the€Court€of€Criminal€Appeal.€€The€HighÐ À(z#& ÐCourt€is€the€only€court€with€original€jurisdiction€to€deal€with€a€claim€that€aÐ ¯)i$' Ðlaw€enacted€after€1937€is€invalid€having€regard€to€the€provisions€of€theÐ ž*X%( ÐConstitution.€Ð +G&) ÐÌà@VV$–à4.€€òòThe€Court€of€Criminal€AppealóóˆÐ k-%(+ Ї25.à  àThis€consists€of€three€judges€of€the€Supreme€and€High€Courts.€€It€canÐ F Ðhear€appeals€from€all€cases€of€indictable€crime€dealt€with€in€the€Circuit€andÐ 5ï ÐCentral€Criminal€Courts.€€It€does€so€on€the€basis€of€a€transcript€from€theÐ $Þ Ðlower€court.€€It€can€vary€the€sentence€of€the€lower€court,€and€set€aside€aÐ Í Ðverdict€and€if€necessary€order€a€retrial.€€An€appeal€lies€from€its€decisionsÐ  ¼ Ðto€the€Supreme€Court€where€it€or€the€Attorney€General€certifies€that€theÐ ñ « Ðdecision€involves€a€point€of€law€of€exceptional€public€importance€and€that€itÐ à š Ðis€desirable€in€the€public€interest€that€such€an€appeal€should€be€taken€(TheÐ Ï ‰ ÐCourts€of€Justice€Act,€1924,€section€29).Ð ¾ x ÐÌà@||*–à5.€€òòThe€Supreme€CourtóóˆÐ œV  ÐÌ26.à  àIt€has€the€appellate€jurisdictions€already€described.€€It€has€no€originalÐ z4  Ðjurisdiction€except€in€cases€where€pursuant€to€Article€26€of€the€Constitution,Ð i#  Ða€Bill€is€referred€to€it€by€the€President€prior€to€signing€it€for€a€decisionÐ X  Ðon€its€constitutionality.€Ð G ÐÌ27.à  àIn€addition€to€the€structure€of€courts€described€in€the€precedingÐ %ß Ðparagraphs,€provision€for€the€establishment€of€special€criminal€courts€is€madeÐ Î Ðin€Article€38.3.1€of€the€Constitution€which€states€that€"Special€Courts€may€beÐ ½ Ðestablished€by€law€for€the€trial€of€offences€in€cases€where€it€may€beÐ ò¬ Ðdetermined€in€accordance€with€such€law€that€the€ordinary€courts€are€inadequateÐ á› Ðto€secure€the€effective€administration€of€justice,€and€the€preservation€ofРЊ Ðpublic€peace€and€order."€€Accordingly€Part€V€of€the€Offences€Against€the€StateÐ ¿y ÐAct,€1939€authorizes€the€establishment€of€Special€Criminal€Courts€following€aÐ ®h Ðproclamation€by€the€Government,€in€the€terms€required€by€the€ConstitutionÐ W Ð"that€the€ordinary€courts€are€inadequate€to€secure€the€administration€ofÐ ŒF Ðjustice€and€the€preservation€of€public€peace€and€order"€and€ordering€thatÐ {5 ÐPartV€of€the€Act€is€to€be€in€force.€€Arising€out€of€the€crisis€inÐ j$ ÐNorthernIreland€and€the€incidence€of€violent€terrorism,€a€proclamation€wasÐ Y  Ðmade€on€26€May€1972,€which€is€still€in€force,€authorizing€the€establishment€ofÐ H! Ða€Special€Criminal€Court.€€The€Special€Criminal€Court€is€empowered€to€tryÐ 7"ñ Ðcharges€where€it€is€considered€that€the€ordinary€criminal€courts€areÐ &#à  Ðinadequate€to€secure€the€effective€administration€of€justice€and€theÐ $Ï! Ðpreservation€of€public€peace€and€order.€€The€Court€established€since€1972€hasÐ %¾" Ðalways€sat€as€a€Court€of€three€serving€or€former€judges,€one€from€each€of€theÐ ó%­ # ÐHigh,€Circuit€and€District€Courts,€sitting€without€a€jury.€€The€Court€can€actÐ â&œ!$ Ðby€majority€decision€but€only€one€decision€is€pronounced.€€There€is€a€fullÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðright€of€appeal€to€the€Court€of€Criminal€Appeal.€Ð À(z#& ÐÌ28.à  àThe€judges€in€Ireland€are€independent€both€of€the€executive€and€theÐ ž*X%( Ðlegislature€and€this€independence€is€jealously€guarded€by€them€and€given€fullÐ +G&) Ðprotection€by€the€Constitution.€€They€are€appointed€by€the€President€acting€onÐ |,6'* Ðthe€advice€of€the€Government€(Articles€35.1€and€13.11€of€the€Constitution).€Ð k-%(+ ÐArticle€35.2€provides€that€all€judges€shall€be€independent€in€the€exercise€ofÐ F Ðtheir€functions€and€subject€only€to€the€Constitution€and€the€law.€€They€mayÐ 5ï Ðnot€be€members€of€the€Oireachtas€(Parliament)€or€hold€any€other€office€orÐ $Þ Ðposition€of€emolument€(Article€35.3).€€They€may€not€be€removed€from€officeÐ Í Ðexcept€for€stated€misbehaviour€or€incapacity€and€then€only€upon€resolutionsÐ  ¼ Ðpassed€by€both€Houses€of€the€Oireachtas€calling€for€their€removalÐ ñ « Ð(Article35.4).€€This€power€has€never€had€to€be€exercised.€€Their€remunerationÐ à š Ðmay€not€be€reduced€during€their€continuation€in€office€(Article35.5).€€JudgesÐ Ï ‰ Ðin€Ireland€retire€at€the€age€of€72,€except€for€District€Judges€who€retireÐ ¾ x Ðat65,€subject€to€a€power€to€extend€their€terms€of€office€to€age€70€conferredÐ ­ g  Ðon€a€committee€consisting€of€the€Chief€Justice,€the€President€of€the€HighÐ œV  ÐCourt€and€the€Attorney€General.€€With€the€exception€of€the€power€of€theÐ ‹E  ÐOireachtas€to€remove€a€judge,€questions€of€discipline€in€relation€to€judgesÐ z4  Ðare€regulated€by€the€judiciary€itself.€Ð i#  ÐÌà@HH–àC.€€òòInternational€human€rights€law€in€the€Irish€legal€frameworkóóˆÐ G ÐÌ29.à  àArticle€29.3€of€the€Constitution€states€that€"Ireland€accepts€theÐ %ß Ðgenerally€recognized€principles€of€international€law€as€its€rule€of€conduct€inÐ Î Ðits€relations€with€other€States".€€Ireland's€legal€system,€inherited€from€theÐ ½ Ðperiod€of€British€rule€in€Ireland,€is€a€system€of€common€law.€€Like€otherÐ ò¬ Ðcommon-law€countries,€Ireland€has€a€"dualist"€system€under€which€internationalÐ á› Ðagreements€to€which€Ireland€becomes€a€party€are€not€automatically€incorporatedРЊ Ðinto€domestic€law.€€Article€29.6€of€the€Constitution€of€Ireland€provides€thatÐ ¿y Ð"No€international€agreement€shall€be€part€of€the€domestic€law€of€the€StateÐ ®h Ðsave€as€may€be€determined€by€the€Oireachtas."€€This€provision€has€beenÐ W Ðinterpreted€as€precluding€the€Irish€courts€from€giving€effect€to€anÐ ŒF Ðinternational€agreement,€such€as€the€European€Convention€on€Human€Rights,Ð {5 Ðifit€is€contrary€to€domestic€law€or€grants€rights€or€imposes€obligationsÐ j$ Ðadditional€to€those€of€domestic€law€(òòIn€re€O€Laighleisóó€[1960]€I.R.*€93,Ð Y  ÐòòNorris€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1984]€I.R.