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ÐÌà ç àòòIvan€Crkveni€and€Mladen€Klemenðcðiðað€(eds.):€€AgressionÐ o  Ðagainst€Croatia:óó€€òòGeopolitical€and€Demographic€Factsóó,€RepublicÐ ^   Ðof€Croatia€„€Central€Bureau€of€Statistics,€80€studies€andÐ M!û  Ðanalyses,€Zagreb€1993.Ð <"ê  ÐÌà ç àòòStatistical€Information€1992óó,€Republic€of€Croatia€„Ð $È  ÐCentral€Bureau€of€Statistics,€Zagreb€1993.Ð  %·! ÐÌà ç àMilovan€Baletiðað€(ed.),€òòHrvatska€1994óó€(Croatia€1994),€INAÐ ç&•# ÐConsulting,€Zagreb€1993.G:\E94SA\16491S116491S2 ËÝ ƒ V%ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÔ€ôÉòòôÔÔ€ôÉòòôÉÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÓ3333ÓÔ€2RXòôÉÔÒ°+ÒÒ°ÅÒ€€€€òòÚ  Ú3Ú  Úóó/Ý  Ý€€Such€as€race,€gender,€colour,€language,€religion,Ð ¹)g& Ðpolitical€or€other€opinion,€etc.,€cf.€art.14. žÝ ƒ V%ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÔ€ôÉòòôÔÔ€ôÉòòôÉÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÓ3333ÓÔ€2RXòôÉÔÒ°+ÒÒ°ÅÒ€€€€òòÚ  Ú4Ú  Úóó/Ý  Ý€€The€Constitution€of€the€Socialist€Republic€of€CroatiaÐ ‹,9) Ðof€1974€defined€in€its€article€1,€the€SR€Croatia€as€"the€StateÐ z-(* Ðof€Croatian€nation,€Serbian€nation€in€Croatia€and€the€State€ofÐ i.+ Ðother€nationalities€who€live€in€it".Ð X/,  Їà@77/cà„„„„„ˆÌ16491S216491S316491S3(Ü!2T}$¤¤Ý ƒðã!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÉòòôÔÔ€ôÉòòôÉÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÑÈÑÝ  ÝÓ3333ÓÔ€2RXòôÉÔÒ°+ÒÒ°ÅÒ€€€€òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó/#|d (tðã$¡¡ÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÉòòôÔÔ€ôÉòòôÉÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÑÈјHP LaserJet 4P,ü,,,,,ü0!³}. Jc.œ@ƒ ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀÝ ƒðã!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRX<Ð6Â&Xà3Ø' Letter Ë6Æ&A4ÿ3Ø'TÑÔ€ôÉòòôÔÔ€ôÉòòôÉÔÓ  ÓÓ33ÓÒ+°ÒÒŰÒÑØ°ÑÑ¥°ÑÓB.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!°œXBÓÑÈÑÑÈÑÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ  ÑÑbØÑщ¥ÑÔ_ÔÖ€ÿÿÖÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÖ€ÿÿÖÔ_ÔÑ = ÑÔ € ôÈÔÓ$+{Ó+“++7$Óà “ àDistr.Ð bô Ðà “ àGENERALÐ Qã ÐÌà “ àÔ_ÔHRIÔ_Ô/CORE/1/Add.32Ð / Á Ðà “ à5€May€1994Ð  ° ÐÌà “ àOriginal:€€ENGLISHÐ ü Ž  ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌà@  –àCORE€DOCUMENT€FORMING€PART€OF€THE€REPORTS€OF€STATES€PARTIESˆÐ Rä ÐÌà@881–àCROATIAˆÐ 0 ÐÌà€%%M$à[18€March€1994]ˆÐ   ÐÌà@0–àCONTENTSˆÐ ì~ ÐÌà€ùùJ$àòòParagraphsóó€€€€òòPageóóˆÐ Ê\ ÐÌÓ3+{Ó+ƒ ›Ç£#+{‚X“3ÓIntroductionà“››I›.Û Û àˆà Ç à€1€„€6à‘?#?#Z£#à3ˆÐ ¨: ÐÌ€€I.à ƒ àLAND€AND€PEOPLEà“››I›._ _ "àˆà Ç à€7€„€17à‘?#?#Z£#à4ˆÐ †!  ÐÌà ƒ àA.à  àLandà“››I›.£ £ àˆà Ç à€€€7à‘?#?#Z£#à4ˆÐ d#ö" Ðà ƒ àB.à  àPopulationà“››I›.û û !àˆà Ç à€8€„€16à‘?#?#Z£#à4ˆÐ S$å# Ðà ƒ àC.à  àEconomyà“››I›.Ï Ï àˆà Ç à17€„€18à‘?#?#Z£#à5ˆÐ B%Ô$ ÐÌ€II.à ƒ àGENERAL€POLITICAL€STRUCTUREà“››I›..àˆà Ç à19€„€39à‘?#?#Z£#à6ˆÐ  '²!& ÐÌà ƒ àA.à  àHistorical€backgroundà“››I›.GG,àˆà Ç à19€„€24à‘?#?#Z£#à6ˆÐ þ(#( Ðà ƒ àB.à  àCreation€of€the€independent€Republic€of€Croatiaà“››I›.ooFàˆà Ç à25€„€27à‘?#?#Z£#à7ˆÐ í)$) Ðà ƒ àC.à  àConstitutional€definition€of€the€RepublicÐ Ü*n%* Ðà ƒ àà  àof€Croatiaà“››I›.û û !àˆà Ç à28€„€29à‘?#?#Z£#à8ˆÐ Ë+]&+ Ðà ƒ àD.à  àOrganization€of€governmentà“››I›.;;1àˆà Ç à30€„€39à‘?#?#Z£#à9ˆÐ º,L', ÐÌÌÌÐ v0+0=G ÐÔ_Ô‡ÌÌÌÌÌGE.94„16491€€(E)Ð ñ « ÐÌÑØbÑÑ}‰ÑÓN.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!+{ƒX ›Ç£#NÓà@®®*–àCONTENTS€(òòcontinuedóó)ˆÐ Ï ‰ ÐÌà€ùùJ$àòòParagraphsóó€€€€òòPageóóˆÐ ­ g  ÐÓ0+{Ó+ƒ ›Ç£#++70ÓÌIII.à ƒ àGENERAL€LEGAL€FRAMEWORK€FOR€THE€PROTECTION€OFÐ ‹E  Ðà ƒ àHUMAN€RIGHTSà“››I›.3 3 àˆà Ç à40€„€67à‘Û"Û"Y£#à10ˆÐ z4  ÐÌà ƒ àA.à  àAuthorities€with€competencies€affectingÐ X  Ðà ƒ àà  àhuman€rightsà“››I›.à à #àˆà Ç à40€„€45à‘Û"Û"Y£#à10ˆÐ G Ðà ƒ àB.à  àConstitutional€guarantees€of€rights€and€freedomsà“››I›.ÓÓGàˆà Ç à46€„€48à‘Û"Û"Y£#à11ˆÐ 6ð Ðà ƒ àC.à  àSpecial€constitutional€protection€of€ethnicÐ %ß Ðà ƒ àà  àminoritiesà“››I›.û û !àˆà Ç à49€„€58à‘Û"Û"Y£#à12ˆÐ Î Ðà ƒ àD.à  àInternational€legal€instruments€and€the€internalÐ ½ Ðà ƒ àà  àlegal€orderà“››I›._ _ "àˆà Ç à€€€59à‘Û"Û"Y£#à14ˆÐ ò¬ Ðà ƒ àE.à  àLegal€remedies€available€to€citizensà“››I›.##;àˆà Ç à60€„€64à‘Û"Û"Y£#à14ˆÐ á› Ðà ƒ àF.à  àCompensation€and€rehabilitation€of€victimsà“››I›.{{Aàˆà Ç à65€„€67à‘Û"Û"Y£#à15ˆÐ Њ ÐÌ€IV.à ƒ àINFORMATION€AND€PUBLICITYà“››I›.GG,àˆà Ç à68€„€70à‘Û"Û"Y£#à16ˆÐ ®h ÐÌÐ  ŒF ÐÓT4+{Ó+b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!+{ƒX ›Ç£#TÓà@>>.–àòòIntroductionóóˆÐ F ÐÌ1.à b àThe€Republic€of€Croatia€achieved€its€independence€in€1991€and€receivedÐ $Þ Ðfull€international€recognition€at€the€beginning€of€1992.€€It€was€created€as€aÐ Í Ðsovereign€State€by€the€decision€of€its€people,€expressed€in€a€generalÐ  ¼ Ðreferendum€and€confirmed€by€the€decision€of€its€first€democratically€electedÐ ñ « ÐParliament,€to€abandon€and€dissolve€legal€bonds€with€the€other€republics€whichÐ à š Ðhad€constituted€the€Yugoslav€federation.Ð Ï ‰ ÐÌ2.à b àDuring€the€same€year,€four€out€of€those€six€constituent€republics€madeÐ ­ g  Ðvirtually€the€same€decision,€and€accordingly€the€former€federation€ceased€toÐ œV  Ðexist.€€This€decision€was€founded€on€the€federal€Constitution€of€1974€which,Ð ‹E  Ðin€accordance€with€the€concept€of€federation€in€a€voluntarily€constitutedÐ z4  Ðcompound€republic,€guaranteed€to€its€constituent€republics€the€legal€status€ofÐ i#  Ðsovereign€States,€including€the€right€to€self-determination€and€the€right€toÐ X  Ðsecession.€€Therefore,€Croatia,€although€a€new€independent€State,€is€not€a€newÐ G Ðone€from€the€legal€point€of€view.€× ƒ ×Ý ƒ ÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  Úóó/Ý  Ý×  ×Ð 6ð ÐÌ3.à b àThis€is€important€to€emphasize,€since€Croatia€has€for€centuries€struggledÐ Î Ðto€maintain€its€legal€status€as€a€sovereign€State€in€the€various€forms€ofÐ ½ Ðquasi-federal€arrangements€it€lived€within€together€with€other€nations„Ð ò¬ ÐHungary,€Austria,€Serbia€and€others.€€This€also€explains€the€concept€containedÐ á› Ðin€the€Preamble€to€the€Croatian€Constitution€of€1990,€which,€under€the€headingРЊ Ð"Historical€foundations",€demonstrates€that€Croatia€has€never€abandoned€itsÐ ¿y Ðhistorical€State€rights€or€its€constitutionally€founded€claim€for€independentÐ ®h Ðstatehood,€in€accordance€with€a€decision€of€its€people.€€And,€last€but€farÐ W Ðfrom€least,€this€explains€why€Croatia,€being€already€a€State€with€its€ownÐ ŒF Ðlegal€and€administrative€order,€was€able€to€mobilize€its€people€and€defendÐ {5 Ðitself€against€aggression€from€Serbia€and€its€army€during€the€war€of€1991.Ð j$ ÐÌ4.