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Jc.œ9¡ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀÝ ƒ ñ©!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÆ.òòôÔÔ€ôÆ.òòôÆ.ÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÑÈÑÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ  ÑÓ! ++ŒP++7!ÓÑbØÑщ¥Ñ€à Œ àà P àDistr.Ð b Ðà Œ àà P àGENERALÐ Qï ÐÌà Œ àà P àÔ_ÔHRIÔ_Ô/CORE/1/Add.29Ð / Í Ðà Œ àà P à2€July€1993Ð  ¼ ÐÌà Œ àà P àENGLISHÐ ü š Ðà Œ àà P àOriginal:€€FRENCHÐ ë ‰ ÐÌÌÌÓf&33ÓÌà@  –àCORE€DOCUMENT€FORMING€PART€OF€THE€REPORTS€OF€STATES€PARTIESˆÐ Œ*  ÐÌà@pp/–àSWITZERLANDˆÐ Vô  ÐÌà€ííO$à[2€June€1993]ˆÐ  ¾ ÐÌà@0–àCONTENTSˆÐ êˆ ÐÌà€ÁÁL$àòòParagraphsóó€€òòPageˆÐ ´R ÐóóÌÓ3++»çw ÿW»K!++ŒÄ3ÓIntroductionà“ÿÿJÿ.Û Û àˆà‘óóOWà1ˆà » à„à‘ç ç TK!à3ˆà€9#9#Z$à3€ˆÐ ~ ÐÌà‘óó»àI.ˆà ç àLAND€AND€PEOPLEà“ÿÿJÿ.à à #àˆà‘óóOWà4ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à15ˆà€9#9#Z$à3€ˆÐ Hæ ÐÌà‘»àII.ˆà ç àGENERAL€POLITICAL€STRUCTUREà“ÿÿJÿ.ss/àˆà‘NWà16ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à42ˆà€9#9#Z$à4€ˆÐ ° ÐÌà‘»»»àˆà ç àA.à w àHistorical€backgroundà“ÿÿJÿ.««-àˆà‘NWà16ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à20ˆà€9#9#Z$à4€ˆÐ Ü z ÐÌà‘»»»àˆà ç àB.à w àGovernment€structure:€€federalismà“ÿÿJÿ.[[9àˆà‘NWà21ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à42ˆà€9#9#Z$à6€ˆÐ ¦"D Ðà‘»»»àˆÌIII.à ç àGENERAL€LEGAL€FRAMEWORK€WITHIN€WHICH€Ð p$  Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àHUMAN€RIGHTS€ARE€PROTECTEDà“ÿÿJÿ..àˆà‘NWà43ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à73ˆà€Õ"Õ"Y$à10€ˆÐ U%ó! ÐÌÌà‘»»»àˆà ç àA.à w àCompetent€human€rights€authorities€and€remediesÐ (¢ $ Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àavailable€to€a€person€who€claims€that€his€Ð é(‡!% Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àrights€have€been€violatedà“ÿÿJÿ.;;1àˆà‘NWà43ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à53ˆà€Õ"Õ"Y$à10€ˆÐ Î)l"& ÐÌà‘»»»àˆà ç àB.à w àSystem€of€compensation€and€rehabilitation€Ð ˜+6$( Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àof€victimsà“ÿÿJÿ._ _ "àˆà‘NWà54ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à57ˆà€Õ"Õ"Y$à13€ˆÐ },%) ÐÌà‘»»»àˆà ç àC.à w àConstitutional€protection€of€the€rights€providedÐ G.å&+ Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àfor€in€the€various€international€human€rightsÐ ,/Ê', Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àinstrumentsà“ÿÿJÿ.à à #àˆà‘NWà58ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à66ˆà€Õ"Õ"Y$à14€ˆÐ 0¯(- ÐÔ_Ô‡à‘»»»àˆà ç àD.à w àIncorporation€of€international€human€rightsÐ F Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àinstruments€into€internal€lawà“ÿÿJÿ.ËË5àˆà‘NWà67ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à68ˆà€Õ"Õ"Y$à16€ˆÐ +å ÐÌÌGE.93„18197€€(E)Ð Ú” ÐÌÌÌÓ33f&ÓÑØbÑÑ}‰ÑÖ€ÿÿÖÖ€ÿÿÖÓT.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!++»çw ÿW»K!TÓà@®®*–àCONTENTS€(òòcontinuedóó)ˆÐ n ( ÐÌà€ÁÁL$àòòParagraphsóó€€òòPageóóˆÐ L  ÐÓ0++»çw ÿW»K!++70ÓÌà‘»»»àˆà ç àE.à w àDirect€invocability€of€the€provisions€of€humanÐ *ä  Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àrights€instruments€in€national€courtsà“ÿÿJÿ.ëë=àˆà‘WWPWàˆà » à69à€Õ"Õ"Y$à17€ˆÐ Ó  ÐÌà‘»»»àˆà ç àF.à w àNational€institutions€and€agencies€with€Ð ÷±  Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àresponsibility€for€guaranteeing€respect€Ð æ  Ðà‘»»»àˆà ç àà w àfor€human€rightsà“ÿÿJÿ.··(àˆà‘NWà70ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à73ˆà€Õ"Õ"Y$à17€ˆÐ Õ ÐÌà‘»àIV.ˆà ç àINFORMATION€AND€PUBLICITYà“ÿÿJÿ.««-àˆà‘NWà74ˆà » à„à‘ƒ ƒ SK!à78ˆà€Õ"Õ"Y$à18€ˆÐ ³m ÐÌÐ  ‘K ÐÓT.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!++»çw ÿW»K!TÓà@>>.–àòòIntroductionóóˆÐ F ÐÌ1.à b àThe€Swiss€Confederation€is€a€direct€democracy€with€a€federal€structure.€Ð $Þ ÐIts€territory€is€composed€of€the€territories€of€the€26federated€cantons€andÐ Í Ðdemi-cantons.€€There€is€no€exclusively€federal€district.€Ð  ¼ ÐÌ2.à b àFor€historical€reasons€and€in€the€light€of€the€country's€linguistic€andÐ à š Ðreligious€diversity,€the€Swiss€political€system€attaches€great€importance€toÐ Ï ‰ Ðconsensus€and€gives€the€cantons€considerable€autonomy.€€Switzerland€is€aÐ ¾ x Ðpermanently€neutral€State€and,€in€time€of€peace,€conducts€a€foreign€policy€ofÐ ­ g  Ðneutrality€that€determines€its€position€in€matters€which€are€not€covered€byÐ œV  Ðthe€international€law€of€neutrality,€but€over€which€it€has€direct€influence.Ð ‹E  ÐÌ3.à b àThe€Swiss€economy€is€characterized€by€respect€for€free€enterprise€and€theÐ i#  Ðimportance€of€international€trade.€€Although€it€has€been€affected€by€aÐ X  Ðpersistent€economic€crisis€in€recent€years,€its€standard€of€living€is€stillÐ G Ðone€of€the€highest€in€the€world.Ð 6ð ÐÌà@àà+–àI.€€LAND€AND€PEOPLEˆÐ Î ÐÌ4.à b àSwiss€territory€covers€an€area€of€41,284€km2.€€In€1991,€Switzerland€hadÐ ò¬ Ðapopulation€of€6,872,600,€including€5,633,200€Swiss€and€1,239,400€foreigners.€Ð á› ÐApproximately€1,091,000€foreigners€living€in€Switzerland€are€of€EuropeanРЊ Ðorigin,€31,088€come€from€the€American€continent,€22,320€from€Africa€and€44,301Ð ¿y Ðfrom€Asia.€€There€are€also€250€stateless€persons.€€Foreigners€accountÐ ®h Ðfor17.4per€cent€of€the€total€permanent€population€(20percent€of€the€maleÐ W Ðpopulation€and€15percent€of€the€female€population).Ð ŒF ÐÌ5.à b àIn€1991,€48.9percent€of€the€population€was€male€and€51.1percentÐ j$ Ðfemale;€17.4percent€of€the€population€was€under€15€years€old€andÐ Y  Ð14.6percent€was€over€65.€€The€under-15s€accounted€for€16.5percent€of€theÐ H! Ðfemale€population€and€18.2percent€of€the€male€population.€€Women€agedÐ 7"ñ Ðover65€account€for€17.2percent€of€the€female€population,€while€men€in€thatÐ &#à  Ðage€group€account€for€only€11.9percent€of€the€total€male€population.Ð $Ï! ÐÌ6.à b àIn€late€1991,€50.5percent€of€the€resident€population€lived€in€towns€andÐ ó%­ # Ðcities,€whereas€40.5percent€lived€in€rural€areas.€€The€permanent€residentÐ â&œ!$ Ðpopulation€is€composed€of€all€persons€who,€in€principle,€live€in€SwissÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðterritory€year€round.€€Seasonal€workers,€border€workers€(from€abroad),Ð À(z#& Ðtourists€and€asylum-seekers€are€not€included€in€the€permanent€residentÐ ¯)i$' Ðpopulation.Ð ž*X%( ÐÌ7.à b àAbout€42percent€of€the€population€is€unmarried€and€47.6percentÐ |,6'* Ðmarried,€with€widowed€and€divorced€persons€accounting€for€5.9€and€4.5percentÐ k-%(+ Ðof€the€total,€respectively.€€In€1991,€there€were€47,567€marriages€andÐ F Ð13,627divorces.€€The€latter€figure€is€constantly€increasing€and€it€isÐ 5ï Ðestimated€that,€if€the€trend€continues,€34percent€of€marriages€will€end€inÐ $Þ Ðdivorce.€€According€to€the€1980€census,€there€are€125,900women€heads€ofÐ Í Ðhousehold,€i.e.€7.7percent€of€all€households.Ð  ¼ ÐÌ8.à b àSwitzerland€has€four€national€languages,€German€(spoken€by€65percentÐ à š Ðofthe€population),€French€(18.4percent),€Italian€(9.8percent)€andÐ Ï ‰ ÐRhaeto-Romansch€(0.8percent).€€The€first€three€are€the€official€languages€ofÐ ¾ x Ðthe€country.€€About€6percent€of€the€population€has€another€mother€tongue.€Ð ­ g  ÐLanguage€distribution€by€sex€is€as€follows:€€64.2percent€of€men€speakÐ œV  ÐGerman,€18percent€French,€10.5percent€Italian€and€0.8percentÐ ‹E  ÐRhaeto-Romansch.