€36).Ð H! ÐÌ30.à  àWhere€Ireland€wishes€to€adhere€to€an€international€agreement€it€must,Ð &#à  Ðtherefore,€ensure€that€its€domestic€law€is€in€conformity€with€the€agreement€inÐ $Ï! Ðquestion.€€In€some€cases€the€entire€contents€of€an€international€agreement€areÐ %¾" Ðtransposed€into€domestic€law€by€providing€that€the€agreement€shall€have€theÐ ó%­ # Ðforce€of€law€within€the€State.€€An€example€is€the€Diplomatic€Relations€andÐ â&œ!$ ÐImmunities€Act,€1967,€which€provides€that€the€provisions€of€the€ViennaÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐConventions€on€Diplomatic€Relations€and€on€Consular€Relations€have€the€forceÐ À(z#& Ðof€law€in€Ireland.€€In€other€cases€it€is€necessary€to€transpose€only€certainÐ ¯)i$' Ðprovisions€of€an€agreement€because€other€provisions€are€either€alreadyÐ ž*X%( Ðincorporated€in€domestic€law€or€are€of€a€nature€not€requiring€incorporation.€Ð +G&) ÐSometimes€it€may€be€that€for€the€same€reason€no€transposition€provisions€areÐ |,6'* Ðrequired€at€all.€Ð k-%(+ Ї31.à  àThese€principles€apply€also€to€human€rights€agreements€such€as€theÐ F ÐUnitedNations€Covenants€or€the€European€Human€Rights€Convention.€€Here,Ð 5ï Ðhowever,€further€considerations€arise€which€make€the€direct€incorporation€ofÐ $Þ Ðsuch€agreements€into€domestic€law€difficult€to€achieve.€€The€provisions€of€theÐ Í ÐInternational€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights€are,€for€the€most€part,Ð  ¼ Ðof€a€type€which€one€would€expect€to€find€already€covered€by€the€human€rightsÐ ñ « Ðprovisions€of€a€Constitution€or€a€Bill€of€Rights,€and€such€similar€provisionsÐ à š Ðare€indeed€contained€in€the€Constitution€of€Ireland.€€It€would€generally€beÐ Ï ‰ Ðinappropriate€to€make€provision€for€fundamental€rights€by€way€of€ordinaryÐ ¾ x Ðlegislation€which€would€be€inferior€and€subject€to€existing€constitutionalÐ ­ g  Ðprovisions.€€Where€existing€constitutional€guarantees€already€cover€aÐ œV  Ðparticular€area€it€would€be€inappropriate€to€amend€a€constitution€to€insert€aÐ ‹E  Ðsecond,€or€even€a€third,€parallel€provision.€€The€remedy€of€substituting€theÐ z4  Ðprovisions€of€the€Covenant€for€the€existing€constitutional€provision€would€beÐ i#  Ðundesirable€because€it€would€involve€jettisoning€the€jurisprudence€built€upÐ X  Ðaround€the€existing€provision.€€Finally,€while€it€might€appear€that€to€haveÐ G Ðconstitutional€provisions€in€the€precise€terminology€of€the€Covenant€would€beÐ 6ð Ðlegally€advantageous,€any€advantage€could€be€more€apparent€than€real€unlessÐ %ß Ðthe€domestic€tribunal€were€to€take€the€same€view€of€its€interpretation€as€theÐ Î ÐHuman€Rights€Committee.€€The€solution€of€direct€incorporation€of€the€CovenantÐ ½ Ðinto€Irish€law€has€not,€therefore,€been€adopted.€Ð ò¬ ÐÌ32.à  àIn€the€case€of€Ireland,€when€a€decision€was€made€some€years€ago€to€accedeРЊ Ðto€the€International€Covenant,€a€Committee€under€the€chairmanship€of€theÐ ¿y ÐAttorney€General€was€charged€with€examining€Ireland's€domestic€law€in€theÐ ®h Ðlight€of€the€Covenant€to€identify€any€possible€areas€in€which€a€conflictÐ W Ðbetween€the€two€might€arise.€€As€a€result€of€this€examination€a€number€ofÐ ŒF Ðamendments€to€domestic€law€were€identified,€notably€the€final€abolition€of€theÐ {5 Ðdeath€penalty€(which€disposed€of€a€possible€conflict€between€Irish€law€before€Ð j$ ЀÌòò€€€€€€€€€óóÐ H! ÐÌà  à*€€The€reference€"I.R."€in€the€text€refers€to€the€catalogue€of€legalÐ &#à  Ðcases€known€as€"Irish€Reports".Ð $Ï! Ðabolition€and€Article€6.5€of€the€Covenant)€and€the€introduction€of€a€new€lawÐ %¾" Ðon€incitement€to€hatred€(The€Prohibition€of€Incitement€to€Hatred€Act,€1989),Ð ó%­ # Ðwhich€was€necessary€to€ensure€compliance€with€Article€20.2.€€In€certain€otherÐ â&œ!$ Ðareas€reservations€to€the€Covenant€were€identified€as€necessary.€€In€otherÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðareas€it€was€considered€that€the€existing€Irish€domestic€law€„€which€is,€inÐ À(z#& Ðthe€context€of€rights€referred€to€in€the€Covenant,€generally€contained€in€theÐ ¯)i$' ÐConstitution€„€was€in€conformity€with€the€Covenant.€€These€areas€are€coveredÐ ž*X%( Ðin€detail€in€the€initial€report€of€Ireland€(CCPR/C/68/Add.3)€submitted€underÐ +G&) Ðarticle40€of€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.Ð |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ Ð33.à  àIt€follows€from€the€"dualist"€nature€of€Ireland's€legal€system€that€theÐ F Ðprovisions€of€the€Covenant€cannot€be€invoked€before€and€directly€enforced€byÐ 5ï Ðthe€Courts,€and€that€it€is€necessary€to€examine€the€extent€to€which€Irish€lawÐ $Þ Ðitself€correctly€reflects€the€obligations€of€the€International€Covenant€onÐ Í ÐCivil€and€Political€Rights.€Ð  ¼ ÐÌà@” ” –àD.€€òòFundamental€human€rights€in€Irish€lawóóˆÐ à š ÐÌ34.à  àA€large€number€of€rights€are€specifically€provided€for€in€theÐ ¾ x ÐConstitution€of€Ireland.€€They€are€principally,€although€not€exclusively,€toÐ ­ g  Ðbe€found€in€the€Chapter€headed€"Fundamental€Rights"€which€comprisesÐ œV  ÐArticles40„44.€€These€include€the€following€rights:Ð ‹E  ÐÌà  à(a)à0  àEquality€before€the€law€(Article€40.1);Ði#  $ $ ÐÌà  à(b)à0  àThe€right€to€life€(Article€40.3.2€and€3);ÐG $ $ ÐÌà  à(c)à0  àThe€right€to€protection€of€one's€person€(Article€40.3.2);Ð%ß $ $ ÐÌà  à(d)à0  àThe€right€to€one's€good€name€(Article€40.3.2);н $ $ ÐÌà  à(e)à  àProperty€rights,€including€the€right€to€own,€transfer,€bequeath€andÐ á› Ðinherit€property€(Article€40.3.2€in€conjunction€with€Article€43);РЊ ÐÌ€€à  à(f)à  àPersonal€liberty€(Article€40.4);Ð ®h ÐÌà  à(g)à  àThe€inviolability€of€the€dwelling€(Article€40.5);Ð ŒF ÐÌà0  à(h)à0 $$àFreedom€of€expression€(Article€40.6.1€€i.);Ðj$ $ $ ÐÌà0  à(i)à0 $$àFreedom€of€assembly€(Article€40.6.1€€ii);ÐH! $ $ ÐÌà0  à(j)à0 $$àFreedom€of€association€(Article€40.6.1€€iii);Ð&#à  $ $ ÐÌà0  à(k)à0 $$àFamily€rights€(Article€41);Ð%¾" $ $ ÐÌà  à(l)à  àThe€right€of€parents€to€provide€for€children's€educationÐ â&œ!