à b àBut€Croatia€did€not€succeed€in€defending€all€its€internationallyÐ H! Ðrecognized€borders.€€Approximately€one€third€of€the€territory€is€still€underÐ 7"ñ Ðoccupation€by€Serbs€and€has€the€legal€status€of€United€Nations€ProtectedÐ &#à  ÐAreas,€under€the€control€of€an€international€peace-keeping€force€(UNPROFOR).€Ð $Ï! ÐThe€Croatian€Government€has€repeatedly€confirmed€its€determination€to€restoreÐ %¾" Ðits€sovereignty€over€the€occupied€territories€by€peaceful€means€with€theÐ ó%­ # Ðsupport€of€the€international€community,€as€required€and€stipulated€by€numerousÐ â&œ!$ Ðresolutions€of€the€United€Nations€Security€Council€and€resolutions€of€otherÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðinternational€bodies.€€Thus,€the€international€mediation€and€negotiationsÐ À(z#& Ðrelated€to€the€question€of€war€or€peace€have€dominated€the€CroatianÐ ¯)i$' ÐGovernment's€efforts€for€the€last€three€years.€€It€has€also€participated€inÐ ž*X%( Ðthe€efforts€of€the€international€community€to€achieve€a€just€and€lasting€peaceÐ +G&) Ðin€Bosnia€and€Herzegovina,€and€a€lasting€settlement€of€disputes€on€the€wholeÐ |,6'* Ðterritory€of€the€former€Yugoslav€federation.Ð k-%(+ Ї5.à b àHowever€difficult€those€circumstances,€on€the€territory€under€CroatianÐ F Ðcontrol€the€Government€has€initiated€and€is€stimulating€a€process€ofÐ 5ï Ðrestructuring€society€towards€a€market€economy,€political€democracy€and€theÐ $Þ Ðrule€of€law,€in€accordance€with€its€concern€for€the€protection€of€human€rightsÐ Í Ðas€stated€in€the€Constitution€of€1990,€as€well€as€in€international€legalÐ  ¼ Ðinstruments.Ð ñ « ÐÌ6.à b àThe€war€has€caused€enormous€movement€of€people€in€and€out€of€Croatia.€Ð Ï ‰ ÐCroatia€is€still€caring€for€over€500,000€displaced€persons€and€refugees.€€TheÐ ¾ x Ðprovisional€status€of€a€considerable€part€of€its€territory€as€UnitedNationsÐ ­ g  ÐProtected€Areas,€prevents€the€Croatian€Government€from€assuming€fullÐ œV  Ðresponsibility€for€the€protection€of€human€rights€in€those€areas.€€TheÐ ‹E  Ðsituation€in€the€border€areas€which€have€been€and€are€still€being€subjected€toÐ z4  Ðartillery€attacks€and€have€thus€been€exposed€for€years€to€the€most€precariousÐ i#  Ðconditions€makes€efforts€to€maintain€law€and€order€there€much€harder€than€inÐ X  Ðthe€peaceful€part€of€the€country.€€The€resource€requirements€for€defence€haveÐ G Ðbeen€enormously€increased€by€the€exigencies€of€the€situation,€at€the€expenseÐ 6ð Ðof€investment€for€recovery€and€development.€€This€is€why€we€consider€thisÐ %ß Ðintroduction€necessary€to€indicate€the€circumstances€which€are€causingÐ Î Ðobstacles€to€reporting€under€the€Convention€as€required€by€the€consolidatedÐ ½ Ðguidelines.Ð ò¬ ÐÌà@àà+–àI.€€LAND€AND€PEOPLEˆÐ Њ ÐÌà@0–àA.€€òòLandóóˆÐ ®h ÐÌ7.à b àCroatia€is€located€alongside€the€Adriatic€Sea.€€It€consists€of€three€mainÐ ŒF Ðgeographic€regions:€€Mediterranean,€Mountains€and€Panonian€Plains.€€It€hasÐ {5 Ðbeen€shaped€by€a€long€history€of€struggle€between€medieval€empires€in€the€formÐ j$ Ðof€a€sickle,€with€Bosnia€and€Herzegovina€in€its€hollow.€€It€has€a€land€areaÐ Y  Ðof56,538kmòò2óó,€and€31,000kmòò2óó€of€territorial€waters.Ð H! ÐÌà@ÚÚ-–àB.€€òòPopulationóóˆÐ &#à  ÐÌ8.à b àIn€1991€the€population€of€Croatia€numbered€4,784,265,€of€whom€2,318,623Ð %¾" Ðwere€male€and€2,465,642€female.€€The€share€of€persons€under€15€years€of€ageÐ ó%­ # Ðwas€19.4percent€and€of€those€over€65€it€was€10.6percent.€€The€proportionÐ â&œ!$ Ðof€the€population€in€urban€areas€was€54percent,€or€2,597,205€persons,€and€inÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðrural€areas45.7percent.Ð À(z#& ÐÌ9.à b àThe€ethnic€composition€was€as€follows:€€77.9percent€Croats;Ð ž*X%( Ð12.2percent€Serbs;€1percent€Muslims;€0.5percent€Slovenes;€0.5percentÐ +G&) ÐHungarians;€0.4percent€Italians;€0.4percent€Albanians;€0.3percentÐ |,6'* ÐCzechs;€0.2percent€Montenegrans;€0.1percent€Macedonians;€0.1percentÐ k-%(+ ÐGermans;€0.1percent€Roms;€0.1percent€Ruthenians;€0.1percent€Slovaks;Ð F Ð0.1percent€Ukrainians;€2.2percent€declared€themselves€"Yugoslavs";€andÐ 5ï Ð4.1percent€others.€€The€population€is€mixed€in€the€cities,€and€there€areÐ $Þ Ðcommunities€with€a€majority€non-Croatian€population.€€Thus€the€SerbianÐ Í Ðpopulation€is€in€the€majority€in€11€municipalities€in€the€regions€of€Banija,Ð  ¼ ÐKordun,€Lika€and€North€Dalmatia.Ð ñ « ÐÌ10.à b àWith€regard€to€language,€81.7percent€of€the€population€consider€theÐ Ï ‰ ÐCroatian€language€as€their€mother€tongue;€9.8percent€Croato-Serbian€orÐ ¾ x ÐSerbo-Croatian;€4percent€Serbian;€0.4percent€Slovenian;€0.4percentÐ ­ g  ÐHungarian;€and€0.3percent€Albanian.Ð œV  ÐÌ11.à b àThe€distribution€of€the€population€by€religion€included€76percentÐ z4  ÐCatholics;€11.1percent€Orthodox;€1.2percent€Muslims;€1.4percentÐ i#  ÐProtestants;€and€3.9percent€atheists.Ð X  ÐÌ12.à b àWith€regard€to€activity,€in€1991€45.3percent€of€the€population€wasÐ 6ð Ðactive€(37.4percent€women,€53.9percent€men);€17.7percent€of€theÐ %ß Ðpopulation€was€self-supporting€and€38percent€was€supported.Ð Î ÐÌ13.à b àThe€birth€rate€in€Croatia€decreased€from€3.5percent€in€the€1981€censusÐ ò¬ Ðto€a€negative€0.6percent€in€1991.€€The€number€of€live-born€children€wasÐ á› Ð10.8per€thousand€(11.6€in€1990).€€The€death€rate€was€11.4€per€thousand.€€OfРЊ Ðthe€55,409€babies€born€in€1990,€51,534€were€born€to€married€mothers.Ð ¿y ÐÌ14.à b àThe€average€age€for€males€was€35.0€years€in€1989€and€for€females€38.5Ð W Ðyears.€€Life€expectancy€was€68€years€for€men€and€75.6€years€for€women.€€WomenÐ ŒF Ðoutnumbered€men€by€approximately€150,000.€€The€number€of€new€marriages€wasÐ {5 Ð6per€thousand€persons,€and€the€number€of€divorces€was€195.7€out€of€1,000Ð j$ Ðmarriages.Ð Y  ÐÌ15.à b àThe€level€of€education€of€the€population€over€15€years€of€age€was€asÐ 7"ñ Ðfollows:€€10.1percent€had€no€or€unknown€education;€21.2percent€hadÐ &#à  Ðcompleted€between€four€and€seven€grades€of€elementary€school;€23.4percentÐ $Ï! Ðhad€completed€elementary€education;€12.7percent€were€skilled€or€highlyÐ %¾" Ðskilled€workers;€23.3percent€had€completed€secondary€education;€4.0percentÐ ó%­ # Ðhad€completed€two€years€of€high€school;€and€5.3percent€had€universityÐ â&œ!$ Ðeducation.€€Threepercent€of€the€population€over€10€years€of€age€wereÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðilliterate,€or€127,438€persons€in€total,€of€whom€23,342€were€male€and€104,095Ð À(z#& Ðfemale€(77,642€illiterate€persons€were€over€the€age€of€65).€€The€illiteracyÐ ¯)i$' Ðrate€decreased€from€5.6percent€in€1981€to€3percent€in€1991.Ð ž*X%( ÐÌ16.