€€For€women,€the€figures€are€65.8percent,€18.8percent,Ð z4  Ð9.1percent€and€0.8percent,€respectively.Ð i#  ÐÌ9.à b àWith€regard€to€religious€denominations,€the€resident€populationÐ G Ðis44.3percent€Protestant,€47.6percent€Roman€Catholic,€0.3percent€OldÐ 6ð ÐCatholic,€0.9percent€Muslim,€0.6percent€Orthodox€and€0.3percent€Jewish,Ð %ß Ðwhile€3.8percent€is€composed€of€persons€who€have€no€religious€denomination.€Ð Î ÐThere€are€also€some€other€religions€(Mormons,€Scientologists,€etc.)€which€areÐ ½ Ðvery€much€in€the€minority,€for€which€there€are€no€individual€statistics€andÐ ò¬ Ðwhich,€taken€together,€make€up€about€0.3percent€of€the€population.Ð á› ÐÌ10.à b àIn€1991,€the€infant€mortality€rate€(death€during€the€first€year)Ð ¿y Ðwas6.2per€1,000€births.€€In€that€year,€12.7€children€were€born€forÐ ®h Ðevery1,000€inhabitants.€€The€fertility€table,€which€indicates€the€number€ofÐ W Ðchildren€a€woman€aged€between€15€and€49€would€have€if€she€were€subject€toÐ ŒF Ðthefertility€rate€observed€at€a€particular€time,€was€1.61€in€1991.€€InÐ {5 Ðthatyear,one€woman€died€as€a€result€of€pregnancy€or€childbirth;€thus,Ð j$ Ðfor86,200children€born€alive€during€that€period,€maternal€mortalityÐ Y  Ðwas1.2per100,000€births.Ð H! ÐÌ11.à b àThe€life€expectancy€of€women€is€80.9€years€and€that€of€men€74.1.Ð &#à  ÐÌ12.à b àFor€a€gross€national€product€of€Sw€F346€billion€in€1991,€averageÐ %¾" Ðpercapita€income€was€about€Sw€F43,149€per€year.Ð ó%­ # ÐÌ13.à b àThe€rate€of€inflation€has€increased€considerably€in€recent€years.€€ItÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðwasonly€0.8peryear€in€1986,€but€rose€to€3.2percent€in€1989€and€toÐ À(z#& Ðnearly5.9percent€in€1991.€€There€has€recently€been€a€downward€trend€and,€inÐ ¯)i$' ÐFebruary€1993,€the€rate€of€inflation€was€3.4per€cent.€€According€to€theÐ ž*X%( ÐSwissNational€Bank,€the€annual€rate€of€inflation€for€1993€should€not€be€moreÐ +G&) Ðthan€2.5percent.Ð |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ Ð14.à b àThe€average€unemployment€rate€was€0.6percent€in€1990.€€This€figure,Ð F Ðwhich€includes€only€unemployed€persons€registered€with€a€labour€office,€hasÐ 5ï Ðincreased€sharply€since€then€because€of€the€economic€recession€the€country€hasÐ $Þ Ðsuffered.€€It€stands€at€about€4.6percent€for€the€first€few€months€of€1993.Ð Í ÐÌ15.à b àSince€school€attendance€is€compulsory€for€everyone,€no€survey€isÐ ñ « Ðconducted€on€illiteracy;€it€may,€nevertheless€be€stated€that€the€number€ofÐ à š Ðilliterate€persons€is€very€low.Ð Ï ‰ ÐÌà@VV$–àII.€€GENERAL€POLITICAL€STRUCTUREˆÐ ­ g  ÐÌà@´´(–àA.€€òòHistorical€backgroundóóˆÐ ‹E  ÐÌ16.à b àThe€Helvetic€Confederation€was€born€of€the€perpetual€alliance€of€theÐ i#  Ð"Waldsttten"€in€1291€and,€until€the€French€Revolution,€was€no€more€than€aÐ X  Ðvery€loose„knit€association€of€rural€and€urban€communities.€€Relations€betweenÐ G Ðthe€States€of€the€old€Confederation€were€not€governed€by€a€Constitution,€butÐ 6ð Ðby€a€large€number€of€treaties€of€alliance.€€Some€parts€of€Switzerland'sÐ %ß Ðpresent€territory€were€then€only€lands€conquered€by€large€cantons€(such€asÐ Î ÐVaud,€which€was€subject€to€the€canton€of€Bern€until€1803)€or€were€placed€underÐ ½ Ðthe€joint€trusteeship€of€the€first€members€of€the€Confederation€("commonÐ ò¬ Ðjurisdiction").Ð á› ÐÌ17.à b àOn€12€April€1798,€after€the€occupation€of€the€territory€of€theÐ ¿y ÐConfederation€by€the€French€troops€of€the€Directoire,€the€old€treaties€ofÐ ®h Ðalliance€were€replaced€by€the€Constitution€of€the€Helvetic€Republic,€which€wasÐ W Ðestablished€in€Paris€along€the€lines€of€the€French€Republic.€€However,€theÐ ŒF Ðvery€idea€of€a€unitary€State,€of€a€Republic€one€and€indivisible,€was€far€tooÐ {5 Ðalien€to€the€country's€traditions€and€ways€of€thinking€and,€after€a€briefÐ j$ Ðperiod€of€constant€crises,€the€Act€of€Mediation€of€19February€1803,€which€wasÐ Y  Ðimposed€by€Bonaparte,€marked€a€return€to€federalism.€€The€powers€of€theÐ H! Ðcentral€Government€were€limited€to€foreign€policy€and€the€maintenance€of€lawÐ 7"ñ Ðand€order€and€the€cantons€continued€to€be€sovereign€States€in€all€other€areas.€Ð &#à  ÐThe€weakness€of€the€federal€Government€of€the€time€was€demonstrated€by€theÐ $Ï! Ðfact€that€its€highest€body,€the€Federal€Diet,€was€not€a€permanent€executive,Ð %¾" Ðbut€a€periodic€congress€of€envoys€from€each€canton.Ð ó%­ # ÐÌ18.à b àAfter€Napoleon's€fall,€Switzerland€requested€the€European€powers€toÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðrecognize€its€independence€and€its€neutrality.€€The€1815€Vienna€CongressÐ À(z#& Ðaccepted€this€request€and,€at€the€same€time,€Switzerland€got€back€old€alliedÐ ¯)i$' Ðor€subject€territories€which€were€restored€to€the€Confederation,€bringing€theÐ ž*X%( Ðnumber€of€cantons€bound€by€a€treaty€of€alliance€known€as€the€"Federal€Pact"Ð +G&) Ðto22.€€Once€again,€the€Diet€assumed€the€joint€tasks€which€had€been€delegatedÐ |,6'* Ðto€it€by€the€cantons€(maintenance€of€law€and€order;€foreign€policy;€andÐ k-%(+ Ðdiplomatic€relations€with€foreign€countries).€€It€had€once€again€been€deniedÐ F Ðbroader€powers.Ð 5ï ÐÌ19.à b àThe€French€Revolution€of€July€1830€also€unleashed€a€liberal€movement€inÐ Í ÐSwitzerland.€€This€period,€known€as€the€"Regeneration",€marked€a€renewal€ofÐ  ¼ Ðpublic€life.€€Most€of€the€cantonal€constitutions€underwent€considerableÐ ñ « Ðchanges€with€a€view€to€the€strengthening€of€the€principles€forming€the€basisÐ à š Ðfor€popular€sovereignty€and€representative€democracy.€€These€newÐ Ï ‰ Ðconstitutions,€especially€the€liberal€constitutions€of€some€large€cantons,Ð ¾ x Ðwere€to€some€extent€contrary€to€the€Federal€Pact€of€1815,€with€the€resultÐ ­ g  Ðthata€revision€of€the€Federal€Pact€and€the€strengthening€of€the€centralÐ œV  ÐGovernment€became€necessary.€€In€1832,€the€Diet€prepared€a€first€draftÐ ‹E  Ðrevision.€€However,€serious€divisions€paralysed€its€work€for€some€time€and,Ð z4  Ðin1847,13cantons€took€the€initiative€of€appointing€a€commission€to€prepareÐ i#  Ðanew€draft.€€Before€this€work€was€completed,€a€brief€civil€warÐ X  Ð(15-25November1847)€took€place€between€the€conservative€Catholic€cantons,Ð G Ðwhich€had€concluded€a€separate€alliance€("Sonderbund")€and€the€more€liberalÐ 6ð ÐProtestant€cantons.€€The€liberals'€victory€enabled€the€Diet€to€take€noteÐ %ß Ðon12September€1848€of€the€fact€that€the€Constitution€of€the€SwissÐ Î ÐConfederation€had€been€accepted€by€a€majority€of€cantons.€€This€new€textÐ ½ Ðmarked€the€change€from€a€confederation€of€sovereign€States€united€by€veryÐ ò¬ Ðloose€ties€to€a€genuine€federal€State€whose€central€Government€now€had€broaderÐ á› Ðpowers.РЊ ÐÌ20.à b àTwenty€years€after€the€entry€into€force€of€the€new€Constitution,€however,Ð ®h Ða€further€amendment€became€necessary.€€The€cantons,€which€had€meanwhileÐ W Ðincreased€popular€rights€in€their€territories,€were€demanding€that€the€sameÐ ŒF Ðshould€be€done€at€the€federal€level.€€Moreover,€international€developments,Ð {5 Ðparticularly€the€outbreak€of€the€Franco„German€war€of€1870„1871,€made€aÐ j$ Ðfurther€strengthening€of€the€central€Government€desirable.€€Efforts€to€thisÐ Y  Ðend€were€therefore€made€and,€on€19€May€1874,€the€Federal€Assembly€brought€theÐ H! Ðcurrent€Constitution€into€force.€€This€Constitution€has€undergone€many€partialÐ 7"ñ Ðrevisions,€but€is€still€in€force€at€the€present€time.