$ Ð(Article42.1);Ð Ñ'‹"% ÐÌà  à(m)à  àThe€right€of€children€to€receive€a€certain€minimum€education€€Ð ¯)i$' Ð(Article€42);Ð ž*X%( ÐÌà  à(n)à  àFreedom€of€conscience€and€the€free€profession€and€practice€ofÐ |,6'* Ðreligion€(Article€44);Ð k-%(+ Їà0  à(o)à0 $$àThe€right€to€vote€(Articles€12.2.2,€16.1€and€47.3);ÐF $ $ ÐÌà0  à(p)à0 $$àThe€right€to€seek€election€(Articles€12.4.1€and€16.1);Ð$Þ $ $ ÐÌà  à(q)à  àThe€right€to€have€votes€treated€as€being€of€equal€weightÐ  ¼ Ð(Article16);Ð ñ « ÐÌà  à(r)à  àThe€right€to€have€justice€administered€in€public€by€judges€who€areÐ Ï ‰ Ðindependent€(Articles€34€and€35);€Ð ¾ x ÐÌà0  à(s)à0 $$àThe€right€to€criminal€trial€in€course€of€law€(Article€38.1);МV  $ $ ÐÌà0  à(t)à0 $$àThe€right€to€trial€by€jury€(Article€38.5);Ðz4  $ $ ÐÌà  à(u)à  àThe€right€not€to€have€one's€acts€retrospectively€declared€to€beÐ X  Ðunlawful€(Article€15.5).Ð G ÐÌ35.à  àIn€addition€to€the€specified€rights€referred€to€above,€the€Irish€courtsÐ %ß Ðhave€identified€a€number€of€rights€which,€although€not€expressly€referred€toÐ Î Ðin€the€Constitution€are€none€the€less€protected€by€it.€€The€origin€of€thisÐ ½ Ðdoctrine€lies€in€Article€40.3.1€and€2€of€the€Constitution,€which€provides€asÐ ò¬ Ðfollows:Ð á› ÐÌà0  à"1.€à  àThe€State€guarantees€in€its€laws€to€respect,€and,€as€far€asÐ ¿y Ðpracticable,€by€its€laws€to€defend€and€vindicate€the€personal€rights€ofÐ ®h Ðthe€citizen.€ÐW$$ ÐÌ€à0  à2.à  àThe€State€shall,€in€particular,€by€its€laws€protect€as€best€it€mayÐ {5 Ðfrom€unjust€attack€and,€in€the€case€of€injustice€done,€vindicate€theÐ j$ Ðlife,€person,€good€name€and€property€rights€of€every€citizen."ÐY $$ ÐÌ36.à  àIn€òòRyan€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1965]€I.R.€294,€the€seminal€case€inÐ 7"ñ Ðrelation€to€the€doctrine€of€unspecified€personal€rights,€the€Plaintiff€allegedÐ &#à  Ðthat€proposals€to€introduce€fluoride€to€water€supplies€infringed€her€right€toÐ $Ï! Ðbodily€integrity.€€Kenny€J.€in€the€High€Court€held€against€her€on€the€meritsÐ %¾" Ðbut€agreed€that€"the€personal€rights€which€may€be€invoked€to€invalidateÐ ó%­ # Ðlegislation€are€not€confined€to€those€specified€in€Article€40€but€include€allÐ â&œ!$ Ðthose€rights€which€result€from€the€Christian€and€democratic€nature€of€theÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐState"€(at€p.312).€Ð À(z#& ÐÌ37.à  àOn€appeal€the€Supreme€Court€reaffirmed€this€approach:€€"The€Court€agreesÐ ž*X%( Ðwith€Mr.€Justice€Kenny€that€the€personal€rights€mentioned€in€Section€3,€1Ð +G&) Ð[ofArticle€40]€are€not€exhausted€by€the€enumeration€of€'life,€person,€goodÐ |,6'* Ðname€and€property€rights'€in€section€3,€2€as€is€shown€by€the€use€of€the€wordsÐ k-%(+ Ð'inparticular',€nor€by€the€more€detached€treatment€of€specific€rights€in€theÐ F Ðsubsequent€sections€of€the€Article.€€To€attempt€to€make€a€list€of€all€theÐ 5ï Ðrights€which€may€properly€fall€within€the€category€of€'personal€rights'€wouldÐ $Þ Ðbe€difficult€and,€fortunately,€is€unnecessary€in€this€present€case."€Ð Í Ð(atpp.344„5).Ð  ¼ ÐÌ38.à  àWhile€the€"personal€rights"€provision€of€Article€40.1€is€the€principalÐ à š Ðsource€of€implied€rights€in€the€Constitution€of€Ireland,€other€provisions€ofÐ Ï ‰ Ðthe€Constitution€may€also€be€a€source€of€implied€rights,€either€separately€orÐ ¾ x Ðin€conjunction€with€Article€40.€€For€example,€the€right€to€have€a€criminalÐ ­ g  Ðtrial€in€due€course€of€law,€referred€to€in€Article€38,€has€been€held€to€importÐ œV  Ða€requirement€to€have€fair€procedures€which€furnish€an€accused€with€anÐ ‹E  Ðadequate€opportunity€to€defend€himself,€and€hence,€in€certain€circumstances,€aÐ z4  Ðright€to€legal€aid€at€the€expense€of€the€State€(òòThe€State€(Healy)€„v„€DonoghueóóÐ i#  Ð[1976]€I.R.€325).€€The€right€to€privacy€in€marriage€may€be€argued€to€deriveÐ X  Ðfrom€the€family€rights€of€Article€41€as€well€as€from€Article€40.€€(òòMcGee€„v„Ð G ÐAttorney€Generalóó€[1973]€I.R.€284).€€The€express€right€to€associate€referred€toÐ 6ð Ðin€Article€40.6.1€iii€has€been€held€to€imply€a€correlative€right€òònotóó€to€be€aÐ %ß Ðmember€of€an€association€(òòEducation€Company€„v„€Fitzpatrick€(No.€2)óó€[1961]Ð Î ÐI.R.€345).Ð ½ ÐÌ39.à  àAmong€the€implied,€unspecified€or€unenumerated€rights€that€have€beenÐ á› Ðrecognized€by€the€Irish€courts€to€date€are€the€following:€Ð Њ ÐÌà  à(a)à  àThe€right€to€bodily€integrity€(òòRyan€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1965]€I.R.Ð ®h Ð294);Ð W ÐÌà  à(b)à  àThe€right€not€to€have€one's€health€endangered€(òòThe€State€(c)€„v„Ð {5 ÐFrawleyóó€[1976]€I.R.€365);Ð j$ ÐÌà  à(c)à  àThe€right€to€justice€and€fair€procedures,€and,€in€a€criminal€trial,Ð H! Ðto€an€adequate€opportunity€to€defend€oneself,€and€to€legal€representationÐ 7"ñ Ð(òòTheState€(Healy)€„v„€Donoghueóó€[1976]€I.R.€325);Ð &#à  ÐÌà  à(d)à  àThe€right€not€to€be€tortured€or€subjected€to€inhuman€or€degradingÐ %¾" Ðtreatment€or€punishment€(òòThe€State€(C)€„v„€Frawleyóó€[1976]€I.R.€365);Ð ó%­ # ÐÌà0  à(e)à0 $$àRights€relating€to€privacy:ÐÑ'‹"% $ $ ÐÌà0  àà0 $$à€(i)à0Ð  $ $àwithin€marriage€(òòMcGee€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1974]Ð ¯)i$' ÐI.R.284.);О*X%(Ð $Ð $ ÐÌà0  àà0 $$à(ii)à0Ð  $ $àto€privacy€of€communications€(òòKennedy€„v„€Irelandóó€(1987)Ð |,6'* ÐI.R.587);Ðk-%(+Ð $Ð $ Їà  à(f)à  àThe€right€to€communicate€(òòAttorney€General€„v„€Paperlinkóó€(1984)Ð F ÐI.L.R.M.€373,€òòKearney€„v„€Minister€for€Justiceóó€(1987)€I.L.R.M.€47);Ð 5ï ÐÌà  à(g)à  àThe€right€to€marry€(òòRyan€„v„€Attorney€General,€unreported,€SupremeÐ Í ÐCourt,€14€February,€1991óó);Ð  ¼ ÐÌà  à(h)à  àThe€right€to€work€and€earn€a€livelihood€(òòMurtagh€Properties€„v„Ð à š ÐClearyóó€[1972]€I.R.