à b àAll€the€demographic€data€given€here€are€from€the€last€population€census,Ð |,6'* Ðheld€in€1991;€demographic€changes€caused€by€the€war€are€still€the€subject€ofÐ k-%(+ Ðresearch€and€collection€of€data.€× ƒ ×Ý ƒ ÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  Úóó/Ý  Ý×  ×€€According€to€the€official€data€publishedÐ F Ðby€the€Ministry€of€Health,€6,829€Croatian€citizens€had€been€killed,€25,951€hadÐ 5ï Ðbeen€wounded€and€12,751€had€disappeared€as€of€26August1993.€€The€CroatianÐ $Þ ÐGovernment€was€caring€for€526,346€persons€in€October€1993€of€whom€248,122€wereÐ Í Ðdisplaced€Croatian€citizens€and€278,224€were€refugees€from€Bosnia€andÐ  ¼ ÐHerzegovina.Ð ñ « ÐÌà@pp/–àC.€€òòEconomyóóˆÐ Ï ‰ ÐÌ17.à b àAt€the€end€of€the€1980s€Croatia€was€rated€according€to€economicÐ ­ g  Ðindicators€as€a€middle-developed€European€country,€with€a€GNP€per€capitaÐ œV  Ðincome€in€1990€of€5,205€United€States€dollars€and€an€average€personal€incomeÐ ‹E  Ðof€around€US$3,000€(about€25percent€higher€than€the€average€of€the€formerÐ z4  Ðfederation).€€War€damage€has€to€date€been€estimated€at€around€US$23billionÐ i#  Ðand€GNP€has€been€reduced€by€23.4percent€as€compared€to€1990.Ð X  ÐÌ18.à b àThis€deterioration€of€the€economic€situation€led€to€an€inflation€rate€forÐ 6ð Ðthe€period€March-April1993€of€22percent€a€month;€and€in€September1993€ofÐ %ß Ðaround€35percent€a€month.€€Since€then€a€package€of€fiscal€and€monetaryÐ Î Ðmeasures€was€introduced€which€reduced€the€inflation€to€zero€for€the€wholeÐ ½ Ðperiod€from€January€to€March1994.€€The€Government€expects€to€obtain€financialÐ ò¬ Ðsupport€from€international€monetary€institutions,€but€has€not€received€it€yet,Ð á› Ðwith€the€exception€of€a€large€amount€of€humanitarian€aid.€€Unemployment€hasРЊ ÐÔ& ¼ Ôbeen€around€17percent€for€the€whole€period€1992„1994.€€The€economy€has€beenÐ ¿y Ðundergoing€a€process€of€restructuring€which€includes€privatization€andÐ ®h Ðdenationalization€of€public€property€and€State€run€enterprisesÐ W ÐÔ'¼¿CÔÌÔ €ôÈÔÔ €ôÈÔÓH.++b™ Ð >u¬ãQˆ¿ö!+{‚XbŒ7HÓà@VV$–àII.€€GENERAL€POLITICAL€STRUCTUREˆÐ {# ÐÌà@´´(–àA.€€òòHistorical€backgroundóóˆÐ Y û% ÐÌ19.à b àFormer€Yugoslavia€was€created€in€1918€as€a€unitary€State€under€SerbianÐ 7"Ù ' Ðdynasty€rule€and€dominated€by€Serbs€as€the€largest€nation.€€It€collapsedÐ &#È!( Ðimmediately€under€the€German€attack€in€1941,€because€its€people€did€not€wantÐ $·") Ðto€defend€it.Ð %¦#* ÐÌ20.à b àAfter€the€Second€World€War€it€was€re„established€in€the€form€of€aÐ â&„%, Ðfederation€under€the€Communist€Government€of€President€Tito.€€Numerous€reformsÐ Ñ's&- Ðwere€introduced€by€Tito€in€order€to€accommodate€various€nationalities€livingÐ À(b'. Ðin€the€federation:€€former€Yugoslavia€had€four€complete€constitutions€(1946;Ð ¯)Q(/ Ð1953;€1963;€1974)€and€over€100€constitutional€amendments€during€its€existence.€Ð ž*@)0 ÐBut€the€national€issue€and€Serbian€pressure€to€gain€dominance,€continued€toÐ +/*1 Ðsteam€under€the€surface€throughout€the€whole€period€under€CommunistÐ |,+2 Ðleadership.€€This€is€why€the€Yugoslav€federation€was€a€country€of€permanentÐ k- ,3 Ðconstitutional€disputes€centred€around€the€very€issue€of€its€existence€as€aÐ F ÐState.Ð 5ï ÐÌ21.à b àThe€last€Yugoslav€Constitution€of€1974€introduced€a€number€ofÐ Í Ðconfederative€elements€into€the€federal€structure:€€the€federation€was€definedÐ  ¼ Ðas€an€alliance€of€sovereign€States€which€had€the€right€to€self„determinationÐ ñ « Ðand€to€secession;€which€decided€on€the€basis€of€consensus€on€the€mostÐ à š Ðimportant€political€and€economic€issues;€and€in€which€full€national€equalityÐ Ï ‰ Ðwould€be€guaranteed€to€all€its€national€and€ethnic€groups.€€But€in€spite€ofÐ ¾ x Ðthe€Constitution,€the€Serbian€striving€for€dominance€continued,€in€the€face€ofÐ ­ g  Ðresistance€from€other€republics,€among€which€Croatia€was€the€strongest.€€AsÐ œV  Ðsoon€as€Tito,€President€for€life€under€the€Constitution,€died€in€1980,€theÐ ‹E  ÐSerbian€leadership€moved€to€change,€or€if€necessary€destroy,€the€federalÐ z4  Ðframework€of€the€Constitution.€€The€political€struggle€for€federation€andÐ i#  Ðequality€had€already€lasted€for€nearly€10€years€when,€at€the€end€of€1989,€theÐ X  Ðcollapse€of€the€Communist€regimes€in€the€Soviet€Union€and€Eastern€and€CentralÐ G ÐEurope€brought€to€the€surface€all€the€weaknesses€the€Yugoslav€system€had€inÐ 6ð Ðcommon€with€the€other€Communist€regimes,€and€the€imperative€need€forÐ %ß Ðdemocratic€transformation.Ð Î ÐÌ22.à b àAt€that€point,€the€constitutional€disputes€turned€into€direct€politicalÐ ò¬ Ðconflict.€€Strong€resistance€by€the€Serbian€and€Montenegran€leadership€toÐ á› Ðdemocratic€reform,€together€with€a€disregard€for€human€rights€that€wasРЊ Ðdemonstrated€in€police€and€military€action€against€the€Albanian€population€inÐ ¿y ÐKosovo€and€the€violation€of€the€federal€Constitution€by€annulling€the€autonomyÐ ®h Ðof€the€autonomous€provinces€of€Kosovo€and€Vojvodina,€prevented€any€democraticÐ W Ðtransformation€of€Yugoslavia€as€a€whole.€€In€such€an€unbearable€situation,Ð ŒF Ðother€constituent€republics,€Slovenia€and€Croatia€as€the€most€developed€first,Ð {5 Ðbut€followed€by€Macedonia€and€Bosnia€and€Herzegovina,€decided€to€initiateÐ j$ Ðdemocratic€transformation€themselves,€claiming€their€rights€under€the€federalÐ Y  ÐConstitution.Ð H! ÐÌ23.à b àThe€proposal€to€transform€Yugoslavia€into€a€confederation€which€wouldÐ &#à  Ðmake€possible€the€more€independent€development€of€its€republics€andÐ $Ï! Ðnationalities,€submitted€in€October€1990€by€the€new€democratically„electedÐ %¾" ÐGovernments€of€Slovenia€and€Croatia€with€the€support€of€the€great€majority€ofÐ ó%­ # Ðtheir€people€expressed€in€referenda,€was€rejected€by€Serbia€and€Montenegro.€Ð â&œ!$ ÐTo€further€violations€of€the€federal€Constitution,€including€an€economicÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðblockade€and€the€seizing€of€the€federal€funds€by€Serbia,€Slovenia€and€CroatiaÐ À(z#& Ðresponded€by€a€number€of€measures,€and€finally€declared€their€sovereignty€onÐ ¯)i$' Ð25June1991.€€The€failure€of€the€Yugoslav€federation€to€transform€itself€fromÐ ž*X%( Ða€Communist€one„party€State€into€a€democracy€thus€caused€its€disintegrationÐ +G&) Ðâ âinto€constituent€States.€€As€early€as€in€June€1989,€Serbian€PresidentÐ |,6'* ÐMiloð±ðeviðað€had€threaten€to€use€military€force€against€his€political€opponentsÐ F Ðin€other€federal€States.Ð 5ï Ðâ âÌ24.à b àRefusing€proposals€for€peaceful€and€democratic€resolution€of€the€crisis,Ð Í ÐSerbia€and€Montenegro€responded€by€military€aggression,€first€againstÐ  ¼ ÐSlovenia,€then€against€Croatia,€and€the€following€year€against€Bosnia€andÐ ñ « ÐHerzegovina.