Ð &#à  ÐÌà@\ \ "–àB.€€òòGovernment€structure:€€federalismóóˆÐ %¾" ÐÌ21.à b àSwitzerland's€history€and€its€multilingualism€have€made€federalismÐ â&œ!$ Ðgenuinely€necessary:€€experience€has€shown€that€the€unity€of€the€HelveticÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐState€can€be€guaranteed€only€if€the€diversity€of€the€parties€which€compose€itÐ À(z#& Ðis€safeguarded.Ð ¯)i$' ÐÌà@    –à1.€€òòOrganization€of€powers€within€the€federal€StateóóˆÐ +G&) Ðâ âÐ |,6'* Ð22.à b àThe€main€feature€of€Swiss€federalism€is€recognition€of€the€sovereignty€ofÐ F Ðâ âeach€canton.€€Power€sharing€between€the€central€Government€and€the€cantons€isÐ 5ï Ðthus€based€on€the€principle€of€attribution:€€only€the€powers€expresslyÐ $Þ Ðattributed€to€it€by€the€Constitution€are€vested€in€the€Confederation€and€theÐ Í Ðcantons€are€sovereign€in€so€far€as€their€sovereignty€is€not€limited€by€theÐ  ¼ ÐConstitution€and,€as€such,€they€exercise€all€the€rights€which€are€notÐ ñ « Ðdelegated€to€the€federal€Government€(art.€3€of€the€Constitution).Ð à š ÐÌ23.à b àOriginally,€as€has€been€seen,€the€Confederation€had€only€a€few€powers,Ð ¾ x Ðprimarily€in€the€fields€of€foreign€relations,€defence,€arbitration€ofÐ ­ g  Ðinter-cantonal€conflicts€and€freedom€of€trade€and€industry.€€With€theÐ œV  Ðchangeover€to€a€federal€State,€however,€the€tasks€of€the€central€Government,Ð ‹E  Ðwhich€became€permanent,€increased€in€number€and€made€the€division€of€federalÐ z4  Ðand€cantonal€powers€more€complex.€€Nowadays,€some€fields€are€exclusivelyÐ i#  Ðwithin€the€competence€of€the€Confederation.€€These€are,€for€example,€foreignÐ X  Ðrelations,€customs,€currency,€post€and€telecommunications,€the€army€andÐ G Ðlegislation€relating€to€atomic€energy,€animal€protection,€railways€andÐ 6ð Ðaviation.€€Other€sectors€are€exclusively€within€the€competence€of€the€cantons,Ð %ß Ðsuch€as€religious€worship,€the€police€and€social€welfare.Ð Î ÐÌ24.à b àBecause€of€the€coexistence€of€federal€and€cantonal€legal€provisions,Ð ò¬ Ðthere€are€other€areas€in€which€the€division€of€powers€is€less€clear€cut.€€InÐ á› Ðmany€cases,€lawmaking€is€done€by€the€Confederation€and€implementation€by€theРЊ Ðcantons.€€This€is€true€in€the€case€of€civil€law,€criminal€law,€socialÐ ¿y Ðinsurance€and€road€traffic.€€In€other€areas,€such€as€taxes,€sickness€insuranceÐ ®h Ðand€public€education,€lawmaking€power€is€shared.Ð W ÐÌ25.à b àAs€may€be€imagined,€situations€can€be€very€complex.€€Public€education€isÐ {5 Ðbut€one€example.€€Primary€education€comes€within€the€exclusive€competence€ofÐ j$ Ðthe€cantons€and,€as€a€result,€there€is€a€wide€variety€of€types€of€instructionÐ Y  Ðand€this€gives€rise€to€a€problem€in€view€of€the€increasing€mobility€of€peopleÐ H! Ðin€general€and€of€students€in€particular.€€It€was€only€in€1985€that€anÐ 7"ñ Ðamendment€to€the€Constitution€standardized€the€date€of€the€start€of€theÐ &#à  Ðschoolyear.Ð $Ï! ÐÌÌÌà@ææ(–à2.€€òòCantons€and€communesóóˆÐ Ñ'‹"% ÐÌ26.à b àCommunes€are€the€smallest€political€entity€of€the€federal€State.€Ð ¯)i$' ÐSwitzerland€has€3,000,€which€vary€considerably€in€size.€€Their€powers€areÐ ž*X%( Ðdefined€by€cantonal€legislation€relating€to€the€organization€of€communes.€Ð +G&) ÐThey€enjoy€autonomy,€which€also€varies€and€the€most€salient€feature€of€whichÐ |,6'* Ðis€sovereignty€in€matters€of€taxation.€€Their€organization€is€not€uniform;€inÐ k-%(+ Ðmany€communes,€power€is€still€exercised€by€a€communal€assembly€in€which€allÐ F Ðinhabitants€who€are€entitled€to€vote€may€take€part,€whereas€larger€communesÐ 5ï Ðhave€a€communal€parliament.€€The€executive€authority€is€the€communal€council,Ð $Þ Ðsometimes€called€the€municipality,€a€collegiate€body€elected€by€direct€popularÐ Í Ðvote€in€most€cases.€€There€is€no€judicial€body€at€the€communal€level.Ð  ¼ ÐÌ27.à b àIn€the€hierarchy€of€the€State,€which€goes€from€the€commune€(lower€level)Ð à š Ðup€to€the€Confederation€(higher€level),€the€cantons€are€in€the€middle€and€areÐ Ï ‰ Ðthus€the€linchpin€of€the€country's€political€structure.€€They€are€sovereign,Ð ¾ x Ðexcept€for€the€powers€attributed€to€the€central€Government.€€At€present,Ð ­ g  ÐSwitzerland€has€26€cantons€and€demi„cantons.€€While€the€Unterwald€valley€hadÐ œV  Ðalready€been€divided€into€two€parts€before€1291,€a€religious€dispute€led€toÐ ‹E  Ðthe€split€of€Appenzell€in€1597€and€Basel€was€divided€in€1883€following€a€civilÐ z4  Ðwar.€€On€24€September€1978,€moreover,€the€people€and€cantons€democraticallyÐ i#  Ðaccepted€the€establishment€of€the€canton€of€the€Jura,€whose€territory€hadÐ X  Ðhitherto€been€subject€to€the€sovereignty€of€the€canton€of€Bern.Ð G ÐÌ28.à b àEach€canton€has€its€own€constitution€and€legislation.€€Legislative€powerÐ %ß Ðis€exercised€by€a€unicameral€parliament€usually€elected€according€to€theÐ Î Ðsystem€of€proportional€representation.€€Executive€and€administrative€power€isÐ ½ Ðvested€in€a€State€council€elected€by€the€people€for€a€specific€period€of€timeÐ ò¬ Ðand€organized€according€to€the€same€principles€as€the€Federal€Council:€€theÐ á› Ðpresident€changes€each€year€and€collegiality€is€the€rule.€€It€shouldРЊ Ðnevertheless€be€noted€that,€in€some€cantons,€elections€of€the€parliament,€theÐ ¿y ÐGovernment,€cantonal€judges€and€even€lower€ranking€judicial€officials€takeÐ ®h Ðplace€by€show€of€hands,€as€does€any€vote€on€a€cantonal€issue,€in€the€contextÐ W Ðof€citizens'€assemblies€known€as€"òòLandsgemeindeóó".Ð ŒF ÐÌ29.à b àThe€cantons€are€also€sovereign€with€regard€to€the€organization€of€theÐ j$ Ðcourts.€€Their€system€is€usually€headed€by€a€supreme€court€(cantonal€court),Ð Y  Ðwhich€is€a€criminal€court€of€cassation€and€of€appeal€against€civil€judgementsÐ H! Ðof€district€courts.€€The€majority€of€the€cantons€also€have€an€administrativeÐ 7"ñ Ðtribunal.€€Elsewhere,€however,€administrative€decisions€which€are€appealableÐ &#à  Ðare€referred€to€the€Government€or€to€appeal€commissions€that€are€independentÐ $Ï! Ðof€the€administration€(the€new€article€98€(a)€of€the€Federal€CourtÐ %¾" ÐOrganization€Act€nevertheless€requires€the€cantons€to€establish€administrativeÐ ó%­ # Ðcourts€within€five€years€as€of€January€1992).Ð â&œ!$ ÐÌ30.à b àThe€political€rights€of€citizens€are€broader€than€at€the€federal€level,Ð À(z#& Ðsince€the€Government€is€directly€elected€by€the€people€and,€in€addition€to€theÐ ¯)i$' Ðright€of€constitutional€initiative,€which€is€possible€only€in€federal€law,Ð ž*X%( Ðmany€cantons€have€the€right€of€legislative€initiative€enabling€a€certainÐ +G&) Ðnumber€of€citizens€to€request€a€popular€vote€on€the€amendment€of€the€law.Ð |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ ЇÌà@ò ò #–à3.€€òòOrganization€of€federal€powersóóˆÐ 5ï ÐÌà@š š –à(a)€€òòThe€executive€power:€€the€Federal€CouncilóóˆÐ Í ÐÌ31.à b àThe€Federal€Council€is€a€governmental€college€composed€of€seven€membersÐ ñ « Ðwho€have€equal€powers.€€Each€member€is€elected€independently€by€the€FederalÐ à š ÐParliament€for€four€years;€he€may€be€re-elected€indefinitely.€€In€practice,Ð Ï ‰ Ðre-election€is€the€rule,€thus€ensuring€the€continuity€and€stability€of€SwissÐ ¾ x Ðpolicy,€particularly€as€neither€the€Federal€Council€nor€any€of€its€members€mayÐ ­ g  Ðbe€deposed€by€the€Parliament.€€This€principle€is€reflected€in€the€sayingÐ œV  Ð"Federal€Council€submits,€but€does€not€resign".