€330,€òòMurphy€„v„€Stewartóó€[1973]€I.R.€97);Ð Ï ‰ ÐÌà  à(i)à  àThe€right€to€travel,€both€within€the€State€and€abroad,€and€toobtainÐ ­ g  Ða€passport€(òòRyan€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1965]€I.R.€294,Ð œV  ÐòòThe€State€(M)€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1979]€I.R.€73);Ð ‹E  ÐÌà  à(j)à  àThe€right€not€to€be€compelled€to€join€an€association€against€one'sÐ i#  Ðwill€(òòEducation€Company€„v„€Fitzpatrickóó€(No.€2)€[1961]€I.R.€345);Ð X  ÐÌà  à(k)à  àThe€right€to€litigate€and€have€access€to€the€courts€(òòMcCauley€„v„Ð 6ð ÐMinister€for€Posts€and€Telegraphsóó€[1966]€I.R.€345);Ð %ß ÐÌà  à(l)à  àThe€rights€of€children€to€nurturing,€to€an€upbringing€and€educationÐ ½ Ðand€to€have€the€opportunity€of€working€and€of€realizing€their€personality€andÐ ò¬ Ðdignity€as€human€beings€(òòG€„v„€An€Bord€Uchtalaóó€[1980]€I.R.€32);Ð á› ÐÌà  à(m)à  àThe€rights€of€natural€mothers€to€the€custody€and€care€of€theirÐ ¿y Ðchildren€(òòG€„v„€An€Bord€Uchtalaóó€[1980]€I.R.€32).Ð ®h ÐÌ40.à  àIt€should€be€noted€that€few,€if€any,€of€these€rights€are€unlimited€orÐ ŒF Ðabsolute.€€In€many€cases€they€are€qualified€in€the€text€of€the€ConstitutionÐ {5 Ðitself.€€For€example,€the€right€of€assembly€in€Article€40.6.1€is€qualified€inÐ j$ Ðthe€sense€that€the€right€is€subject€to€public€order€and€morality,€applies€onlyÐ Y  Ðto€peaceable€assembly€without€arms,€and€that€provision€may€be€made€by€law€toÐ H! Ðprevent€or€control€meetings€calculated€to€cause€a€breach€of€the€peace€or€to€beÐ 7"ñ Ða€danger€or€a€nuisance€to€the€general€public,€and€to€prevent€or€controlÐ &#à  Ðmeetings€in€the€vicinity€of€the€Oireachtas€(Parliament).Ð $Ï! ÐÌ41.à  àFurthermore,€a€conflict€may€arise€between€the€exercise€of€twoÐ ó%­ # Ðconstitutional€rights,€or€between€a€power€or€duty€of€the€State€and€aÐ â&œ!$ Ðconstitutional€right,€and€in€such€cases€the€courts€have€to€weigh€the€relativeÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðimportance€of€such€rights,€powers€and€duties.€€An€example€was€the€case€ofÐ À(z#& ÐòòMurray€„v„€Irelandóó€(unreported,€Supreme€Court,€14€February,€1991),€where€aÐ ¯)i$' Ðmarried€couple€serving€a€sentence€of€life€imprisonment€for€the€murder€of€aÐ ž*X%( Ðpoliceman€alleged€that€their€imprisonment€infringed€their€right€to€procreate.€Ð +G&) ÐThe€Supreme€Court€held€that€while€they€had€such€a€right,€"the€right€claimed,Ð |,6'* Ðlike€many€other€rights,€is€not€an€unqualified€one;€it€is€placed€in€suspense€ifÐ k-%(+ Ðand€when€one€or€both€of€the€spouses€is€imprisoned€and€thereby€deprived€ofÐ F Ðpersonal€liberty€in€accordance€with€law"€(per€McCarthy€J.).Ð 5ï ÐÌà@Ò Ò –àE.€€òòJudicial€remedies€for€breaches€of€human€rightsóóˆÐ Í ÐÌ42.à  àThe€following€remedies€exist€in€Irish€law€for€breaches€of€human€rightsÐ ñ « Ðprotected€by€the€Constitution€of€Ireland:€Ð à š ÐÌà  à(a)à  àJudicial€review€of€legislation,€or€proposed€legislation,€forÐ ¾ x Ðconstitutional€infirmity,€where€the€legislation€is,€or€would€involve,€theÐ ­ g  Ðbreach€of€a€constitutionally€protected€right;Ð œV  ÐÌà  à(b)à  àJudicial€review€of€delegated€legislation€for€constitutionalÐ z4  Ðinfirmity€or€incompatibility€with€the€statutory€provision€which€authorizes€theÐ i#  Ðdelegated€legislation;Ð X  ÐÌà  à(c)à  àJudicial€review€of€administrative€action€for€constitutionalÐ 6ð Ðinfirmity€or€other€non„compliance€with€law,€including€a€failure€to€observe€theÐ %ß Ðrules€of€natural€justice;Ð Î ÐÌÌÌà0  à(d)à0 $$àActions€for€damages;€ÐЊ $ $ ÐÌà0  à(e)à0 $$àEnquiries€into€allegations€of€unlawful€detention.Юh $ $ ÐÌIn€addition,€the€common€law€and€statute€give€protection€to€many€rights,Ð ŒF Ðsometimes€in€addition€to€constitutional€provisions€and€sometimes€as€the€soleÐ {5 Ðsource€of€the€right.€€In€these€cases€action€for€damages€for€tort€or€for€anÐ j$ Ðinjunction€may€be€available.€Ð Y  ÐòòÌóóà@ÞÞ–àF.€€òòJudicial€review€of€legislation€and€legislative€proposalsóóˆÐ 7"ñ ÐÌ43.à  àThere€are€two€separate€and€distinct€procedures€by€which€the€validity€ofÐ $Ï! Ðlegislation€can€be€tested€in€the€Courts.€€The€first€relates€to€proposedÐ %¾" Ðlegislation€and€the€second€to€the€review€of€existing€legislation.Ð ó%­ # ÐÌ44.à  àArticle€26€of€the€Constitution€provides€for€the€case€of€proposedÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðlegislation.€€Following€the€passage€of€a€Bill€through€both€Houses€of€theÐ À(z#& ÐOireachtas€(Parliament)€it€becomes€law€on€being€signed€by€the€President€withinÐ ¯)i$' Ðthe€time€provided€for€in€the€Constitution.€€However,€under€the€Article€26Ð ž*X%( Ðprocedure€the€President€may,€following€consultation€with€the€Council€of€State,Ð +G&) Ðin€lieu€of€signing€a€Bill,€refer€it€to€the€Supreme€Court€for€a€decision€onÐ |,6'* Ðthequestion€whether€it€or€any€specified€provision€or€provisions€of€it€areÐ k-%(+ Ðrepugnant€to€the€Constitution.€€The€reference€must€be€made€no€later€than€sevenÐ F Ðdays€after€presentation€of€the€Bill€to€the€President€for€his€or€her€signatureÐ 5ï Ðand€the€Supreme€Court,€consisting€of€not€less€than€five€judges,€and€havingÐ $Þ Ðheard€arguments€by€or€on€behalf€of€the€Attorney€General€and€Counsel€assignedÐ Í Ðby€the€Court,€must€pronounce€its€decision€within€60€days.€€If€any€provisionofÐ  ¼ Ðthe€Bill€is€found€to€be€repugnant€the€Bill€does€not€become€law.€€Where€aÐ ñ « Ðprovision€in€a€Bill€has€been€referred€to€the€Supreme€Court€under€theÐ à š ÐArticle26€procedure€and€not€found€to€be€repugnant€to€the€Constitution,€noÐ Ï ‰ ÐCourt€may€subsequently€question€the€constitutional€validity€of€that€provision.€Ð ¾ x ÐThe€Article€26€procedure€has€been€used€on€seven€occasions€since€theÐ ­ g  ÐConstitution€came€into€force€in€1937.Ð œV  ÐÌ45.à  àThe€power€to€review€existing€legislation€is€much€more€frequently€used€andÐ z4  Ðderives€from€two€sources.