€€According€to€Miloð±ðeviðað's€political€concepts,€this€war€is€beingÐ à š Ðwaged€in€order€to€establish€new€borders€òòmanu€militarióó€by€occupying€as€much€ofÐ Ï ‰ Ðthe€Croatian€and€Bosnian€territory€as€possible€and€thus€creating€on€the€ruinsÐ ¾ x Ðof€Yugoslavia€the€new€State€entity€of€Greater€Serbia.€€After€theÐ ­ g  ÐUnitedNations€controlled€cease„fire€was€achieved€in€Croatia,€he€continued€hisÐ œV  Ðpolicy€of€violence€in€Bosnia€and€Herzegovina,€where€the€horrors€of€warÐ ‹E  Ðcontinue.€€During€its€aggression€against€Croatia,€the€Serbian€dominatedÐ z4  Ð"Yugoslav€People's€Army"€did€not€act€as€a€federal€force€in€order€to€protectÐ i#  Ðthe€federal€Constitution,€but€as€a€Serbian€military€force,€into€which€it€hasÐ X  Ðsince€been€formally€transformed.Ð G ÐÌà@    –àB.€€òòCreation€of€the€independent€Republic€of€CroatiaóóˆÐ %ß ÐÌ25.à b àAt€the€end€of€1989€a€consensus€was€achieved€in€Croatia€between€theÐ ½ Ðreform„oriented€wing€of€the€ruling€League€of€Communists€and€the€newly€formedÐ ò¬ Ðopposition€parties€to€hold€free€multi„party€general€elections,€the€first€afterÐ á› Ð45€years€of€Communist€rule.€€Elections€were€held€in€peace€and€good€order€inРЊ ÐApril€and€May€1990,€and€the€process€of€transferring€power€to€the€victoriousÐ ¿y Ðparty,€the€Croatian€Democratic€Community€(CDC),€was€completed€in€an€orderlyÐ ®h Ðmanner€by€30€May€1990,€when€the€new€democratic€Parliament€(Sabor)€was€convenedÐ W Ðfor€the€first€time€in€Zagreb.€€CDC€won€over€two€thirds€of€the€seats€inÐ ŒF ÐParliament;€the€strongest€opposition€party,€the€reform„oriented€CommunistsÐ {5 Ð(SDP)€won€about€25percent€of€the€seats;€and€the€coalition€of€the€centreÐ j$ Ðparties€11percent.€€The€Parliament€started€to€discuss€a€programme€of€reformsÐ Y  Ðwhich,€in€accordance€with€the€political€programme€of€CDC,€was€designed€toÐ H! Ðrapidly€transform€the€country€into€a€political€democracy,€based€on€a€marketÐ 7"ñ Ðeconomy€and€the€rule€of€law,€which€would€enable€Croatia€to€join€the€EuropeanÐ &#à  ÐCommunity€as€soon€as€possible.Ð $Ï! ÐÌ26.à b àFirst,€the€Parliament€adopted€seven€amendments€to€the€Constitution€ofÐ ó%­ # ÐCroatia€in€1974,€by€which€the€definition€of€the€State€as€a€"socialist"€one€wasÐ â&œ!$ Ðabolished€and€the€Communist€State€insignia€were€replaced€by€the€traditionalÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðones.€€Second,€it€initiated€a€procedure€to€draft€a€new€constitution,€inÐ À(z#& Ðaccordance€with€the€principles€applied€in€the€Constitutions€of€the€democraticÐ ¯)i$' ÐWestern€countries,€which€would€make€all€the€rights€and€freedoms€contained€inÐ ž*X%( Ðinternational€legal€instruments€part€of€the€internal€legal€order.€€TheÐ +G&) Ðâ âConstitution€was€adopted€on€21€December€1990.€€Third,€it€decided€to€put€beforeÐ |,6'* Ðthe€electorate€the€most€crucial€constitutional€choice€that€had€to€be€made:€Ð F Ðthe€status€of€Croatia€as€a€sovereign€State.Ð 5ï Ðâ âÌ27.à b àIn€the€general€referendum€held€on€19€May€1991,€93.94€percent€of€voters,Ð Í Ðwith€a€turnout€of€84.94percent€of€the€whole€electorate,€approved€thatÐ  ¼ Ð"Republic€of€Croatia,€as€a€sovereign€and€independent€State€which€guarantees€aÐ ñ « Ðcultural€autonomy€and€all€civil€rights€to€Serbs€and€other€nationalities€inÐ à š ÐCroatia,€might€enter€into€alliance€of€sovereign€States€with€other€republics".€Ð Ï ‰ ÐIn€application€of€this€popular€decision,€the€Parliament,€on€25€June€1991,Ð ¾ x Ðadopted€the€following€important€constitutional€decisions:€€ConstitutionalÐ ­ g  ÐDecision€on€Sovereignty€and€Independence€of€the€Republic€of€Croatia;Ð œV  ÐDeclaration€on€the€Establishment€of€the€Sovereign€and€Independent€Republic€ofÐ ‹E  ÐCroatia;€and€Charter€on€the€Rights€of€Serbs€and€Other€Nationalities€in€theÐ z4  ÐRepublic€of€Croatia.€€After€the€accepted€period€of€a€"moratorium"€on€furtherÐ i#  Ðdecisions€concerning€independence,€as€requested€by€the€European€CommunityÐ X  Ðmediators,€had€expired,€amid€the€Serbian€aggression€against€Croatia,€theseÐ G Ðdecisions€were€confirmed€by€the€Parliament€on€8€October€1991.Ð 6ð ÐÌà@¦ ¦ –àC.€€òòConstitutional€definition€of€the€Republic€of€CroatiaóóˆÐ Î ÐÌ28.à b àThe€Charter€on€the€Rights€of€Serbs€and€Other€Nationalities€in€Croatia€wasÐ ò¬ Ðadopted€in€pursuance€of€the€constitutional€provisions€that€guarantee€fullÐ á› Ðequality€to€all€people€regardless€of€their€ethnic€origin€or€affiliation.× ƒ ×Ý ƒ ÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  Úóó/Ý  Ý×  ×РЊ ÐÌ29.à b àThe€Croatian€Constitution,€in€its€preamble,€defines€the€Republic€in€theÐ ®h Ðfollowing€words:€€Ð W ÐÌà0 b à"the€Republic€of€Croatia€is€hereby€established€as€the€national€State€ofÐ {5 Ðthe€Croatian€nation€and€the€State€of€members€of€other€nations€andÐ j$ Ðminorities€who€are€its€citizens:€€Serbs,€Muslims,€Slovenes,€Czechs,Ð Y  ÐSlovaks,€Italians,€Hungarians,€Jews€and€others,€who€are€guaranteedÐ H! Ðequality€with€citizens€of€Croatian€nationality€and€the€realization€ofÐ 7"ñ Ðtheir€ethnic€rights€in€accordance€with€the€democratic€norms€of€theÐ &#à  ÐUnitedNations€and€of€the€free€world€countries".Ð$Ï!b$b$ ÐÌThis€provision€has€been€made€a€part€of€the€Preamble,€which€does€not€have€theÐ ó%­ # Ðnormative€nature€of€a€positive€law,€in€order€to€prevent€any€possibleÐ â&œ!$ Ðinterpretation€which€would€attempt€to€derive€any€particular€rights€for€peopleÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðof€Croatian€ethnicity.× ƒ ×Ý ƒ ÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  Úóó/Ý  Ý×  ×€€Thus,€this€norm€relates€to€the€State€insignia,€suchÐ À(z#& Ðas€the€banner€and€the€coat€of€arms,€the€national€anthem,€the€officialÐ ¯)i$' Ðlanguage,€as€well€as€the€very€name€of€the€State.€€It€does€not€affect€theÐ ž*X%( Ðrights€of€citizens€in€any€respect.€€Consequently,€article€1€of€theÐ +G&) ÐConstitution€reads:€€"Power€in€the€Republic€of€Croatia€derives€from€the€peopleÐ |,6'* Ðand€belongs€to€the€people€òòas€a€community€of€free€and€equal€citizensóó."€Ð k-%(+ Ð(emphasis€added).€€Article€3€defines€national€equality€as€one€of€the€highestÐ F Ðvalues€of€the€constitutional€order.€€Numerous€other€constitutional€provisionsÐ 5ï Ðguarantee€and€elaborate€the€principle€of€full€national€equality.€€Lastly,€toÐ $Þ Ðstress€the€importance€of€national€and€ethnic€equality,€the€Constitutional€LawÐ Í Ðon€Human€Rights€and€Freedoms€and€Rights€of€Ethnic€and€National€Communities€orÐ  ¼ ÐMinorities€was€adopted€as€a€constituent€part€of€the€legal€order€inÐ ñ « ÐDecember1991.Ð à š ÐÌà@ºº%–àD.€€òòOrganization€of€governmentóóˆÐ ¾ x ÐÌà b à1.à ™ àòòThe€President€of€the€RepublicóóÐ œV  ÐÌ30.à b àA€presidential€system€on€the€model€of€the€French€Constitution€of€1958€wasÐ z4  Ðadopted€by€the€authors€of€the€Croatian€Constitution.