Ð ‹E  ÐÌ32.à b àEach€year,€the€Federal€Assembly€chooses€one€of€the€seven€federalÐ i#  Ðcouncillors€as€President.€€As€a€mere€òòprimus€inter€paresóó,€he€does€not€have€anyÐ X  Ðspecial€powers,€but€his€main€role€is€to€chair€Government€meetings€and€toÐ G Ðassume€representation€functions.Ð 6ð ÐÌ33.à b àEach€federal€councillor€is€the€head€of€a€department€(ministry),€whoseÐ Î Ðinterests€he€represents€in€the€Government€college.€€As€a€collegiate€body,€theÐ ½ ÐFederal€Council€takes€its€decisions€only€by€consensus€or€by€a€simple€majority,Ð ò¬ Ðand€each€member€assumes€responsibility€for€joint€decisions.Ð á› ÐÌ34.à b àAs€a€result€of€its€composition,€the€Federal€Council€represents€a€subtleÐ ¿y Ðlinguistic,€religious,€regional€and€political€balance.€€The€ConstitutionÐ ®h Ðprohibits€more€than€one€representative€of€the€same€canton€from€being€membersÐ W Ðof€the€Federal€Council€at€the€same€time.€€In€addition,€the€tradition€is€thatÐ ŒF Ðthe€Latin€(French€and€Italian)€minority€should€always€have€at€least€twoÐ {5 Ðrepresentatives€in€the€Federal€Council€and€that€the€large€cantons€(Zurich,Ð j$ ÐBern€and€Vaud)€should€in€principle€be€represented€in€it.€€Since€1959,€aÐ Y  Ðpolitical€compromise€known€as€the€"magic€formula"€has€ensured€the€country'sÐ H! Ðfour€largest€political€parties,€i.e.€the€Radicals,€Christian€Democrats€andÐ 7"ñ ÐSocialists€(two€representatives€each)€and€the€Democratic€Union€of€the€CentreÐ &#à  Ð(one€representative),€a€permanent€place€in€the€Federal€Council.Ð $Ï! ÐÌ35.à b àThe€Federal€Council€exercises€the€traditional€executive€functionsÐ ó%­ # Ð(art.102€of€the€Constitution):€€political€management€and€development€of€theÐ â&œ!$ Ðcountry;€maintenance€of€law€and€order.€€It€monitors€respect€for€and€theÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðimplementation€of€the€Constitution,€the€laws€and€the€judgements€of€the€FederalÐ À(z#& ÐTribunal€and,€as€appropriate,€takes€the€necessary€measures€for€theirÐ ¯)i$' Ðenforcement.€€In€the€few€cases€that€the€Constitution€removes€from€theÐ ž*X%( Ðjurisdiction€of€the€Federal€Tribunal,€the€Federal€Council€is€the€supremeÐ +G&) Ðappeal€authority.€€Its€role€as€head€of€State€makes€it€the€representative€ofÐ |,6'* ÐSwitzerland€abroad€and€the€guardian€of€the€interests€of€the€Confederation;€itÐ k-%(+ Ðalso€ratifies€the€international€treaties€adopted€by€the€Federal€Chambers.€€ItÐ F Ðshould€be€noted€that,€according€to€well„established€practice,€some€treatiesÐ 5ï Ðmay€be€concluded€without€parliamentary€approval;€this€is€true€of€those€whichÐ $Þ Ðonly€give€the€Confederation€rights€without€imposing€any€obligations€on€it,Ð Í Ðthose€which€are€concluded€on€the€basis€of€an€express€authorization€given€inÐ  ¼ Ðadvance€by€the€Federal€Assembly,€those€which€serve€only€to€enforce€otherÐ ñ « Ðtreaties€that€have€already€been€adopted,€those€which€are€temporary€and€urgentÐ à š Ðand€those€which,€in€internal€law,€come€within€the€regulatory€jurisdiction€ofÐ Ï ‰ Ðthe€Federal€Council.Ð ¾ x ÐÌà@Ì Ì –àÔ& ¼ Ô(b)€€òòLegislative€power:€€the€Federal€AssemblyóóˆÐ œV  ÐÌ36.à b àSwitzerland's€system€of€a€bicameral€parliament€is€the€direct€result€ofÐ z4  Ðfederalism.Ô'¼œ wÔ€€The€Council€of€States€and€the€National€Council€form€the€FederalÐ i#  ÐAssembly.€€The€Council€of€States€is€composed€of€two€representatives€of€eachÐ X  Ðcanton€(the€demi„cantons€each€have€one€seat),€regardless€of€its€size€and€itsÐ G Ðpopulation.€€The€National€Council€is€composed€of€200€peoples'€deputies€whoseÐ 6ð Ðterms€of€office€are€divided€among€the€cantons€in€proportion€to€the€number€ofÐ %ß Ðinhabitants€they€have.€€Although€the€way€the€councillors€are€elected€to€theÐ Î ÐCouncil€of€States€is€decided€by€each€canton€(they€have€generally€opted€for€aÐ ½ Ðmajority€vote,€the€canton€of€the€Jura€being€the€only€exception),€the€membersÐ ò¬ Ðof€the€National€Council€are€uniformly€elected€by€proportional€vote.Ð á› ÐÌ37.à b àA€legislative€term€of€office€lasts€four€years.€€The€Chambers€hold€fourÐ ¿y Ðregular€sessions€each€year.€€The€two€Chambers€have€the€same€rights€and€anyÐ ®h Ðdraft€legislation€or€decision€has€to€be€accepted€by€both€of€them€in€order€toÐ W Ðenter€into€force.€€If€the€consideration€of€such€a€draft€gives€rise€toÐ ŒF Ðdifferences€of€opinion€between€the€Chambers,€they€keep€referring€it€back€toÐ {5 Ðeach€another€until€a€joint€text€can€be€adopted€("shuttle"€procedure).€€TheÐ j$ ÐChambers€also€have€jurisdiction€to€authorize€the€Federal€Council€to€ratifyÐ Y  Ðinternational€treaties.Ð H! ÐÌ38.à b àIn€joint€session,€the€Federal€Assembly€elects€the€Federal€Councillors,Ð &#à  Ðthe€President€and€the€Chancellor€of€the€Confederation,€federal€judges€and,€inÐ $Ï! Ðtime€of€war,€a€General€Commander„in„Chief€of€the€Army.€€It€also€closelyÐ %¾" Ðmonitors€the€federal€administration,€approves€the€Confederation's€budget€andÐ ó%­ # Ðaccounts€and€allocates€the€necessary€funds€for€new€purposes.Ð â&œ!$ ÐÌ39.à b àThe€legislative€texts€adopted€as€a€result€of€parliamentary€debates€areÐ À(z#& Ðnot€final€because€the€Constitution€has€recognized€the€right€of€popularÐ ¯)i$' Ðreferendum€since€1874.€€Thus,€if,€within€three€months€of€the€adoption€of€a€lawÐ ž*X%( Ðby€the€Federal€Chambers,€50,000€valid€signatures€are€collected€from€voters€whoÐ +G&) Ðwould€like€the€new€provisions€to€be€approved€by€the€people,€these€provisionsÐ |,6'* Ðhave€to€be€voted€on€by€the€people€and€cannot€enter€into€force€unless€aÐ k-%(+ Ðmajority€of€citizens€who€have€taken€part€in€the€voting€so€decide.€€The€sameÐ F Ðhappens€at€the€request€of€eight€cantons€or€in€accordance€with€a€decision€ofÐ 5ï Ðthe€Federal€Chambers€(art.89,€paras.2€and€4,€of€the€Constitution).€Ð $Þ ÐConsequently,€a€law€enters€into€force€only€after€the€three€month€referendumÐ Í Ðperiod€at€the€earliest.€€In€addition€to€general€federal€laws€and€decisions,Ð  ¼ Ðthe€referendum€applies€to€international€treaties€which€are€not€subject€toÐ ñ « Ðdenunciation€and€are€concluded€for€an€unspecified€period€of€time,€as€well€asÐ à š Ðthose€which€provide€for€membership€of€an€international€organization€or€lead€toÐ Ï ‰ Ðthe€multilateral€unification€of€the€law€(art.89,€para.3,€of€theÐ ¾ x ÐConstitution).€€A€constitutional€amendment€and€membership€of€collectiveÐ ­ g  Ðsecurity€organizations€or€supranational€communities€are€subject€in€all€casesÐ œV  Ðto€the€dual€consent€of€the€people€and€the€cantons€(compulsory€referendum,Ð ‹E  Ðart.89,€para.5,€of€the€Constitution).Ð z4  ÐÌ40.à b àSince€1891,€the€Constitution€has€also€recognized€the€right€of€popularÐ X  Ðinitiative€to€propose€the€full€or€partial€amendment€of€the€ConstitutionÐ G Ð(art.121€of€the€Constitution).€€For€this€purpose€100,000€citizens'€signaturesÐ 6ð Ðmust€be€collected€within€a€period€of€18€months.€€The€Parliament€cannot€objectÐ %ß Ðto€the€submission€of€a€popular€initiative€to€the€vote,€except€to€declare€itÐ Î Ðinadmissible€as€a€result€of€a€procedural€defect€or€null€and€void€as€a€resultÐ ½ Ðof€a€violation€of€international€law€(this€has€never€happened).€€Since€anÐ ò¬ Ðinitiative€can€relate€only€to€constitutional€amendments,€it€must€have€the€dualÐ á› Ðconsent€of€the€people€and€the€cantons€in€order€to€be€adopted.РЊ ÐÌÓš33Óà@” ” –à(c)€€òòThe€judiciary:€€the€Federal€TribunalóóˆÐ ®h ÐÌ41.à b àThe€Federal€Tribunal€is€the€highest€judicial€authority€in€the€country.