€€In€the€case€of€legislation€dating€before€1937,€whenÐ i#  Ðthe€Constitution€came€into€force,€Article€50.1€of€the€Constitution€provides€asÐ X  Ðfollows:€Ð G Ðà0  àÐ $$ Ðà0  à"Subject€to€the€Constitution€and€to€the€extent€to€which€they€are€notÐ %ß Ðinconsistent€therewith,€the€laws€in€force€in€Saorstat€Eireann€[the€IrishÐ Î ÐFree€State]€immediately€prior€to€the€date€of€the€coming€into€operation€ofÐ ½ Ðthis€Constitution€shall€continue€to€be€of€full€force€and€effect€...".Ðò¬$$ ÐÌThe€Courts€are,€therefore,€empowered€to€declare€that€pre„1937€legislationРЊ Ðwhich€is€inconsistent€with€the€Constitution€was€not€carried€forward€byÐ ¿y ÐArticle50€and€has€ceased€to€have€force€or€effect.Ð ®h ÐÌ46.à  àIn€the€case€of€laws€passed€after€1937,€the€power€of€review€derives€fromÐ ŒF ÐArticle€15.4€of€the€Constitution€which€provides€as€follows:Ð {5 ÐÌà0  à"1.à  àThe€Oireachtas€shall€not€enact€any€law€which€is€in€any€respectÐ Y  Ðrepugnant€to€this€Constitution€or€any€provision€thereof.ÐH!$$ ÐÌà0  à2.à  àEvery€law€enacted€by€the€Oireachtas€which€is€in€any€respectÐ &#à  Ðrepugnant€to€this€Constitution€or€to€any€provision€thereof,€shall,€but€toÐ $Ï! Ðthe€extent€only€of€such€repugnancy,€be€invalid."Ð%¾"$$ ÐÌIn€the€case,€therefore,€of€post„1937€legislation€the€Courts€can€declare€that€aÐ â&œ!$ Ðlaw€is€invalid€having€regard€to€the€provisions€of€the€Constitution.€Ð Ñ'‹"% ÐÌ47.à  àArticle€34.3.2€of€the€Constitution€confers€the€High€Court€withÐ ¯)i$' Ðjurisdiction€to€deal€with€the€question€of€validity€of€laws€having€regardÐ ž*X%( Ðtothe€provisions€of€the€Constitution,€and€prohibits€the€raising€of€suchÐ +G&) Ðquestions€in€any€court€other€than€the€High€or€Supreme€Court€(which€is€a€purelyÐ |,6'* Ðappellate€court€except€in€the€case€of€the€Article€26€procedure).€€In€thisÐ k-%(+ Ðregard,€the€Supreme€Court€has€interpreted€the€reference€to€"validity€of€anyÐ F Ðlaw"€in€Article€34.3.2€of€the€Constitution€to€refer€only€to€laws€passedÐ 5ï Ðsince1937.€(òòThe€State€(Sheerin)€„v„€Kennedyóó€[1966]€I.R.€379).€€In€the€case€ofÐ $Þ Ðpre-1937€legislation,€the€High€Court€has€an€undoubted€power€to€declare€thatÐ Í Ðthe€law€was€not€carried€forward€after€1937€as€being€inconsistent€with€theÐ  ¼ ÐConstitution.€€It€may€be€that€in€theory€the€Circuit€and€District€Courts€couldÐ ñ « Ðalso€make€such€a€finding€in€an€appropriate€case,€but€in€practice€suchÐ à š Ðquestions€are€always€referred€to€the€High€Court.€Ð Ï ‰ ÐÌ48.à  àThe€effect€of€a€finding€of€inconsistency€of€a€pre„1937€law€with€theÐ ­ g  ÐConstitution€is€that€it€ceased€to€have€effect€in€1937€when€the€ConstitutionÐ œV  Ðcame€into€effect.€€In€the€case€of€post„1937€laws€a€finding€of€invalidityÐ ‹E  Ðoperates€òòex„tuncóó€rather€than€òòex€nuncó󀄀the€invalid€law€is€deemed€never€to€haveÐ z4  Ðbeen€a€law,€not€merely€to€be€invalid€from€the€date€of€the€Court's€judgement.€Ð i#  ÐThe€Irish€courts€do€not€operate€a€system€of€prospective€overruling,€such€asÐ X  Ðexists€in€some€other€jurisdictions€(òòMurphy€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1982]Ð G ÐI.R.241).€€However,€in€some€cases€where€parties€have€operated€on€theÐ 6ð Ðbonafide€assumption€that€a€law€was€valid€it€may€be€inequitable€to€disturbÐ %ß Ðarrangements€made€on€foot€of€that€assumption€(òòMurphy€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó).€€Ð Î ÐIn€that€case,€which€condemned€part€of€an€income€tax€law€which€treated€marriedÐ ½ Ðcouples€less€favourably€than€two€single€persons€in€similar€circumstances€onÐ ò¬ Ðthe€grounds€that€the€law€contravened€the€constitutional€obligation€to€guardÐ á› Ðwith€special€care€the€institution€of€marriage€and€to€protect€it€againstРЊ Ðattack,€persons€who€had€not€themselves€instituted€proceedings€were€notÐ ¿y Ðpermitted€to€recover€taxes€paid€on€foot€of€the€invalid€law€before€the€date€ofÐ ®h Ðjudgement.€Ð W ÐÌ49.à  àThe€Courts€in€Ireland€permit€a€considerable€degree€of€flexibility€as€toÐ {5 Ðthe€procedures€by€which€the€constitutionality€of€a€law,€or€of€conduct,€canÐ j$ Ðbechallenged.€€Because€Ireland€has€no€constitutional€court€as€such,€andÐ Y  Ðconstitutional€questions€are€dealt€with€in€the€ordinary€courts,€these€issuesÐ H! Ðmay€be€raised€and€resolved€in€the€course€of€different€types€of€proceedings.€Ð 7"ñ ÐIn€òòThe€State€(Lynch)€„v„€Cooneyóó€[1982]€I.R.€337€the€prosecutor€used€the€veryÐ &#à  Ðspeedy€remedy€of€òòcertiorarióó€(which€is€an€order€overruling€the€decision€of€anÐ $Ï! Ðinferior€court€or€tribunal€or€body€exercising€public€function)€to€challengeÐ %¾" Ðthe€enabling€legislation€under€which€the€Minister€for€Posts€and€Telegraphs€hadÐ ó%­ # Ðmade€an€order€banning€an€election€broadcast€on€behalf€of€Sinn€Fein,€theÐ â&œ!$ Ðpolitical€wing€of€the€terrorist€Provisional€I.R.A.€€While€the€SupremeÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐCourtupheld€the€legislation€and€the€Minister's€action,€they€held€that€theÐ À(z#& Ðprosecutor€was€entitled€to€use€the€remedy€of€òòcertiorarióó.€€O'Higgins€C.J.€(atÐ ¯)i$' Ðp.€363)€stated€that€"while€it€might€be€preferable€to€have€questions€concerningÐ ž*X%( Ðthe€constitutionality€of€legislation€dealt€with€by€declaratory€action€in€whichÐ +G&) Ðthe€High€Court,€and€this€Court€on€appeal,€could€have€the€benefit€of€pleadingsÐ |,6'* Ðand,€where€necessary,€submissions,€I€can€see€no€real€objection€to€the€courseÐ k-%(+ Ðadopted€by€prosecutor".€€Questions€concerning€the€constitutionality€ofÐ F Ðlegislation€can€also€be€raised€by€way€of€habeas€corpus€proceedings€if€theÐ 5ï Ðconstitutionality€of€a€law€under€which€a€prisoner€is€detained€is€in€questionÐ $Þ Ð(òòThe€State€(Burke)€„v„€Lennonóó€[1940]€I.R.€136),€or€by€way€of€prohibition€toÐ Í Ðchallenge€a€law€under€which€an€inferior€court,€tribunal€or€body€exercisingÐ  ¼ Ðpublic€functions€proposes€to€act€(òòThe€State€(Grahame)€„v„€Racing€Boardóó)Ð ñ « Ðunreported,€Supreme€Court,€29€May€1981),€or€by€way€of€injunction€toÐ à š Ðrestrainconduct€authorized€by€an€allegedly€unconstitutional€law€(òòO'Boyle€andÐ Ï ‰ ÐRodgers€„v„€Attorney€Generalóó€[1929]€I.R.