€€The€separation€of€powersÐ i#  Ðhas€been€declared€the€fundamental€principle€of€governmental€organization€byÐ X  Ðarticle€4€of€the€Constitution.€€The€President€is€elected€directly€in€generalÐ G Ðelections€for€a€five„year€term.€€No€one€may€serve€as€President€for€more€thanÐ 6ð Ðtwo€terms.€€In€the€case€of€death€or€incapacity€of€the€President,€he€would€beÐ %ß Ðtemporarily€succeeded€by€the€Chairman€of€the€Sabor€for€a€period€of€no€moreÐ Î Ðthan€60€days,€in€which€new€presidential€elections€must€be€held.€€Ð ½ ÐÌ31.à b àThe€President€is€the€head€of€the€State;€he€represents€it€at€home€andÐ á› Ðabroad;€ensures€respect€for€the€Constitution,€the€continued€existence€of€theРЊ ÐRepublic€and€the€regular€functioning€of€governmental€institutions.€€TheÐ ¿y ÐPresident€may€decide€to€put€any€question€he€deems€important€to€a€referendum,Ð ®h Ðwith€the€counter-signature€of€the€Prime€Minister,€and€a€decision€so€reachedÐ W Ðbinds€the€Parliament€and€all€other€State€bodies.Ð ŒF ÐÌ32.à b àThe€right€to€dissolve€the€House€of€Representatives€is€limited€to€twoÐ j$ Ðcases:€€if€a€budget€is€not€adopted€within€one€month€of€the€proposal€beingÐ Y  Ðsubmitted;€and€if€a€vote€of€censure€on€the€Government€is€passed€in€the€House.€Ð H! ÐIn€both€cases€the€President€needs€a€proposal€from€the€counter„signature€of€theÐ 7"ñ ÐPrime€Minister,€as€well€as€consultation€with€the€Chairman€of€the€House.€Ð &#à  ÐDuring€a€period€of€one€year€after€new€elections€the€House€may€not€be€dissolvedÐ $Ï! Ðagain.Ð %¾" ÐÌ33.à b àUnder€the€Constitution€the€President€is€the€Supreme€Commander€of€theÐ â&œ!$ ÐArmed€Forces€of€the€Republic.€€He€has€emergency€powers€which€he€may€exerciseÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðby€issuing€ordinances€with€the€force€of€law€in€widely€defined€cases€ofÐ À(z#& Ðexternal€or€internal€jeopardy€to€the€sovereignty€and€integrity€of€the€RepublicÐ ¯)i$' Ðor€its€constitutional€order.€€In€such€cases€his€emergency€ordinances€shallÐ ž*X%( Ðhave€the€force€of€law;€they€must€be€submitted€to€the€Sabor€for€its€approval€asÐ +G&) Ðsoon€as€it€is€able€to€convene.€€The€right€of€dissolution€cannot€be€exercisedÐ |,6'* Ðduring€a€state€of€emergency.Ð k-%(+ Ї34.à b àThe€President€is€responsible€for€any€violation€of€the€Constitution,€andÐ F Ðmay€be€impeached€by€a€vote€of€two€thirds€of€all€the€representatives€in€theÐ 5ï ÐHouse€of€Representatives.€€On€such€a€motion€the€Constitutional€Court€decidesÐ $Þ Ðby€a€vote€of€two€thirds€of€all€its€members;€if€impeachment€is€sustained€theÐ Í ÐPresident€is€dismissed€from€office.Ð  ¼ ÐÌà b à2.à ™ àòòThe€Parliament€(Sabor)óóÐ à š ÐÌ35.à b àThe€Sabor€is€a€representation€of€the€people€and€is€vested€withÐ ¾ x Ðlegislative€power.€€Its€structure€is€bicameral:€€the€House€of€RepresentativesÐ ­ g  Ðand€the€House€of€Counties€(ðÎðupanija).€€Members€of€both€Houses€are€electedÐ œV  Ðdirectly€in€general€elections€for€a€four„year€term.€€The€House€ofÐ ‹E  ÐRepresentatives€consists€of€138€members,€and€the€House€of€Counties€of€68.€Ð z4  ÐProportional€representation€of€ethnic€majorities€is€assured€in€accordance€withÐ i#  Ðthe€Constitutional€Law€on€Minorities.€€The€House€of€Counties€provides€regionalÐ X  Ðrepresentation€and€its€members€are€elected€by€the€people:€€threeÐ G Ðrepresentatives€for€each€county.€€In€addition€the€President€of€the€RepublicÐ 6ð Ðmay€appoint€up€to€five€members€to€the€House€of€Counties€from€the€ranks€ofÐ %ß Ðnationally€deserving€people.Ð Î ÐÌ36.à b àThe€House€of€Representatives€is€the€first€chamber€and€the€legislator;€itÐ ò¬ Ðoverviews€the€Government€and€decides€on€the€budget.€€The€House€of€Counties€hasÐ á› Ðan€advisory€role,€to€propose€and€discuss,€but€also€exercises€a€suspensive€vetoРЊ Ðon€legislation€adopted€by€the€first€chamber.€€In€such€case,€the€House€ofÐ ¿y ÐRepresentatives€must€reconsider€the€issue€and€readopt€the€piece€of€legislationÐ ®h Ðby€a€requisite€majority€of€all€representatives.Ð W ÐÌ37.à b àRegarding€the€majority€required,€legislation€is€divided€into€threeÐ {5 Ðcategories.€€Legislation€which€regulates€civil€rights,€electoral€matters€andÐ j$ Ðthe€establishment€and€organization€of€State€agencies€and€bodies,€as€well€asÐ Y  Ðlocal€government,€has€to€be€adopted€by€a€majority€of€all€representatives.€Ð H! ÐLegislation€relating€to€all€matters€of€national€equality€must€be€passed€by€aÐ 7"ñ Ðmajority€of€two€thirds€of€all€representatives,€the€same€as€is€required€toÐ &#à  Ðamend€the€Constitution.€€In€both€categories,€the€delegation€of€legislativeÐ $Ï! Ðauthority€is€forbidden.€€Other€acts€are€passed€by€a€simple€majority€providedÐ %¾" Ðthat€more€than€half€the€representatives€are€present€at€the€session.Ð ó%­ # ÐÌ38.à b àThe€protection€of€the€national€rights€of€minorities€is€in€the€competenceÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðof€a€special€standing€commission€of€the€Sabor€consisting€of€representativesÐ À(z#& Ðand€of€delegated€citizens€of€different€nationalities.Ð ¯)i$' ÐÌ39.à b àThe€Government€is€appointed€by€the€President€of€the€Republic.€€TheÐ +G&) ÐGovernment€is€responsible€to€the€President€of€the€Republic€and€the€Chamber€ofÐ |,6'* ÐRepresentatives€of€the€Sabor€of€the€Republic€of€Croatia.€€The€Prime€MinisterÐ k-%(+ Ðshall,€not€later€than€15€days€from€his€nomination,€present€the€Government€toÐ F Ðthe€Chamber€of€Representatives€and€ask€for€a€vote€of€confidence€in€theÐ 5ï ÐGovernment.€€The€nomination€of€the€Prime€Minister€and€members€of€theÐ $Þ ÐGovernment€shall€be€deemed€to€have€been€accepted€if€confidence€in€it€has€beenÐ Í Ðexpressed€by€a€majority€of€all€representatives€in€the€Chamber€ofÐ  ¼ ÐRepresentatives.€€At€the€proposal€of€at€least€a€tenth€of€the€representativesÐ ñ « Ðin€the€Chamber€of€Representatives,€a€vote€of€confidence€in€the€Prime€Minister,Ð à š Ðindividual€Government€members€or€the€Government€as€a€whole€may€be€requested.Ð Ï ‰ ÐÌÔ €ôÈÔÔ €ôÈÔà@–àIII.€€GENERAL€LEGAL€FRAMEWORK€FOR€THE€PROTECTION€OF€HUMAN€RIGHTSˆÐ ­ O  ÐÌà@¦ ¦ –àA.€€òòAuthorities€with€competencies€affecting€human€rightsóóˆÐ ‹- ÐÌ40.à b àThe€Constitutional€Court€is€composed€of€11€justices€appointed€for€anÐ i  Ðeight-year€term€by€the€House€of€Representatives€on€the€proposal€of€the€HouseÐ Xú Ðof€Counties.€€The€Constitution€requires€candidates€to€be€jurists€ofÐ Gé Ðdistinction€and€experience,€from€the€ranks€of€judges,€public€attorneys,€actingÐ 6Ø Ðlawyers€and€university€professors€of€law.€€The€Constitutional€Law€on€theÐ %Ç ÐConstitutional€Court€specifies€the€requirements€for€appointment€as€15€years€ofÐ ¶ Ðexperience€in€legal€practice,€and€distinction€on€the€basis€of€scientific€orÐ ¥ Ðexpert€works,€or€distinguished€public€activity.