€Ð f  ÐIt€is€composed€of€30judges€and€15associate€judges€and€sits€in€Lausanne.€€TheÐ Bü ÐFederal€Insurance€Court€sits€in€Lucerne.€€Within€the€Federal€Tribunal,€thereÐ Ø Ðare€two€public€law€courts€and€two€civil€law€courts,€a€debt€recovery€andÐ ú´ Ðbankruptcy€chamber,€a€court€of€cassation€and€a€special€court€of€cassation,€anÐ Ö  Ðindictment€division,€a€criminal€division€and€a€federal€penal€court.€€Ð ²!l ÐÌ42.à b àThe€Federal€Tribunal€guarantees€respect€for€federal€law€in€criminal,Ð j#$! Ðcivil€and€administrative€matters.€€However,€it€does€not€have€jurisdiction€toÐ F$" Ðmonitor€respect€for€cantonal€law,€except€in€the€event€of€a€violation€of€aÐ "%Ü# Ðconstitutional€principle€guaranteeing€a€fundamental€human€right,€for€example.€Ð þ%¸ $ ÐIn€ruling€in€last€instance€on€the€decisions€of€the€cantonal€courts€referred€toÐ Ú&”!% Ðit,€the€Federal€Tribunal€helps€to€ensure€that€cantonal€laws€are€in€keepingÐ ¶'p"& Ðwith€federal€law€and€that€federal€law€is€uniformly€applied.Ð ’(L#' ÐÌà@–àIII.€€GENERAL€LEGAL€FRAMEWORK€WITHIN€WHICH€HUMAN€RIGHTS€ARE€PROTECTEDˆÐ J*%) ÐÌà@¬¬–àA.€€òòCompetent€human€rights€authorities€and€remedies€availableˆÐ ,¼&+ ÐÔ9 9 9 Ôto€a€person€who€claims€that€his€rights€have€been€violatedóóÐ Þ,˜', Ї43.à b àThe€federal€structure€implies€the€complex€overlapping€of€the€powers€ofÐ F Ðthe€confederation€and€the€cantons€in€this€area.€€If€criminal€and€civil€lawÐ "Ü Ð(including€commercial€law)€are€taken€together,€their€enforcement€is€primarilyÐ þ¸ Ðthe€responsibility€of€the€cantons,€which€are€sovereign€to€decide€on€judicialÐ Ú” Ðorganization€and,€to€a€large€extent,€procedure.€€Administrative€law€may€beÐ ¶p Ðeither€cantonal€or€federal.€€In€general,€violations€of€human€rights€areÐ ’ L Ðactionable€in€Switzerland€in€the€ordinary€civil,€criminal€or€administrativeÐ n ( Ðcourts.€€Administrative€courts€do€not€yet€exist€in€all€cantons,€which€areÐ J  Ðhenceforth€required€to€establish€them€by€the€new€article98(a)€of€the€FederalÐ & à ÐJudicial€Organization€Act€(referred€to€below€as€OJF,€annexed€heretoòò1óó/.€€WhenÐ  ¼  Ðnecessary,€they€are€replaced€by€an€executive€authority€or€an€independentÐ Þ ˜  Ðappeals€commission.Ð ºt  ÐÌà@®®*–à1.€€òòCriminal€mattersóóˆÐ r,  ÐÌ44.à b àAlthough€substantive€criminal€law€was€unified€by€the€Swiss€Penal€CodeÐ *ä  Ðof21December1937,€its€enforcement€and€procedure€are€primarily€theÐ À  Ðresponsibility€of€the€cantons;€Switzerland€thus€does€not€have€one€singleР✠Ðsystem€of€criminal€justice,€but,€rather,€26different€systems.€€In€view€ofÐ ¾x Ðthis€diversity,€only€the€main€features€that€are€the€same€for€all€cantons€willÐ šT Ðbe€described€below.Ð v0 Ð__________________________Ð R  ÐòòÌÌÌ1óó/€€à b àThe€annexes€referred€to€in€this€document€may€be€consulted€in€the€filesÐ Â| Ðofthe€Centre€for€Human€Rights,€in€the€original€language,€as€submitted€by€theÐ žX ÐGovernment€of€Switzerland.Ð z4 ÐÌÌÌ45.à b àThe€system€of€criminal€justice€comes€into€play€when€an€offence€isÐ ê¤ Ðdiscovered€by€the€competent€authority€(usually€the€police)€or€reported€to€it.€Ð Æ €  ÐThe€authority€then€has€to€institute€proceedings€and€start€an€investigation.€Ð ¢!\! ÐIf€the€probable€perpetrator€is€identified,€the€case€is€referred€to€theÐ ~"8" Ðexamining€magistrate;€if€not,€the€proceedings€are€suspended€at€this€stage.€Ð Z## ÐThe€examining€magistrate€then€has€to€identify€the€ingredients€of€the€offenceÐ 6$ð$ Ðand€decide€whether€the€accused€should€be€placed€in€pre-trial€detention,€whichÐ %Ì% Ðis,€however,€still€the€exception.€€If€there€is€sufficient€evidence,€theÐ î%¨ & Ðauthority€brings€charges€and,€if€not,€the€investigation€ends€with€a€dismissal.€Ð Ê&„!' ÐFrom€then€on,€the€courts€of€first€instance€and,€on€appeal,€the€cantonal€courtsÐ ¦'`"( Ðof€cassation€have€jurisdiction€to€determine€the€guilt€of€the€accused€and,€asÐ ‚(<#) Ðappropriate,€the€penalty€to€be€imposed.€€Except€where€a€case€is€brought€beforeÐ ^)$* Ðthe€European€Commission€of€Human€Rights€for€a€violation€of€the€EuropeanÐ :*ô$+ ÐConvention€on€Human€Rights,€the€final€decision€is€made€by€the€Court€ofÐ +Ð%, ÐCassation€of€the€Federal€Tribunal.Ð ò+¬&- ÐÐ Î,ˆ'. Ð46.à b àSome€serious€offences€(such€as€cases€of€high€treason€or€offencesÐ F Ðinvolving€the€use€of€explosives)€are€exclusively€within€federal€jurisdictionÐ "Ü Ð(Federal€Penal€Court€or€Assize€Court,€arts.340€to€342€of€the€Penal€Code,Ð þ¸ Ðannexed€heretoòò1óó/).€€These€courts€apply€the€Federal€Penal€Procedure€ActÐ Ú” Ðof15June1934.€€Appeals€are€heard€by€the€Special€Court€of€Cassation€of€theÐ ¶p ÐFederal€Tribunal.Ð ’ L ÐÌ47.à b àServing€members€of€the€military€and€officials€and€employees€of€theÐ J  ÐConfederation€and€the€cantons€whose€acts€relate€to€national€defence,€asÐ & à Ðwellas€civilians€guilty€of€offences€against€international€law€during€anÐ  ¼  Ðarmedconflict,€are€subject€to€military€law€and€the€military€courts,Ð Þ ˜  Ðprovidedthat€such€acts€are€punishable€under€the€Military€Penal€Code€(theseÐ ºt  Ðare€not€a€special€law€or€special€courts,€since€the€procedure€followed€isÐ –P  Ðverysimilar€to€that€of€the€civil€courts).€€These€persons€may,€however,€beÐ r,  Ðtried€by€civil€courts€for€offences€not€provided€for€by€the€Military€Penal€CodeÐ N  Ðof€13June1927.Ð *ä  ÐÌ48.à b àThe€cantons€designate€the€authorities€which€are€competent€to€deal€withР✠Ðchildren€and€adolescents,€as€well€as€the€procedure€to€be€followed€(arts.€369Ð ¾x Ðto€371€of€the€Penal€Code).€€The€applicable€substantive€law€is€contained€inÐ šT ÐTitle€Four€of€the€Penal€Code€and€appeals€may€be€made€to€the€Court€of€CassationÐ v0 Ðof€the€Federal€Tribunal.Ð R  ÐÌ49.à b àSince€the€adoption€on€22€March€1974€of€the€Federal€AdministrativeÐ  Ä ÐCriminal€Law€Act,€the€Federal€Government€has€been€competent€to€investigate€andÐ æ  Ðtry€offences€against€the€penal€provisions€of€the€administrative€laws€of€theÐ Â| ÐConfederation.€€However,€whenever€the€department€concerned€is€of€the€opinionÐ žX Ðthat€there€should€be€a€penalty€or€term€of€imprisonment,€the€case€file€isÐ z4 Ðtransmitted€to€the€cantonal€prosecutor's€office€for€the€attention€of€theÐ V Ðcompetent€court.€€Any€person€affected€by€a€criminal€ruling€by€the€FederalÐ 2ì ÐGovernment€may€ask€to€be€tried€by€a€court.Ð È ÐÌà@DD,–à2.€€òòCivil€mattersˆÐ Æ €  ÐóóÌ50.à b àJurisdiction€in€this€regard€belongs€in€first€instance€to€the€districtÐ ~"8" Ðcourts,€which€apply€the€cantonal€procedure.€€On€appeal,€disputes€are€settledÐ Z## Ðby€the€cantonal€courts€and€the€Federal€Tribunal€(action€for€annulment).€€Ð 6$ð$ ÐÌÌÌÌAccording€to€article€41€(b)€of€the€OJF,€annexed€hereto,€òò1óó/€the€FederalÐ ‚(<#) ÐTribunal€is€the€sole€court,€apart€from€the€exceptions€referred€to€in€thatÐ ^)$* Ðarticle,€to€hear€criminal€indemnity€actions€brought€by€private€individualsÐ :*ô$+ Ðagainst€the€Confederation€when€the€value€in€dispute€is€at€least€Sw€F€8,000.€Ð +Ð%, Ðâ âOther€disputes€may€also€be€referred€to€it€in€sole€instance,€but€only€with€theÐ ò+¬&- Ðexpress€agreement€of€the€parties€(arts.€41€(c))€and€42€of€the€OJF).€€In€suchÐ F Ðcases,€it€applies€the€Federal€Civil€Procedure€Act€of€4€December€1947.Ð "Ü Ðâ âÌà@‚‚'–à3.€€òòAdministrative€mattersóóˆÐ Ú” ÐÌ51.à b àAt€the€cantonal€level,€decisions€taken€by€the€Government€may€usually€beÐ ’ L Ðappealed€to€an€executive€body,€an€independent€appeals€commission€or€anÐ n ( Ðadministrative€tribunal.