€558).Ð ¾ x ÐÌ50.à  àFinally,€questions€of€constitutionality€of€a€law€may€arise€in€the€contextÐ œV  Ðof€civil€proceedings.€€An€example€is€òòMoynihan€„v„€Greensmithóó€[1977]€where€aÐ ‹E  Ðplaintiff€who€brought€an€action€for€negligence€in€a€motor€accident€case€wasÐ z4  Ðmet€by€a€defence€that€the€claim€was€statute„barred€by€a€limitation€periodÐ i#  Ðimposed€by€the€Civil€Liability€Act,€1961.€€In€reply,€the€Plaintiff€contestedÐ X  Ðthe€constitutionality€of€the€applicable€provision.€Ð G ÐÌ51.à  àAn€exception€to€the€power€to€review€legislation€is€provided€for€byÐ %ß ÐArticle€28.3.3€of€the€Constitution€which€reads€as€follows:€Ð Î ÐÌà0  à"Nothing€in€this€Constitution€shall€be€invoked€to€invalidate€any€lawÐ ò¬ Ðenacted€by€the€Oireachtas€which€is€expressed€to€be€for€the€purpose€ofÐ á› Ðsecuring€the€public€safety€and€the€preservation€of€the€State€in€time€ofРЊ Ðwar€or€armed€rebellion,€or€to€nullify€any€act€done€or€purporting€to€beÐ ¿y Ðdone€in€time€of€war€or€armed€rebellion€in€pursuance€of€any€such€law.€€InÐ ®h Ðthis€subsection€'time€of€war'€includes€a€time€when€there€is€taking€placeÐ W Ðan€armed€conflict€in€which€the€State€is€not€a€participant€but€in€respectÐ ŒF Ðof€which€each€of€the€Houses€of€the€Oireachtas€shall€have€resolved€that,Ð {5 Ðarising€out€of€such€armed€conflict,€a€national€emergency€exists€affectingÐ j$ Ðthe€vital€interests€of€the€State€and€'time€of€war€or€armed€rebellion'Ð Y  Ðincludes€such€time€after€the€termination€of€any€war,€or€of€any€such€armedÐ H! Ðconflict€as€aforesaid,€or€of€an€armed€rebellion,€as€may€elapse€until€eachÐ 7"ñ Ðof€the€Houses€of€the€Oireachtas€shall€have€resolved€that€the€nationalÐ &#à  Ðemergency€occasioned€by€such€war,€armed€conflict,€or€armed€rebellion€hasÐ $Ï! Ðceased€to€exist."Ð%¾"$$ ЀÌ52.à  àOn€1€September,€1976,€both€Houses€of€the€Oireachtas€passed€resolutionsÐ â&œ!$ Ðthat€"arising€out€of€the€armed€conflict€now€taking€place€in€Northern€Ireland,Ð Ñ'‹"% Ða€national€emergency€exists€affecting€the€vital€interests€of€the€State".€Ð À(z#& ÐTheresolutions€were€passed€following€the€murder€in€Dublin€of€the€BritishÐ ¯)i$' ÐAmbassador€and€a€Northern€Ireland€Civil€Servant,€and€explosions€at€the€SpecialÐ ž*X%( ÐCriminal€Court€in€Dublin.€€On€foot€of€this€resolution,€the€only€Act€which€wasÐ +G&) Ðenacted€by€the€Oireachtas€and€expressed€to€be€for€the€purpose€of€securing€theÐ |,6'* Ðsafety€of€the€State€was€the€Emergency€Powers€Act,€1976.€€That€Act€provided€forÐ k-%(+ Ðthe€arrest€and€detention€of€persons€for€up€to€seven€days.€€The€operative€partÐ F Ðof€the€Act€remains€in€force€for€only€12€months€at€a€time,€and€may€be€renewedÐ 5ï Ðby€Government€order€for€periods€not€exceeding€12€months.€€The€operative€partÐ $Þ Ðof€the€Act€is€not€at€present€in€force,€having€last€expired€on15€October€1977.Ð Í ÐÌ53.à  àNotwithstanding€the€exclusion€of€judicial€review€by€Article€28.3.3,Ð ñ « Ðon24September€1976€the€then€President€referred€the€Bill€to€the€Supreme€CourtÐ à š Ðunder€Article€26.€€The€Supreme€Court€held€(òòIn€re€Article€26€and€the€EmergencyÐ Ï ‰ ÐPowers€Bill,€1976óó€[1977]€I.R.€159)€that€the€President€was€entitled€to€do€so,Ð ¾ x Ðbut€that€once€the€Court€had€established€that€the€procedural€requirements€ofÐ ­ g  ÐArticle€28.3.3€had€been€satisfied,€that€provision€operated€to€prevent€any€partÐ œV  Ðof€the€Constitution€being€invoked€to€invalidate€the€Bill.€€The€Court€expresslyÐ ‹E  Ðreserved€for€future€consideration€the€question€whether€it€had€jurisdiction€toÐ z4  Ðreview€resolutions€of€the€Oireachtas.€€Finally,€the€Court€heldthat€ArticleÐ i#  Ð28.3.3€had€effect€only€to€prevent€a€person€challenging€the€constitutionalityÐ X  Ðof€the€legislation€in€question,€but€in€all€other€respects€he€remained€free€toÐ G Ðinvoke€his€constitutional€rights€„€for€example,€to€rely€on€the€provisions€ofÐ 6ð Ðthe€Constitution€for€the€purpose€of€construing€the€legislation€(which€must€beÐ %ß Ðstrictly€construed)€and€of€testing€the€legality€of€what€was€done€in€purportedÐ Î Ðreliance€on€the€legislation.€Ð ½ ÐòòÌóóà@< < –àG.€€òòJudicial€review€of€delegated€legislationóó€€€€€€€€€ˆÐ á› ÐÌ54.à  àThere€is€no€doubt€that€orders,€regulations,€by„laws€and€other€formsÐ ¿y Ðofsubordinate€rule„making€by€the€Government,€Ministers€or€other€publicÐ ®h Ðbodiescan€be€found€to€be€invalid€on€constitutional€grounds.€€An€example€wasÐ W ÐòòThe€State€(Gilliland)€„v„€Governor€of€Mountjoy€Prisonóó€[1987]€I.R.€201€whereÐ ŒF Ðthe€Government€order€applying€part€II€of€the€Extradition€Act,€1965,€to€theÐ {5 ÐUnited€States€of€America€pursuant€to€a€treaty€between€Ireland€and€theÐ j$ ÐUnitedStates€was€found€invalid€because€the€provisions€prescribed€byÐ Y  ÐArticle29€of€the€Constitution€had€not€been€followed.€€There€is€some€doubtÐ H! Ðwhether€only€the€High€Court€and€the€Supreme€Court€may€consider€such€a€questionÐ 7"ñ Ðor€whether€any€court€may€do€so.€€€Ð &#à  ÐÌ55.à  àFinally,€it€should€be€emphasized€that€the€power€to€review€laws€on€groundsÐ %¾" Ðof€unconstitutionality€is€not€an€academic€one.€€The€general€view€of€academicÐ ó%­ # Ðcommentators€is€that€the€superior€courts€of€Ireland€have€been,€at€least€sinceÐ â&œ!$ Ðthe€mid„1960s,€activist€courts€by€the€standards€of€most€countries€who€have€aÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðsystem€of€judicial€review€of€legislation.€€While€there€has€been€noÐ À(z#& Ðcomprehensive€study€of€the€numbers€of€cases€in€which€there€have€beenÐ ¯)i$' Ðchallenges€to€legislation,€in€a€recent€lecture€(published€as€"TheÐ ž*X%( ÐConstitution,€Fifty€Years€On",€Round€Hall€Press,€Dublin,€1988)€the€ChiefÐ +G&) ÐJustice€of€Ireland,€Mr.€Justice€Thomas€A.