€€The€President€of€the€Court€isÐ ò” Ðappointed€by€the€justices€for€a€four-year€term.РრÐÌÔ& ¼ Ô41.à b àThe€independence€of€the€justices€from€the€legislative€and€the€executiveÐ ¿a Ðbranch€is€guaranteed.€€They€must€not€be€dismissed€before€the€expiry€of€theirÐ ®P  Ðterm€except€in€the€case€of:€€resignation;€incapacity€for€work;€or€sentencingÐ ?! ÐÔ'¼¿ —Ôto€imprisonment€by€the€criminal€court.€€On€the€existence€of€theseÐ Œ." Ðcircumstances,€and€of€the€criminal€immunity€of€a€justice€the€Court€itselfÐ {# Ðdecides.Ð j $ ÐÌ42.à b àThe€Constitutional€Court€reviews€the€conformity€of€laws€with€theÐ H!ê& ÐConstitution,€and€may€annul€a€law€or€any€of€its€provisions€if€it€holds€them€toÐ 7"Ù ' Ðbe€unconstitutional.€€It€protects€the€civil€rights€and€freedoms€of€citizens,Ð &#È!( Ðand€may€annul€any€illegal€act,€or€order€the€renewal€of€proceedings€by€aÐ $·") Ðcompetent€authority€if€it€finds€them€to€be€in€violation€of€the€Constitution.€Ð %¦#* ÐA€constitutional€complaint€may€be€filed€by€any€citizen€who€deems€hisÐ ó%•$+ Ðconstitutional€rights€to€be€violated€by€an€act€or€action€of€any€State€body€orÐ â&„%, Ðagency,€after€exhausting€the€regular€legal€remedies.€€The€Court€controls€theÐ Ñ's&- Ðactivity€and€programmes€of€the€political€parties,€and€may€ban€a€party€whichÐ À(b'. Ðcalls€for€violence€or€otherwise€acts€violently.€€The€Court€controls€elections,Ð ¯)Q(/ Ðand€decides€on€motions€of€impeachment€against€the€President€of€the€Republic.€Ð ž*@)0 ÐThe€Court€reaches€decisions€by€a€majority€vote€of€all€its€members.€€ConcurringÐ +/*1 Ðand€dissenting€opinions€may€be€given.Ð |,+2 ÐÐ k- ,3 Ð43.à b àThe€independence€of€the€judiciary€is€guaranteed.€€Judges€and€prosecutorsÐ F Ðare€appointed€by€the€High€Judiciary€Council€of€the€Republic.€€The€Council€isÐ 5ï Ðelected€by€the€House€of€Representatives€on€a€proposal€from€the€House€ofÐ $Þ ÐCounties.€€The€same€requirements€for€candidates€have€been€prescribed€as€forÐ Í ÐConstitutional€Court€justices,€and€the€term€is€eight€years.€€Judges€areÐ  ¼ Ðappointed€for€life;€they€are€guaranteed€security€of€tenure€and€may€be€removedÐ ñ « Ðonly€at€their€own€consent.€€On€disciplinary€matters€the€Judiciary€CouncilÐ à š Ðdecides,€the€judges€having€the€right€to€appeal€to€the€House€of€Counties.€€AÐ Ï ‰ Ðjudge€may€be€dismissed€only€for€the€same€reasons€as€Constitutional€CourtÐ ¾ x Ðjustices,€and€enjoys€the€same€criminal€immunity€as€the€members€of€the€Sabor.Ð ­ g  ÐÌ44.à b àThe€Supreme€Court€is€the€court€of€final€appeal€and€of€cassation,€andÐ ‹E  Ðensures€uniform€application€of€the€law€and€the€equality€of€citizens€under€theÐ z4  Ðlaw.€€Regular€courts€have€two€tiers.€€The€right€of€appeal€is€guaranteed.€€TheÐ i#  ÐAdministrative€courts€review€the€legality€of€the€final€decisions€ofÐ X  Ðadministrative€agencies.€€Military€criminal€courts€were€established€under€theÐ G Ðextraordinary€circumstances€by€presidential€ordinance€in€1991,€for€trials€ofÐ 6ð Ðcases€which€have€military€elements.Ð %ß ÐÌ45.à b àThe€Constitution€establishes€an€Ombudsman€as€a€parliamentary€commissionerÐ ½ Ðto€defend€citizens'€rights€before€the€administration.€€The€office€wasÐ ò¬ Ðestablished€in€1993.Ð á› ÐÌà@n n –àB.€€òòConstitutional€guarantees€of€rights€and€freedomsóóˆÐ ¿y ÐÌ46.à b àIn€its€Guidelines€for€drafting€the€Constitution,€adopted€on€the€proposalÐ W Ðof€the€President€of€the€Republic€on€17July1990,€the€Croatian€ParliamentÐ ŒF Ðruled€that€the€level€of€protection€of€human€rights€by€the€Constitution€must€beÐ {5 Ðin€accordance€with€the€highest€standards€contained€in€the€main€internationalÐ j$ Ðinstruments,€and€wherever€possible,€should€be€made€even€higher€than€requiredÐ Y  ÐÔ& ¼ Ôby€those€standards.€€During€the€drafting€process,€the€internationalÐ H! Ðconventions€regulating€human€rights€were€referred€to,€as€were€theÐ 7"ñ ÐConstitutions€of€the€most€developed€democracies.Ð &#à  ÐÔ'¼H!ž§ÔÌ47.à b àArticle€3€of€the€Constitution€declares€freedom,€equality€under€the€law,Ð %¾" Ðnational€equality,€love€of€peace,€social€justice,€respect€for€human€rights,Ð ó%­ # Ðinviolability€of€ownership,€conservation€of€nature€and€the€human€environment,Ð â&œ!$ Ðthe€rule€of€law,€and€a€democratic€multiparty€system€to€be€the€highest€valuesÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðof€the€constitutional€order€of€the€Republic€of€Croatia.€€Therefore,€theÐ À(z#& ÐConstitution€guarantees€a€wide€array€of€personal€and€political€freedoms€andÐ ¯)i$' Ðrights€and€of€economic,€social€and€cultural€rights.€€The€Constitution€in€itsÐ ž*X%( Ðarticle20€determines€the€principle€that€anyone€violating€human€rights€andÐ +G&) Ðfreedoms€shall€be€held€personally€responsible€and€may€not€exculpate€himself€byÐ |,6'* Ðinvoking€a€higher€order.Ð k-%(+ Ї48.à b àDerogations€have€been€permitted€in€extraordinary€situations€which€areÐ F Ðdefined€in€article17€as:€€during€a€state€of€war€or€immediate€danger€to€theÐ 5ï Ðindependence€and€unity€of€the€Republic€or€in€the€event€of€some€naturalÐ $Þ Ðdisaster.€€These€situations€shall€be€decided€by€the€Parliament€by€a€two-thirdsÐ Í Ðmajority€of€all€representatives.€€If€the€Parliament€is€unable€to€convene€owingÐ  ¼ Ðto€the€circumstances,€the€President€of€the€Republic€is€authorized€to€make€theÐ ñ « Ðdecision.€€The€extent€of€the€derogations€must€be€commensurate€with€the€natureÐ à š Ðof€the€danger,€and€must€not€result€in€the€inequality€of€citizens€in€respect€ofÐ Ï ‰ Ðrace,€colour,€sex,€language,€religion,€or€national€or€social€origin.€€In€noÐ ¾ x Ðcircumstances€may€restrictions€be€imposed€on€the€application€of€the€provisionsÐ ­ g  Ðof€the€Constitution€concerning€the€right€to€life;€the€prohibition€of€torture,Ð œV  Ðcruel€or€degrading€treatment€or€punishment;€the€legal€definitions€of€penalÐ ‹E  Ðoffences€and€punishments;€and€the€freedom€of€thought,€conscience€and€religion.€Ð z4  ÐCapital€punishment€does€not€exist€in€the€Republic€of€Croatia.Ð i#  ÐÌà@B B –àC.€€òòSpecial€constitutional€protection€of€ethnic€minoritiesóóˆÐ G ÐÌ49.à b àThe€Constitutional€Law€on€Human€Rights€and€Freedoms€and€Rights€of€EthnicÐ %ß Ðand€National€Communities€or€Minorities€of€8December1991,€as€amended€onÐ Î Ð15March1992€(hereafter€referred€to€as€the€Law€on€Minorities),€was€drawn€upÐ ½ Ðin€accordance€with€an€agreement€achieved€at€the€peace€conference€on€YugoslaviaÐ ò¬ Ðheld€at€TheHague€at€the€end€of€October1991,€and€elaborated€under€theÐ á› Ðsupervision€and€review€of€Council€of€Europe€experts.РЊ ÐÌ50.à b àThe€Law€has€been€given€constitutional€force€in€order€to€emphasize€itsÐ ®h Ðimportance,€although€the€Constitution€contains€basic€guarantees€of€theÐ W Ðcollective€rights€of€ethnic€minorities€and€provides€for€forms€of€culturalÐ ŒF Ðautonomy€to€be€established,€as€well€as€an€authorization€to€the€legislature€toÐ {5 Ðregulate€these€issues€in€detail.