€€When€such€decisions,€whether€taken€by€a€cantonalÐ J  Ðauthority€or€by€a€federal€authority,€are€based€on€federal€law,€they€are€inÐ & à Ðprinciple€tried€in€last€instance€by€the€Federal€Tribunal€by€means€of€theÐ  ¼  Ð"administrative€law€remedy".€€The€OJF€nevertheless€rules€out€this€possibilityÐ Þ ˜  Ðfor€a€number€of€disputes,€which€are€then€heard€in€last€instance€by€the€FederalÐ ºt  ÐCouncil.€€There€are,€however,€federal€appeals€commissions€whose€decisions€areÐ –P  Ðfinal€(such€as€the€Swiss€Commission€on€Applications€for€Asylum).Ð r,  ÐÌà@Ž Ž "–à4.€€òòViolations€of€fundamental€rightsóóˆÐ *ä  ÐÌ52.à b àIn€addition€to€the€above„mentioned€administrative€law€remedy,€the€mainР✠Ðlegal€remedy€available€to€a€person€claiming€that€his€fundamental€rights€haveÐ ¾x Ðbeen€violated€is€an€application€for€a€"public€law€remedy"€filed€with€theÐ šT ÐFederal€Tribunal.€€This€remedy,€which€is€of€a€subsidiary€nature,€since€it€isÐ v0 Ðadmissible€only€if€other€remedies€are€possible,€including€the€action€forÐ R  Ðannulment€filed€with€the€Court€of€Criminal€Cassation,€civil€actions€forÐ .è Ðannulment€and€the€administrative€law€remedy,€is€intended€mainly€as€a€means€ofÐ  Ä Ðappealing€decisions€of€the€cantonal€authorities€based€on€federal€or€cantonalÐ æ  Ðlaw€for€violations€of€constitutional€rights€or€directly€applicable€provisionsÐ Â| Ðcontained€in€international€human€rights€conventions.€€The€relevant€provisionsÐ žX Ðof€the€OJF€read€as€follows:Ð z4 ÐÌà b à"Article€84:Ð 2ì ÐÌà0 b à(1)à ™ àAn€action€may€be€applied€for€in€the€Federal€Tribunal€for€a€remedyÐ ê¤ Ðagainst€a€cantonal€decision€or€judgement€for€a€violation€of:ÐÆ € b$b$ ÐÌà0 b àà ™ à(a)à Ð àConstitutional€rights€of€citizens;Ð~"8"b$b$ ÐÌà b àà ™ à(b)à Ð à...Ð 6$ð$ ÐÌà0 b àà ™ à(c)à Ð àInternational€treaties,€except€in€the€case€of€a€violation€ofÐ î%¨ & Ðtheir€civil€law€or€criminal€law€provisions€by€a€cantonal€decision;ÐÊ&„!'b$b$ ÐÌà b àà ™ à(d)à Ð à...Ð ‚(<#) ÐÌà b àArticle€85:Ð :*ô$+ ÐÌà b àThe€Federal€Tribunal€also€hears:€€Ð ò+¬&- ÐÐ Î,ˆ'. ЇÌÌÌÌà0 b àà ™ à(a)à Ð àActions€in€respect€of€the€right€of€citizens€to€vote€andÐ ¶p Ðrights€relating€to€cantonal€elections€and€voting;Ð’ Lb$b$ ÐÌà b àArticle€86:Ð J  ÐÌà0 b à(1)à ™ à...Ð ¼ b$b$ ÐÌà0 b à(2)à ™ àActions€for€violations€of€the€constitutional€rights€of€citizens€areÐ ºt  Ðadmissible€only€after€cantonal€remedies€have€been€exhausted;ЖP b$b$ ÐÌà0 b à(4)à ™ àActions€for€violations€of€directly€applicable€provisions€ofÐ N  Ðmultilateral€conventions€for€the€protection€of€human€rights€andÐ *ä  Ðfundamental€freedoms€are€admissible€only€after€cantonal€remedies€haveÐ À  Ðbeen€exhausted."Ðâœb$b$ ÐÌ53.à b àThere€is€an€important€restriction€on€the€power€of€the€Federal€Tribunal€toÐ šT Ðconsider€public€law€remedies.€€Article€113,€paragraph€1€(3),€of€theÐ v0 ÐConstitution€requires€it€to€apply,€in€every€case,€the€general€federal€laws€andÐ R  Ðdecisions€adopted€by€the€Federal€Assembly,€as€well€as€the€treaties€it€hasÐ .è Ðratified.€€This€provision,€which€is€democratically€inspired,€since€it€isÐ  Ä Ðdesigned€to€prevent€a€court€from€declaring€unconstitutional€a€text€which€hasÐ æ  Ðbeen€submitted€to€an€optional€popular€referendum€and€accepted€by€the€people,Ð Â| Ðeven€tacitly,€nevertheless€hampers€the€monitoring€of€the€constitutionality€ofÐ žX Ðfederal€laws€and€their€conformity€with€basic€constitutional€rights.€€It€mayÐ z4 Ðthus€be€said€that€there€is€no€full€federal€constitutional€monitoring.€€TheÐ V Ðrule€embodied€in€article€113€of€the€Constitution€does€not,€however,€preventÐ 2ì Ðthe€Federal€Tribunal€from€finding€that€a€federal€law€is€incompatible€with€theÐ È ÐConstitution,€thus€prompting€the€lawmakers€to€remedy€the€situation.Ð ê¤ ÐÌà@¦ ¦ –àB.€€òòSystem€of€compensation€and€rehabilitation€of€victimsˆÐ ¢!\! ÐóóÌ54.à b àA€person€who€considers€that€he€has€been€a€victim€of€a€violation€of€hisÐ Z## Ðrights€may€take€legal€action€on€the€basis€of€the€remedies€described€above€andÐ 6$ð$ Ðthe€procedures€and€judicial€organization€of€the€canton€concerned.€€CriminalÐ %Ì% Ðindemnity€actions€and€appeals€against€administrative€decisions€are€usuallyÐ î%¨ & Ðintended€to€obtain€compensation€for€loss€or€injury€(restitution,€annulment€ofÐ Ê&„!' Ðthe€administrative€decision,€compensation,€moral€damages)€or€a€determinationÐ ¦'`"( Ðthat€the€rights€in€question€have€been€violated€(action€for€a€òòde€jureóóÐ ‚(<#) Ðdetermination).€€In€principle,€criminal€indemnity€actions€against€GovernmentÐ ^)$* Ðauthorities€come€under€the€ordinary€regime;€however€the€cantons€are€free€toÐ :*ô$+ Ðenact€special€laws€on€the€responsibility€of€cantonal€authorities.€€As€seenÐ +Ð%, Ðabove,€the€Federal€Tribunal€sits€alone€in€hearing€criminal€indemnity€actionsÐ ò+¬&- Ðagainst€the€Confederation€when€the€value€in€dispute€is€at€least€Sw€F€8,000.€Ð Î,ˆ'. ÐThere€are€special€federal€laws€relating€to€the€responsibility€of€GovernmentÐ F Ðbodies,€such€as€the€Federal€Law€of€14€March€1858€on€the€Responsibility€of€theÐ "Ü ÐConfederation,€the€Federal€Law€of€28€March€1905€on€the€Civil€Liability€of€theÐ þ¸ ÐRailways,€Steamships€and€Postal€Service€and€the€Federal€Law€of€18€March€1983Ð Ú” Ðon€Civil€Liability€in€Matters€Relating€to€Nuclear€Energy.Ð ¶p ÐÌ55.à b àIn€criminal€cases,€the€existence€of€criminal€indemnification€proceedingsÐ n ( Ðenables€the€victim€of€an€offence€or€a€crime€to€take€part€in€the€proceedings€toÐ J  Ðassert€his€civil€rights.€€When€the€act€was€committed€by€a€Government€official,Ð & à Ðthe€official's€personal€responsibility€and€that€of€the€State€may€be€engaged.€€Ð  ¼  ÐÌÌÌÌÌFor€reasons€of€solvency,€Swiss€law€allows€the€victim€or€his€beneficiaries€toÐ *ä  Ðtake€proceedings€directly€against€the€Government.€€In€some€cases,€it€evenÐ À  Ðmakes€it€an€obligation€for€the€victim€to€do€so€(art.€3€of€the€Federal€Law€onР✠Ðthe€Responsibility€of€the€Confederation).Ð ¾x ÐÌ56.à b àIn€military€cases,€when€the€offence€is€punishable€by€the€Military€PenalÐ v0 ÐCode,€articles€163€and€164€of€the€Federal€Law€on€Military€Penal€ProcedureÐ R  Ðenable€the€victim€to€request€compensation€from€the€military€courts.Ð .è ÐÌ57.à b àWith€regard€to€assistance€for€the€victims€of€criminal€offences,€it€shouldÐ æ  Ðbe€noted€that€the€Federal€Law€on€Assistance€to€Victims€of€Offences€enteredÐ Â| Ðinto€force€on€1€January€1993.€€Its€purpose€is€to€provide€effective€assistanceÐ žX Ðto€the€victims€of€direct€violations€of€their€bodily,€sexual€or€mentalÐ z4 Ðintegrity,€as€well€as€to€their€families,€whether€or€not€the€offender€has€beenÐ V Ðdiscovered€and€whether€or€not€his€conduct€was€wrongful.€€This€new€law€providesÐ 2ì Ðthat€assistance€includes€counselling€by€cantonal€guidance€centres;€theÐ È Ðprotection€of€the€victim€and€his€rights€in€criminal€proceedings€(measures€toÐ ê¤ Ðprevent€any€unnecessary€publicity€that€is€harmful€to€the€victim;€right€to€takeÐ Æ €  Ðpart€in€the€proceedings€and€submit€criminal€indemnity€claims;€right€of€appealÐ ¢!\! Ðif€the€sentence€affects€such€claims€or€the€way€in€which€they€may€be€judged);Ð ~"8" Ðand,€in€some€circumstances,€compensation€and€moral€damages.Ð Z## ÐÌà@  –àC.€€òòConstitutional€protection€of€the€rights€provided€for€inˆÐ %Ì% ÐÔ4 4 4  ÔÔœ œ œ hÿhÿÔthe€various€international€human€rights€instrumentsóóÐ î%¨ & ÐÌ58.