€Finlay,€stated€as€follows:€Ð |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ Ðà0  à"It€is€a€matter,€I€think,€of€some€interest€as€well€as€of€someÐ F Ðsignificance€that€consideration€of€the€major€cases€in€which€since€1937Ð 5ï Ðchallenges€have€been€made€to€statutes€enacted€prior€to€the€enactment€ofÐ $Þ Ðthe€Constitution€would€indicate€that€a€very€high€proportion€of€them€haveÐ Í Ðbeen€successful€on€the€grounds€of€inconsistency€with€the€provisions€ofÐ  ¼ Ðthe€Constitution.€€Out€of€13€major€cases€I€calculate€that€10€succeededÐ ñ « Ðand€3,€only,€failed.€€This€can€be€compared€with€the€experience€over€theÐ à š Ðsame€period€of€challenges€made€in€the€Courts€to€the€ConstitutionalÐ Ï ‰ Ðvalidity€of€statutes€enacted€by€the€Oireachtas€after€1937.€€Again,€on€aÐ ¾ x Ðcalculation€of€the€major€cases€to€be€found€in€the€Reports,€it€appears€toÐ ­ g  Ðme€that€challenges€were€made€in€approximately€55€cases€of€which€only€19Ð œV  Ðwere€successful€and€36€failed."€€Ð‹E $$ ÐÌThe€Chief€Justice€went€on€to€state€that€on€his€calculations,€between€1937€andÐ i#  Ð1970€there€had€been€only€13€major€challenges€to€post„1937€statutoryÐ X  Ðenactments,€whereas€between€1971€and€1987€there€have€been€a€further€45.Ð G ÐÌà@HH–àH.€€òòConstitutional€review€of€administrative€or€executive€actionóóˆÐ %ß ÐÌ56.à  àAny€act,€measure€or€decision€of€the€executive€may€be€challenged€onÐ ½ Ðthegrounds€that€an€individual's€Constitutional€rights€have€been€infringed.€Ð ò¬ ÐFurthermore,€such€an€issue€may€be€raised€in€any€court€in€the€land.€€SpeakingÐ á› Ðextrajudicially,€the€present€Chief€Justice€of€Ireland,€Mr.€Justice€Thomas€A.РЊ ÐFinlay,€in€the€course€of€the€lecture€referred€to€in€the€preceding€paragraph,Ð ¿y Ðsaid:Ð ®h ÐÌà0  à"A€major€feature€of€the€Constitution€which€from€a€practical€point€ofÐ ŒF Ðview,€I€believe,€has€greatly€contributed€to€its€immediacy€andÐ {5 Ðeffectiveness€is€the€fact€that€with€the€exception€of€a€challenge€on€theÐ j$ Ðgrounds€of€invalidity€having€regard€to€the€provisions€of€the€ConstitutionÐ Y  Ðmade€to€a€statute€passed€by€the€Oireachtas,€any€Constitutional€right€canÐ H! Ðbe€asserted€and,€if€established,€made€effective€in€any€Court€in€the€land.€Ð 7"ñ ÐThere€are,€as€most€of€you€will€know,€many€systems€of€law€deriving€fromÐ &#à  Ðwritten€Constitutions€which€reserve€exclusively€to€one€ConstitutionalÐ $Ï! ÐCourt€all€questions€of€Constitutional€law€or€the€interpretation€of€theÐ %¾" ÐConstitution.€€Such€a€system€has,€I€think,€a€clogging€effect€on€theÐ ó%­ # Ðimmediacy€of€the€assertion€and€protection€of€Constitutional€rights.€Ð â&œ!$ ÐUnder€our€Constitution,€on€the€other€hand,€as€my€colleagues€will€all€haveÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðhad€the€experience,€in€every€type€of€Court,€a€person,€for€example,Ð À(z#& Ðcharged€with€a€criminal€offence€who€asserts€an€invasion€of€hisÐ ¯)i$' ÐConstitutional€rights,€leading€to€the€inadmissibility€of€evidenceÐ ž*X%( Ðtendered€against€him,€can€have€that€issue€decided€in€the€Court€in€whichÐ +G&) Ðhe€is€being€tried.€€Furthermore,€the€immediate€effect€of€the€ConstitutionÐ |,6'* Ðis€not€even€confined€to€the€Courts€established€under€the€Constitution€butÐ k-%(+ Ðis€applicable€to€all€forms€of€subsidiary€or€administrative€tribunals€whoÐ F Ðmust,€in€the€course€of€their€activities,€act€in€a€Constitutional€manner,Ð 5ï Ðobserving€fair€procedure."Ð$Þ$$ ÐÌ57.à  àSuch€issues€may€be€raised€in€a€variety€of€different€ways.€€For€example,Ð  ¼ Ðin€a€criminal€trial,€a€defendant€may€seek€to€exclude€evidence€obtainedÐ ñ « Ðinbreach€of€constitutional€right,€as€in€òòThe€People€(Attorney€General)€„v„Ð à š ÐO'Brienóó€[1965]€I.R.€142€where€the€defendant€sought€to€exclude€evidenceÐ Ï ‰ Ðobtained€on€an€allegedly€invalid€search€warrant€on€the€grounds€that€theÐ ¾ x Ðevidence€was€obtained€in€violation€of€the€constitutionality„protectedÐ ­ g  Ðinviolability€of€the€dwelling.€€Or€a€decision€may€be€challenged€as€having€beenÐ œV  Ðarrived€at€in€breach€of€the€constitutional€obligation€to€apply€fairÐ ‹E  Ðprocedures.€€In€a€number€of€cases€the€Irish€courts€have€identified€"basicÐ z4  Ðfairness€of€procedures"€as€a€constitutional€imperative€which€comprehends€notÐ i#  Ðmerely€the€so„called€"rules€of€natural€justice"€identified€by€the€common€lawÐ X  Ð"òònemo€iudex€in€sua€causa€sitóó"€and€"òòaudi€alteram€partemóó"€but€also,€inÐ G Ðappropriate€cases,€the€obligation€to€given€decisions€with€promptitude,€to€giveÐ 6ð Ðreasons,€to€allow€an€oral€hearing€or€to€allow€legal€representation.€Ð %ß ÐÌÌÌÌà@>>.–àI.€€òòRemediesóóˆÐ Њ ÐÌ58.à  àThe€two€most€common€remedies€sought€by€persons€alleging€infringements€ofÐ ®h Ðtheir€civil€or€political€rights€are€those€of€judicial€review€and€the€actionÐ W Ðfor€damages.€Ð ŒF ÐÌà@àà+–àJ.€€òòJudicial€reviewˆÐ j$ ÐóóÌ59.à  àJudicial€review€is€a€remedy€which€lies€against€persons€or€bodiesÐ H! Ðexercising€public€functions€(including€the€lower€courts)€to€restrain€themÐ 7"ñ Ðfromacting€contrary€to€law€or€to€compel€them€to€act€in€accordance€with€law.€€Ð &#à  ÐIt€comprehends€the€old€common€law€remedies€of€òòcertiorari,€mandamusóó€andÐ $Ï! Ðòòprohibitionóó.€€The€modern€system€of€judicial€review€is€an€expeditious€means€byÐ %¾" Ðwhich€an€order€may€be€sought€to€set€aside€a€decision€or€action€of€such€a€body,Ð ó%­ # Ðor€to€compel€it€to€act€or€prevent€it€from€acting€contrary€to€law.€Ð â&œ!$ ÐÌ60.à  àAs€has€already€been€explained,€the€setting€aside€on€constitutionalÐ À(z#& Ðgrounds€of€legislation,€or€subordinate€legislation,€or€acts€of€the€executive,Ð ¯)i$' Ðmay€be€done€on€an€application€for€judicial€review.€€The€action€for€judicialÐ ž*X%( Ðreview€is€not,€however,€confined€to€cases€where€constitutional€irregularity€isÐ +G&) Ðinvolved.€€While€an€Act€of€the€Oireachtas€(Parliament)€may€be€found€invalidÐ |,6'* Ðonly€for€constitutional€irregularity,€subordinate€legislation€may€also€be€setÐ k-%(+ Ðaside€where€the€powers€conferred€by€the€enabling€legislation€are€exceeded,Ð F Ði.e.