Ð j$ ÐÌ51.à b àThe€aim€of€the€Law€is€to€ensure€individual€rights€to€all€citizensÐ H! Ðregardless€of€their€ethnic€affiliation,€and€to€regulate€in€detail€specialÐ 7"ñ Ðcollective€rights€of€the€communities€whose€ethnicity€makes€them€a€minority€inÐ &#à  ÐCroatia.€€In€particular€the€Law€establishes€two€special€autonomous€units€ofÐ $Ï! Ðlocal€self-government€in€the€areas€in€which€Serbs€represent€a€majority€of€theÐ %¾" Ðpopulation.Ð ó%­ # ÐÌ52.à b àIn€its€two€constitutionally€most€significant€aspects,€the€Law€providesÐ Ñ'‹"% Ðfor:€€proportional€representation€of€minorities€in€the€central€governmentÐ À(z#& Ðbodies;€special€status€for€the€two€districts€with€a€Serbian€majorityÐ ¯)i$' Ðpopulation.Ð ž*X%( ÐÌòòProportional€representationóóÐ |,6'* ÐÐ k-%(+ Ð53.à b àIn€accordance€with€article€18€of€the€Law,€there€are€two€categories€ofÐ F Ðethnic€minorities€in€regard€to€their€right€to€proportional€representation€inÐ 5ï Ðthe€Croatian€Parliament€and€Government:€€(1)€minorities€that€make€up€overÐ $Þ Ð8percent€of€the€population€according€to€the€1981€census€are€entitled€to€beÐ Í Ðrepresented€in€proportion€to€their€share€in€the€total€population.€€The€onlyÐ  ¼ Ðsuch€minority€is€the€Serbian€one,€which€amounts€to€12percent.€€According€toÐ ñ « Ðarticle10/1€of€the€Electoral€Law€this€proportion€in€the€House€ofÐ à š ÐRepresentatives€has€been€calculated€from€the€number€of€seats€provided€for€byÐ Ï ‰ Ðthe€Constitution,€which€is€120,€so€that€14€seats€have€to€be€allocated€toÐ ¾ x Ðmembers€of€Serbian€nationality;€(2)minorities€whose€share€in€the€totalÐ ­ g  Ðpopulation€is€below€8percent€are€entitled€to€elect€a€total€of€fiveÐ œV  Ðrepresentatives.€€This€concerns€the€Hungarian,€Italian,€Czech,€Slovak,Ð ‹E  ÐRuthenian,€Ukrainian,€German,€Austrian€and€all€other€ethnic€minorities.Ð z4  ÐÌ54.à b àThe€Electoral€Law€further€regulates€the€method€of€achieving€the€requiredÐ X  Ðminority€representation€in€the€House:€€(1)if€the€required€representation€isÐ G Ðachieved€in€the€regular€process€of€elections,€no€additional€measures€areÐ 6ð Ðneeded;€(2)if€the€required€representation€is€not€achieved,€the€number€ofÐ %ß Ðseats€in€the€House€should€be€increased€up€to€the€required€number,€so€that€theÐ Î Ðcandidates€belonging€to€a€specific€ethnic€minority€on€party€lists€who€have€notÐ ½ Ðbeen€elected€would€be€given€seats€in€the€order€corresponding€to€their€positionÐ ò¬ Ðon€the€list€and€to€the€proportional€success€achieved€by€the€respective€list€atÐ á› Ðthe€elections;€(3)if€the€required€proportions€are€not€achieved€even€in€thatРЊ Ðway,€a€by-election€should€be€called€for€a€special€minority€electoral€unit,Ð ¿y Ðwithin€60€days€of€the€first€session€of€the€newly€elected€House.Ð ®h ÐÌ55.à b àAt€the€1992€elections€the€second€procedure€was€applied€and€the€number€ofÐ ŒF Ðseats€in€the€House€has€been€determined€at€138.Ð {5 ÐÌòòSpecial€statute€districtsóóÐ Y  ÐÌ56.à b àUnder€article€21€of€the€Law€on€Minorities,€areas€in€which€members€of€anÐ 7"ñ Ðethnic€minority€make€up€over€50percent€of€the€local€population€according€toÐ &#à  Ðthe€1981€census€shall€have€a€special€statute€within€the€system€of€CroatianÐ $Ï! Ðlocal€self-government.€€The€organization€and€operation€of€such€areas€has€to€beÐ %¾" Ðin€conformity€with€the€Constitution€of€Croatia€"as€an€integral€and€indivisibleÐ ó%­ # ÐState".€€Those€provisions€relate€to€the€two€areas€in€which€Serbs€are€in€theÐ â&œ!$ Ðmajority€and€whose€boundaries€have€been€specified€by€article22€of€the€Law:€Ð Ñ'‹"% Ðthe€district€of€Knin,€which€would€incorporate€six€former€communes,€and€that€ofÐ À(z#& ÐGlina,€which€would€encompass€five.€€All€ethnic€communities€within€the€specialÐ ¯)i$' Ðstatute€district€have€a€right€to€be€proportionally€represented€in€the€districtÐ ž*X%( Ðassembly,€administration,€police€and€all€other€public€services.€€LocalÐ +G&) Ðgovernment€structure€is€to€be€composed€of:€€the€district€assembly€with€itsÐ |,6'* Ðpresident€whose€election€has€to€be€approved€by€the€Croatian€Government,€theÐ k-%(+ Ðexecutive€council,€the€municipal€courts€and€the€district€court.€€The€courtsÐ F Ðare€obliged€to€implement€the€law€of€the€Republic,€together€with€the€localÐ 5ï Ðby-laws€which€must€not€contradict€it€and€are€under€the€control€of€theÐ $Þ ÐConstitutional€Court.€€For€the€cases€from€the€exclusive€competence€of€theÐ Í Ðdistricts,€courts€would€have€special€divisions.€€Judges€are€appointed€by€theÐ  ¼ ÐJudicial€Council€of€the€Republic,€like€all€others,€but€on€a€proposal€from€theÐ ñ « Ðdistrict€assembly.€€Operation€of€the€special€statute€districts€shall€beÐ à š Ðsupervised€by€the€commissioner€of€the€Croatian€Government,€who€however€wouldÐ Ï ‰ Ðnot€have€any€authority€to€make€decisions.Ð ¾ x ÐÌ57.à b àImplementation€of€the€Law€would€be€supervised€by€an€international€bodyÐ œV  Ðand€the€rights€protected€by€the€Court€of€Human€Rights,€which€should€beÐ ‹E  Ðestablished€by€international€agreement.€€Pending€the€establishment€of€thoseÐ z4  Ðbodies€a€provisional€court€has€to€be€established,€whose€president€and€twoÐ i#  Ðjudges€would€be€appointed€by€the€presidency€of€the€European€Union,€and€twoÐ X  Ðjudges€by€the€Sabor€(art.60).€€Rights€of€the€special€statute€district€wouldÐ G Ðbe€protected€by€Constitutional€Court.Ð 6ð ÐÌ58.à b àThe€Law€has€been€applied€only€on€the€territory€under€the€CroatianÐ Î ÐGovernment's€control.€€The€full€application€of€the€Law€would€require€peace€toÐ ½ Ðbe€achieved€and€the€legal€order€restored€on€the€whole€Croatian€territory.Ð ò¬ ÐÌà@–àD.€€òòInternational€legal€instruments€and€the€internal€legal€orderóóˆÐ Њ ÐÌ59.à b àInternational€human€rights€instruments€properly€accepted€by€the€RepublicÐ ®h Ðhave€been€made€an€integral€part€of€the€internal€legal€order,€and€given€a€legalÐ W Ðforce€above€the€law€of€the€land.€€Article134€of€the€Constitution€reads:Ð ŒF ÐÌà0 b à"International€agreements€concluded€and€ratified€in€accordance€with€theÐ j$ ÐConstitution€and€published€are€a€part€of€the€internal€legal€order€andÐ Y  Ðhave€a€legal€force€above€the€law.€€Their€provisions€may€be€changed€orÐ H! Ðrepealed€only€under€conditions€and€in€the€way€specified€in€them,€or€inÐ 7"ñ Ðaccordance€with€the€general€rules€of€international€law."Ð&#à b$b$ ÐÌUnder€article€115€courts€administer€justice€on€the€basis€of€the€ConstitutionÐ %¾" Ðand€the€law.€€Therefore,€international€human€rights€instruments€do€not€have€toÐ ó%­ # Ðbe€transformed€into€internal€laws€in€order€to€be€invoked€by€citizens€andÐ â&œ!