à b àIn€Swiss€law,€there€is€no€separate€declaration€or€charter€listing€theÐ ¦'`"( Ðfundamental€rights€guaranteed€by€international€conventions.€€Most€of€theseÐ ‚(<#) Ðrights€are€embodied€in€the€1874€Constitution€or€derived€therefrom€by€theÐ ^)$* Ðdecisions€of€the€Federal€Tribunal;€in€that€case,€reference€is€made€toÐ :*ô$+ Ð"unwritten€constitutional€rights".Ð +Ð%, ÐÌÓf&šÓ59.à b àThe€Constitution€expressly€provides€for:Ð Î,ˆ'. Їà0 b àThe€principle€of€equality€before€the€law€and€the€abolition€of€privilegesÐ F Ð(art.4,€para.1);Ð+åb$b$ ÐÌà0 b àThe€principle€of€equality€between€men€and€women€(art.4,€para.2);Ðõ¯b$b$ ÐÌà b àProtection€of€the€right€of€ownership€(art.22€òòteróó);Ð ¿ y ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€trade€and€industry€(art.31);Љ Cb$b$ ÐÌà0 b àThe€political€rights€of€citizens€(art.43);ÐS  b$b$ ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€establishment€of€citizens€in€any€part€of€the€nationalÐ ×  Ðterritory€(art.45);м b$b$ ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€conscience€and€belief€(art.49);Ð̆ b$b$ ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€worship€(art.50);ЖPb$b$ ÐÌà0 b àThe€right€to€marry€(art.54);Ð`b$b$ ÐÌÌÌÌÌà0 b àFreedom€of€the€press€(art.55);оxb$b$ ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€association€(art.56);ЈBb$b$ ÐÌà0 b àThe€right€to€due€process€of€law€and€the€prohibition€of€special€courtsÐ R  Ð(art.58);Ð7ñb$b$ Ðà0 b àÐ b$b$ Ðà b àThe€prohibition€of€corporal€punishment€(art.65,€para.2);Ð !» Ðà0 b àÐ b$b$ Ðà0 b àThe€abolition€of€the€death€penalty€for€political€crimes€(art.65,Ð Ë"…! Ðpara.1,€made€applicable€by€amendment€of€the€Penal€Code€and€the€MilitaryÐ °#j" ÐPenal€Code€to€any€death€sentence);Е$O#b$b$ ÐÌà0 b àThe€prohibition€of€imprisonment€for€contractual€debts€(art.59,€para.3).Ð_&!%b$b$ ÐÌà b àSince€the€Constitution€dates€back€to€1874,€the€freedoms€it€guaranteesÐ )(ã"' Ðhave€been€adapted€by€court€decisions.€€Over€time,€a€relatively€full€set€ofÐ )È#( Ðcase€law€relating€to€procedural€and€legal€guarantees€has€been€developed€on€theÐ ó)­$) Ðbasis€of€the€principle€of€equality€embodied€in€article4.Ð Ø*’%* Ðâ âÐ ½+w&+ Ð60.à b àThe€Federal€Tribunal€has€also€derived€the€following€"unwritten"€rightsÐ F Ðâ âfrom€the€interpretation€of€the€Constitution:Ð +å ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€expression;Ðõ¯b$b$ ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€person;п yb$b$ ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€language;Љ Cb$b$ ÐÌà0 b àFreedom€of€assembly.ÐS  b$b$ ÐÌ61.à b àSince€each€canton€has€its€own€constitution,€lists€of€fundamental€freedomsÐ ×  Ðalso€exist€at€the€cantonal€level.€€The€Federal€Tribunal€regards€them€asÐ ¼  Ðautonomous€only€in€the€very€rare€case€where€the€protection€they€offer€goesÐ ç¡  Ðbeyond€that€afforded€by€written€or€unwritten€federal€constitutional€law.Р̆  ÐÌ62.à b àIt€should€also€be€noted€that€the€substantive€provisions€of€the€EuropeanÐ –P ÐConvention€for€the€Protection€of€Human€Rights€and€Fundamental€FreedomsÐ {5 Ðof4November€1950€(which€entered€into€force€for€Switzerland€onÐ ` Ð28November1974)€supplement€the€above„mentioned€constitutional€rights€byÐ Eÿ Ðguaranteeing€fuller€protection€of€the€individual€(see,€for€example,€FederalÐ *ä ÐTribunal€decisions€(ATF)€101€la€67€and€106€1a€35).Ð É ÐÌ63.à b àAlthough€the€Constitution€places€specific€limitations€on€certainÐ Ù“ Ðconstitutional€rights€in€accordance€with€the€public€interest,€legal€provisionsÐ ¾x Ðand€respect€for€the€principle€of€proportionality€(for€example,€the€protectionÐ £] Ðof€the€right€of€ownership€does€not€prevent€lawful€expropriations),€it€does€notÐ ˆB Ðprovide€for€the€possibility€of€a€general€derogation€from€the€rights€itÐ m' Ðguarantees.Ð R  ÐÌ64.à b àIn€this€connection,€however,€mention€must€be€made€of€article€89€òòbisóó€ofÐ  Ö Ðthe€Constitution,€which,€in€the€event€of€necessity,€allows€the€urgentÐ !» Ðimplementation€of€federal€decisions€derogating€from€the€Constitution,€provided€Ð æ!   Ðthat€the€people€and€cantons€ratify€them€within€one€year€from€theirÐ Ë"…! Ðimplementation.€€This€provision,€which€was€adopted€in€1949€following€theÐ °#j" ÐSecond€World€War,€is€designed€to€strike€a€balance€between€the€need€to€give€theÐ •$O# ÐFederal€Government€the€necessary€powers€in€the€event€of€a€serious€crisis€orÐ z%4 $ Ðthreat€to€the€country€and€the€guarantees€required€to€prevent€abuses€in€theÐ _&!% Ðexercise€of€such€increased€power€and€to€limit€the€restriction€of€democraticÐ D'þ!& Ðrights.€€Depending€on€the€procedure€defined€and€in€the€event€of€a€state€ofÐ )(ã"' Ðnecessity,€this€provision€means€that€through€urgent€federal€decisions,€theÐ )È#( Ðexercise€of€some€democratic€or€fundamental€rights€may€be€restricted€orÐ ó)­$) Ðsuspended€for€a€limited€period€of€time.Ð Ø*’%* Ðâ âÐ ½+w&+ Ð65.à b àAlthough€there€usually€has€to€be€a€legal€basis€for€any€restriction€on€theÐ F Ðâ âexercise€of€an€individual€freedom,€the€principle€of€"general€police€power"Ð +å Ðenables€the€authorities€to€issue€orders€or€take€individual€decisions€withoutÐ Ê Ðany€legal€basis€whenever€the€exercise€of€that€freedom€constitutes€a€grave€andÐ õ¯ Ðimminent€danger€to,€or€actually€disturbs,€public€order.€€This€power€is€basedÐ Ú” Ðon€article€2,€paragraphs€9€and€10,€of€the€Constitution€(authorizing€theÐ ¿ y ÐFederal€Council€to€guarantee€Switzerland's€internal€and€external€security€andÐ ¤ ^ Ðthe€maintenance€of€order€and€tranquillity)€or€the€unwritten€constitutionalÐ ‰ C Ðrule€known€as€the€"general€police€clause".€€In€order€to€prevent€abuses€and€anyÐ n ( Ðviolation€of€the€principle€of€the€rule€of€law,€the€Federal€Tribunal€carefullyÐ S   Ðmonitors€the€way€this€power€is€used€(ATF€100€la€579/580).€€Ð 8ò  ÐÌ66.à b àSince€1974,€any€derogation€from€fundamental€freedoms€must€be€in€keepingÐ ¼  Ðwith€the€requirements€of€article€15€of€the€European€Convention€on€HumanÐ ç¡  ÐRights.Р̆  ÐÌà@  –àD.€€òòIncorporation€of€international€human€rights€instrumentsˆÐ –P ÐÔœ œ œ qqÔinto€internal€lawóóÐ {5 ÐÌ67.à b àSwitzerland€is€a€country€with€a€monist€tradition:€€an€internationalÐ Eÿ Ðtreaty€ratified€by€the€Federal€Council€(sometimes€on€its€own€initiative,€butÐ *ä Ðusually€with€the€authorization€of€the€Parliament€or€after€a€vote€by€the€peopleÐ É Ðor€by€the€people€and€cantons;€see€paras.€35€to€39€above)€forms€part€of€federalÐ ô® Ðlaw€from€the€time€of€its€entry€into€force€for€Switzerland€without€any€need€forÐ Ù“ Ðit€to€be€incorporated€in€the€internal€legal€system€through€the€adoption€of€aÐ ¾x Ðspecial€law.€€This€principle€is€unchallenged;€it€may€be€deduced€fromÐ £] Ðarticle113,€paragraph€1€(3),€of€the€Constitution,€which€requires€the€FederalÐ ˆB ÐòòóóTribunal€to€apply,€in€all€cases,€the€federal€laws€and€the€treaties€ratified€byÐ m' Ðthe€federal€authorities.€€Such€a€treaty€is€obviously€an€obligation€underÐ R  Ðinternational€law€for€the€Swiss€authorities.Ð 7ñ Ѐ€Ð  Ö Ð68.à b àDespite€a€few€decisions€to€the€contrary,€the€Federal€Tribunal€has,€inÐ !» Ðitsrecent€decisions,€established€the€primacy€of€international€law€overÐ æ!   Ðinternal€law€(ATF€106€lb€402€and€ATF€109€lb€173).€€This€is€also€the€officialÐ Ë"…! Ðposition€of€the€Federal€Government.€€(See€the€joint€ruling€of€the€FederalÐ °#j" ÐJustice€Office€and€the€Public€International€Law€Department€on€the€relationshipÐ •$O# Ðbetween€international€law€and€internal€law€within€the€Swiss€legal€system,Ð z%4 $ Ðdated€26April€1989,€annexed€hereto,€òò1óó/€which€the€Federal€Council€expresslyÐ _&!