€on€the€grounds€that€the€subordinate€legislation€is€òòultra€viresóó€theÐ 5ï Ðenabling€Act.€€In€the€case€of€other€acts€or€decisions€by€the€executive€orÐ $Þ Ðadministration,€they€may€also€be€challenged€on€grounds€of€unlawfulness,Ð Í Ðprocedural€irregularity,€breach€of€the€rules€of€natural€justice€orÐ  ¼ Ðirrationality.€€While€most€of€the€more€important€civil€and€political€rightsÐ ñ « Ðare€constitutionally€protected€in€Ireland,€some€rights€have€merely€a€statutoryÐ à š Ðprotection:€€examples€would€include€the€rights€of€the€natural€father€of€aÐ Ï ‰ Ðchild€born€to€unmarried€parents€and€the€rights€of€such€a€child€to€equalityÐ ¾ x Ðoftreatment€with€other€children,€(òòStatus€of€Children€Act,€1987óó).€€It€is,Ð ­ g  Ðtherefore,€important€to€recall€that€statutory€rights€may€also€be€vindicated€byÐ œV  Ðactions€for€judicial€review.€€€€Ð ‹E  ÐòòÌóóà@¨¨-–àK.€€òòInjunctionsóóˆÐ i#  ÐÌ61.à  àWhile€an€action€for€judicial€review€does€not€lie€against€a€privateÐ G Ðindividual€or€body,€where€a€constitutional€right€is€threatened€by€such€aÐ 6ð Ðprivate€person€an€action€for€an€injunction€to€restrain€the€unconstitutionalÐ %ß Ðbehaviour€will€lie€(òòMurtagh€Properties€Ltd.€„v„€Clearyóó€[1972]€I.R.€330,Ð Î ÐòòS.P.U.C.€„v„€Cooganóó€[1989]€I.R.€734).€€Furthermore,€such€an€action€may€beÐ ½ Ðbrought€by€a€person€or€a€body€corporate€who€has€a€bona€fide€concern€andÐ ò¬ Ðinterest.€€The€right€to€maintain€such€an€action€is€not€reserved€to€theÐ á› ÐAttorney€General.€€Injunctions€may€also€be€brought€against€private€individualsРЊ Ðto€restrain€other€forms€of€unlawful€behaviour€which€are€an€interference€withÐ ¿y Ðtheir€civil€and€political€rights,€for€example,€to€restrain€interference€withÐ ®h Ðproperty€rights€or€to€restrain€an€attack€on€a€person's€good€name€by€theÐ W Ðpublication€of€a€libel.€Ð ŒF ÐÌÌÌÌà@pp/–àL.€€òòDamagesóóˆÐ 7"ñ ÐÌ62.à  àAn€action€for€damages€lies€for€breach€of€constitutional€right€(forÐ $Ï! Ðexample,€òòKennedy€„v„€Ireland€„€[1987]€I.R.€587,€Kearney€„v„€Minister€forÐ %¾" ÐJusticeóó,€[1986]€I.R.€116,€òòMeskell€„v„€C.I.E.óó€[1973]€I.R.€121).€€€It€appearsÐ ó%­ # Ðthat€an€action€for€damages€can€lie€against€a€private€individual€as€well€as€theÐ â&œ!$ ÐState€or€a€State€authority.€Ð Ñ'‹"% ÐÌ63.à  àAn€action€for€damages€will€also€lie,€in€appropriate€cases,€forÐ ¯)i$' Ðinterference€with€a€statutory€right.€€For€example,€in€òòCosgrove€„v„€IrelandóóÐ ž*X%( Ð[1982]€I.L.R.M.€48,€in€a€case€where€a€passport€was€issued€to€children€on€theirÐ +G&) Ðâ âmother's€application€and€despite€the€father's€objection€made€known€to€theÐ |,6'* ÐDepartment€of€Foreign€Affairs,€the€father€succeeded€in€an€action€for€damagesÐ F Ðfor€breach€of€his€statutory€rights€as€guardian€of€the€children.€Ð 5ï Ðâ âÌ64.à  àIt€should€also€be€noted€that€in€many€circumstances€tort€law€still€has€aÐ Í Ðrole€in€the€vindication€of€civil€and€political€rights.€€For€example,€if€theÐ  ¼ Ðright€to€inviolability€of€the€dwelling€is€infringed,€an€action€for€trespassÐ ñ « Ðwill€lie.€€If€the€right€to€bodily€integrity,€or€not€to€be€tortured,€isÐ à š Ðinfringed,€an€action€for€assault€may€be€brought.€€The€law€of€defamation€willÐ Ï ‰ Ðprotect€the€right€to€one's€good€name.€€Various€torts€are€of€relevance€inÐ ¾ x Ðprotecting€rights€to€privacy,€in€particular€the€tort€of€nuisance.€€Finally,Ð ­ g  Ðthere€are€actions€for€breach€of€statutory€duty€or€misfeasance€in€publicÐ œV  Ðoffice.€€The€emphasis€placed€in€this€Report€on€the€vindication€ofÐ ‹E  Ðconstitutional€right€should€not€obscure€the€continued€importance€of€common€lawÐ z4  Ðand€statutory€rights€and€remedies€in€the€vindication€of€personal€rights.€Ð i#  ÐPartII€of€this€Report€will€consider€in€more€detail€the€various€remediesÐ X  Ðavailable€to€deal€with€interference€with€specific€rights€which€are€discussedÐ G Ðin€detail€in€the€initial€report€of€Ireland€(CCPR/C/68/Add.3)€submitted€underÐ 6ð Ðarticle40€of€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.Ð %ß ÐÌà@* * !–àM.€€òòInformation€and€publicityóó€€€€€€€€€ˆÐ ½ ÐÌ65.à  àThe€Universal€Declaration€of€Human€Rights€has€been€printed€in€bothÐ á› Ðnational€languages€and€has€been€widely€distributed.€€At€the€time€ofРЊ Ðratification,€the€International€Covenants€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights€andÐ ¿y Ðthe€International€Covenant€on€Economic,€Social€and€Cultural€Rights€wereÐ ®h Ðdistributed€to€Government€Departments.€€Copies€have€also€been€made€availableÐ W Ðto€the€general€public.€€Copies€of€the€Convention€on€the€Rights€of€the€ChildÐ ŒF Ðhave€been€distributed€to€all€primary€and€secondary€schools€(approximatelyÐ {5 Ð4,200)€in€Ireland.€€This€report€is€being€published€and€made€available€to€theÐ j$ Ðgeneral€public.€€Copies€are€also€being€circulated€to€members€of€Dail€Eireann,Ð Y  ÐGovernment€offices€and€public€libraries.Ð H! ÐÐ  7"ñ Ðò òó óà@vv,–àòòList€of€annexesóó*ˆÐ F ÐÌAnnex€1€„€Statistics€relating€to€demographyÐ $Þ ÐÌAnnex€2€„€Statistics€relating€to€the€economy,€labour€force,€employment€andÐ  ¼ Ѐ€€€€€€€€€unemploymentÐ ñ « ÐÌAnnex€3€„€Statistics€relating€to€health,€education€and€social€welfareÐ Ï ‰ ÐÌAnnex€4€„€Government€policy€in€relation€to€the€Travelling€CommunityÐ ­ g  ÐÌAnnex€5€„€Map€of€IrelandÐ ‹E  ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌòò€€€€€€€€€óóÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐÌà  à*€€The€annexes,€as€received€in€English€from€the€Government€of€Ireland,Ð ¯)i$' Ðare€available€for€consultation€in€the€files€of€the€United€Nations€Centre€forÐ ž*X%( ÐHuman€Rights.€€They€are€common€to€this€document€and€to€the€initial€report€ofÐ +G&) ÐIreland€(CCPR/C/68/Add.3).Ð |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ Ðà@ÔÔ0–à_€_€_€_€_