$ Ðenforced€by€the€judicial€authorities€or€other€agencies.Ð Ñ'‹"% ÐÌà@Æ Æ –àE.€€òòLegal€remedies€available€to€citizensóóˆÐ ¯)i$' ÐÌà@)–à1.€€òòThe€right€to€appealóóˆÐ +G&) Ðâ âÐ |,6'* Ð60.à b àThe€right€to€appeal€against€the€first€instance€decision€in€proceedingsÐ F Ðâ âbefore€courts€or€any€other€public€authority€has€been€guaranteed.€€It€can€beÐ 5ï Ðexcluded€only€by€the€law€if€other€legal€remedy€is€ensured.€€JudicialÐ $Þ Ðproceedings€are€in€two€tiers,€but€extraordinary€remedies€against€second€tierÐ Í Ðdecisions€have€also€been€provided€in€specified€cases.€€General€administrativeÐ  ¼ Ðprocedure€is€regulated€by€the€law,€as€well€as€the€procedure€for€the€judicialÐ ñ « Ðreview€of€administrative€decisions.Ð à š ÐÌÔ& ‰ Ôà@    –à2.€€òòThe€right€to€initiate€an€administrative€disputeóóˆÐ ¾ x ÐÌ61.à b àAfter€exhausting€the€remedies€in€an€administrative€procedure,€a€party€mayÐ œV  Ðinitiate€an€administrative€dispute€before€the€Administrative€Court.€€The€CourtÐ ‹E  Ðreviews€the€legality€of€disputed€acts,€and€may€annul€the€act€and€return€theÐ z4  Ðcase€for€a€new€consideration€by€the€administrative€agency.Ð i#  ÐÔ'‰¾ G×ÔÌà@&–à3.€€òòConstitutional€complaintóóˆÐ G ÐÌ62.à b àAnyone€may€file€a€constitutional€complaint€with€the€Constitutional€Court,Ð %ß Ðif€it€is€considered€that€any€of€the€constitutionally€provided€freedoms€andÐ Î Ðrights€has€been€violated€by€a€decision€of€a€judicial€or€administrativeÐ ½ Ðauthority,€or€of€any€other€public€authority.€€If€another€remedy€for€protectionÐ ò¬ Ðof€constitutional€rights€is€provided,€a€constitutional€complaint€should€beÐ á› Ðsubmitted€only€after€exhaustion€of€that€remedy.€€Thus€the€constitutionalРЊ Ðcomplaint€is€heard€by€the€Court€only€if€the€regular€remedies,€such€as€appealÐ ¿y Ðor€administrative€dispute,€have€been€previously€used.€€Constitutional€Court€isÐ ®h Ðauthorized€to€annul€any€decision€by€which€constitutional€freedoms€or€rightsÐ W Ðhave€been€violated,€and€to€establish€the€manner€of€compensation€orÐ ŒF Ðrehabilitation.Ð {5 ÐÌà@ºº%–à4.€€òòComplaint€to€the€OmbudsmanóóˆÐ Y  ÐÌ63.à b àThe€Ombudsman€protects€the€constitutional€and€legal€rights€of€citizensÐ 7"ñ Ðagainst€maladministration€by€administrative€agencies€and€other€bodies€vestedÐ &#à  Ðwith€public€powers.€€He€acts€as€a€commissioner€of€the€Parliament€and€reportsÐ $Ï! Ðto€the€Parliament.Ð %¾" ÐÌà@zz–à5.€€òòComplaint€to€the€Parliamentary€Commission€for€Human€RightsóóˆÐ â&œ!$ ÐÌ64.à b àCitizens€may€file€a€complaint€with€the€Parliament,€the€Government€or€theÐ À(z#& ÐPresident€of€the€Republic,€exercising€their€constitutional€right€to€petition.€Ð ¯)i$' ÐThe€Parliamentary€Commission€for€Human€Rights€is€chaired€by€an€oppositionÐ ž*X%( Ðrepresentative,€and€otherwise€composed€according€to€the€party€distribution€inÐ +G&) Ðâ âthe€House€of€Representatives.€€This€body€intervenes€in€protection€of€humanÐ |,6'* Ðrights€by€initiating€proceedings€of€the€competent€authorities,€informing€theÐ F Ðmedia€and€sometimes€issuing€recommendations.Ð 5ï Ðâ âÌà@š š –àF.€€òòCompensation€and€rehabilitation€of€victimsóóˆÐ Í ÐÌ65.à b àChapter€23€of€the€Criminal€Procedure€Act€regulates€the€procedure€ofÐ ñ « Ðrehabilitation,€compensation€for€damages€and€realization€of€other€rights€ofÐ à š Ðpersons€found€to€be€the€victims€of€unjustified€conviction€or€deprivation€ofÐ Ï ‰ Ðliberty.Ð ¾ x ÐÌ66.à b àThose€rights€belong€to€any€person:€€(1)€found€to€have€been€illegallyÐ œV  Ðconvicted€in€the€legal€procedure€initiated€by€any€of€the€above-mentionedÐ ‹E  Ðremedies;€(2)€detained€in€custody€without€prosecution€or€for€a€period€longerÐ z4  Ðthan€the€sentence;€(3)who€has€served€his€prison€sentence€and€has€been€foundÐ i#  Ðnot€guilty€in€further€proceedings;€(4)who€has€been€deprived€of€liberty€orÐ X  Ðdetained€owing€to€an€error€or€unlawful€act€of€the€authorities.Ð G ÐÌÑ¥}Ñ67.à b àMaterial€damages€have€been€adjudicated€in€procedures€initiated€by€legalÐ %ß Ðremedies.€€Regarding€the€damages€to€the€reputation€of€the€person,€the€court€ofÐ Î Ðjustice€shall€order€a€publication€in€the€media€of€the€statement€that€theÐ ½ Ðdeprivation€of€liberty€had€been€illegal€and€the€previous€decision€repudiated.Ð ò¬ ÐÌà@ºº%–àIV.€€INFORMATION€AND€PUBLICITYˆÐ Њ ÐÌ68.à b àTexts€of€ratified€international€instruments€are€published€in€the€officialÐ ®h Ðgazette€òòNarodne€Novineóó€in€the€original€language€and€in€Croatian€translation.€Ð W ÐThe€texts€of€major€human€rights€instruments€have€been€widely€translated€andÐ ŒF Ðpublished€in€collections€edited€by€scholars€and€human€rights€activists.€€MediaÐ {5 Ðprogrammes€on€human€rights€have€been€promoted€for€the€past€three€years.€€ThereÐ j$ Ðis€a€continuous€public€debate€on€human€rights€issues€in€the€press€and€otherÐ Y  Ðmedia.Ð H! ÐÌ69.à b àThe€non-governmental€organizations€play€an€active€role€in€the€struggleÐ &#à  Ðfor€human€rights€promotion€and€protection.€€The€Helsinki€Watch€Committee,€theÐ $Ï! ÐCroatian€Committee€for€Human€Rights,€the€Medical€Center€for€Human€Rights,€theÐ %¾" ÐCenter€for€Peace,€Non-violence€and€Human€Rights,€the€Anti-War€Campaign€andÐ ó%­ # Ðothers€have€been€active€in€the€field,€organizing€gatherings,€collecting€andÐ â&œ!$ Ðpublishing€information,€and€offering€assistance€to€citizens€in€cases€of€abuse.€Ð Ñ'‹"% ÐAlso,€owing€to€the€extraordinary€circumstances,€teams€from€virtually€all€theÐ À(z#& Ðmajor€international€and€many€foreign€humanitarian€and€human€rightsÐ ¯)i$' Ðorganizations€have€been€present€in€the€country,€whether€permanently€or€inÐ ž*X%( Ðvarious€fact-finding€missions.€€UNHCR€administers€humanitarian€aid€and€offersÐ +G&) Ðassistance€to€the€Croatian€Government€regarding€the€rights€of€refugees€andÐ |,6'* Ðdisplaced€persons€through€its€offices€in€all€major€cities€in€the€country.Ð k-%(+ Ðâ âÐ Z.), Ð70.à b àReports€under€the€international€human€rights€instruments€have€beenÐ F Ðâ âprepared€by€governmental€agencies€(the€Ministry€of€Labour€and€Social€Security,Ð 5ï Ðthe€Ministry€of€the€Interior,€the€Ministry€of€Justice,€the€Ministry€of€Health,Ð $Þ Ðthe€Public€Prosecutor's€Office,€the€Ministry€of€Defence,€and€others),€inÐ Í Ðcooperation€with€the€experts€from€the€University€and€research€institutes.€Ð  ¼ ÐThere€has€not€been€a€public€discussion€about€the€contents€of€specific€reportsÐ ñ « Ðso€far,€since€in€all€fields€they€have€been€in€the€stage€of€preparation€as€theÐ à š Ðfirst€Croatian€reports€since€achieving€independence.€€The€reports€will€beÐ Ï ‰ Ðpublished€by€the€Government€and€offered€to€the€public€together€withÐ ¾ x Ðrecommendations€as€soon€as€they€have€been€considered€by€the€competentÐ ­ g  Ðinternational€bodies.Ð œV  ÐÌÌà@œœ2–àòòNotesóóˆÐ i#  ÐÔ €ôÈÔ