% Ðendorsed€in€its€message€of€18€May€1992€on€the€adoption€of€the€Treaty€on€theÐ D'þ!& ÐEuropean€Economic€Area.)Ð )(ã"' ÐÌÌÌÌà@Ò Ò –àE.€€òòDirect€invocability€of€the€provisions€of€humanˆÐ ¢,\', ÐÔb b b 77Ôrights€instruments€in€national€courtsóóÐ F ÐÌ69.à b àTo€say€that€properly€ratified€international€treaties€immediately€formÐ Ê Ðpart€of€the€Swiss€legal€system€and€constitute€an€international€obligation€forÐ õ¯ Ðthe€authorities€does€not€necessarily€mean€that€the€rules€they€contain€areÐ Ú” Ðdirectly€applicable€by€national€courts€and€may€validly€be€invoked€before€them.€Ð ¿ y ÐAn€international€treaty€may€contain€"programme"€provisions€or€provisions€whichÐ ¤ ^ Ðmerely€establish€the€general€framework€of€the€subject-matter€of€the€treaty;Ð ‰ C Ðstill€others€set€objectives€and€leave€the€States€parties€a€great€deal€ofÐ n ( Ðfreedom€in€deciding€how€they€should€be€achieved.€€Such€rules€are€not€directlyÐ S   Ðapplicable,€but€require€the€adoption€of€provisions€of€internal€law€to€giveÐ 8ò  Ðeffect€to€them.€€In€other€words,€they€are€not€self-executing.€€According€toÐ ×  Ðthe€decisions€of€the€Federal€Tribunal,€a€rule€contained€in€an€internationalÐ ¼  Ðhuman€rights€convention€ratified€by€Switzerland€cannot€be€directly€invoked€byÐ ç¡  Ða€citizen€unless,€in€the€context€and€in€the€light€of€the€object€and€purpose€ofР̆  Ðthe€convention,€it€is€unconditional€and€specific€enough€(i)to€have€a€directÐ ±k  Ðeffect;€(ii)to€be€applied€as€such€to€a€particular€case;€and€(iii)to€serve€asÐ –P Ðthe€basis€for€a€concrete€decision€(see€ATF112€lb184).€€In€the€finalÐ {5 Ðanalysis,€the€courts€decide€in€particular€cases€whether€such€a€treatyÐ ` Ðprovision€is€self-executing.Ð Eÿ ÐÌà@B B –àF.€€òòNational€institutions€and€agencies€with€responsibilityˆÐ É ÐÔÐ Ð Ð ¥¥Ôfor€guaranteeing€respect€for€human€rightsóóÐ ô® ÐÌ70.à b àAt€the€federal€and€cantonal€levels,€there€are€various€official€bodiesÐ ¾x Ðwhose€responsibilities€relate€to€the€protection€of€human€rights€in€specificÐ £] Ðareas.€€Particular€reference€should€be€made€to€the€Federal€Advisory€CommissionÐ ˆB Ðfor€the€Problem€of€Foreigners€and€the€Federal€Refugee€Commission,€as€well€asÐ m' Ðthe€Office€of€Equality€between€Men€and€Women€in€the€Federal€Department€of€theÐ R  ÐInterior,€which€has€its€counterpart€in€many€cantons.Ð 7ñ ÐÌ71.à b àA€plan€to€establish€a€federal€commission€on€racism€is€under€review€inÐ !» Ðconnection€with€Switzerland's€accession€in€1993€to€the€InternationalÐ æ!   ÐConvention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Racial€DiscriminationÐ Ë"…! Ðof21December1965.Ð °#j" ÐÌ72.à b àPosts€of€"ombudsman"€to€provide€assistance€to€private€individuals€inÐ z%4 $ Ðtheir€relations€with€the€administration€have€been€established€by€the€cities€ofÐ _&!% ÐZurich€and€Winterthur€and€the€cantons€of€Zurich,€Basel„Town€and€Basel-Country.€Ð D'þ!& ÐThe€city€of€Bern€will€establish€such€a€post€shortly.€€At€the€federal€level,€aÐ )(ã"' Ðplan€for€an€"ombudsman",€whose€tasks€would€be€to€provide€citizens€withÐ )È#( Ðinformation€on€remedies€available€in€their€disputes€with€the€federalÐ ó)­$) ÐGovernment,€shed€light€on€the€facts€and€try€to€bring€about€conciliation,Ð Ø*’%* Ðâ âwithout,€however,€having€any€decision-making€power,€will€be€submitted€to€theÐ ½+w&+ ÐParliament€shortly.€€Its€terms€of€reference€might€include€questions€relatingÐ F Ðto€action€to€combat€racism.Ð +å Ðâ âÌ73.à b àIn€general,€respect€for€and€the€protection€of€human€rights€is€theÐ õ¯ Ðresponsibility€of€all€Government€authorities,€both€cantonal€and€federal,€and,Ð Ú” Ðin€particular,€of€the€police€and€the€courts.Ð ¿ y ÐÌÌÌÌà@ºº%–àIV.€€INFORMATION€AND€PUBLICITYˆÐ 8ò  ÐÌÓ33f&Ó74.à b àWhen€the€Federal€Council€plans€to€ratify€a€convention,€it€sets€in€motionÐ ¼  Ða€procedure€for€consultation€with€the€main€interested€circles€(politicalÐ ñ«  Ðparties,€cantons,€universities,€non„governmental€organizations,€etc.).€€OnÐ àš  Ðthis€basis,€it€decides€whether€it€should€propose€that€the€Parliament€shouldРω  Ðadopt€the€treaty.€€In€such€a€case,€it€publishes€a€message€for€the€attention€ofÐ ¾x Ðthe€Federal€Assembly€on€the€scope€and€consequences€of€such€a€commitment.€€ThisÐ ­g Ðmessage€is€published€in€the€òòFeuillefdraleóó€(Official€Journal€of€theÐ œV ÐConfederation)€and€is€thus€accessible€to€interested€members€of€the€public.€Ð ‹E ÐThe€parliamentary€debates€on€the€question€are€given€some€publicity€in€theÐ z4 Ðnewspapers€and€on€radio€and€television;€apart€from€these€debates,€theÐ i# Ðratification€of€a€convention€is€often€the€topic€of€discussions€in€meetings,Ð X Ðworkshops€and€seminars€organized€by€the€universities€and€in€schools.Ð G Ѐ€Ð 6ð Ð75.à b àUpon€ratification,€every€convention,€including€those€relating€to€humanÐ %ß Ðrights,€is€published€in€the€Official€Compendium€of€the€Confederation€and€inÐ Î Ðthe€Systematic€Compendium€of€Federal€Laws€in€the€three€official€languages,Ð ½ ÐGerman,€French€and€Italian.€€Thus€and,€as€in€the€case€of€all€federal€laws,Ð ò¬ Ðthese€treaties€are€known€to€the€competent€human€rights€authorities€and€areÐ á› Ðeasily€available€to€all€citizens.€€In€view€of€their€importance,€some€texts€areÐ Ð Š Ðpublicized€specially.€€This€was€the€case€of€the€Universal€Declaration€ofÐ ¿!y ÐHumanRights,€which€was€published€in€the€òòFeuillefdraleóó€as€an€annex€toÐ ®"h  Ðthe1982€report€on€Swiss€human€rights€policy€and€translated€into€the€fourthÐ #W! Ðnational€language,€Rhaeto„Romansch,€and€the€Declaration€on€the€Elimination€ofÐ Œ$F" ÐAll€Forms€of€Intolerance€and€of€Discrimination€Based€on€Religion€or€Belief,Ð {%5 # Ðwhich€was€published€in€the€òòFeuillefdraleóó€(in€the€three€official€languages)Ð j&$!$ Ðin€1988€on€the€occasion€of€the€fortieth€anniversary€of€the€UniversalÐ Y'"% ÐDeclaration€of€Human€Rights.Ð H(#& Ѐ€Ð 7)ñ#' Ð76.à b àAccount€should€also€be€taken€of€the€role€of€non„governmentalÐ &*à$( Ðorganizations,€several€of€which€receive€financial€assistance€from€theÐ +Ï%) Ðâ âConfederation,€in€the€dissemination€of€human€rights€conventions€in€SwitzerlandÐ ,¾&* Ðand€abroad,€through€publications,€seminars€and€activities€designed€to€increaseÐ F Ðthe€awareness€of€national€and€international€public€opinion.Ð 5ï Ðâ âÌ77.à b àReports€to€be€submitted€to€human€rights€treaty€monitoring€bodies€areÐ Í Ðprepared€in€cooperation€with€the€federal€and€cantonal€Government€authoritiesÐ  ¼ Ðconcerned,€with€the€coordination€of€the€Human€Rights€Section,€PublicÐ ñ « ÐInternational€Law€Department,€Federal€Department€of€Foreign€Affairs.€Ð à š ÐNon-governmental€organizations€and€other€outside€bodies€may€be€consulted€onÐ Ï ‰ Ðsome€points.€€If€reports€have€not€been€the€subject€of€a€genuine€public€debateÐ ¾ x Ðbefore€they€are€submitted,€the€opinion€of€interested€circles€(includingÐ ­ g  Ðparliamentary€commissions)€is€often€requested.Ð œV  Ѐ€Ð ‹E  Ð78.à b àThe€Federal€Council€is€also€considering€the€possibility€of€publishing€theÐ z4  Ðresults€of€the€consideration€of€Swiss€reports€by€the€competent€internationalÐ i#  Ðbodies,€thus€making€a€contribution€to€public€debate€on€the€situation,€changesÐ X  Ðand€problems€with€regard€to€the€protection€of€human€rights€in€Switzerland.Ð G ÐÌÌà@¨¨-–à„„„„„€€€€€€€€€€