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Distr. 2d     GENERAL  B      _HRI_/CORE/1/Add.5/Rev.1     13July1994        Original:ENGLISH  mmU@  COREDOCUMENTFORMINGPARTOFTHEREPORTSOFSTATESPARTIES m @n n UNITEDKINGDOMOFGREATBRITAINANDNORTHERNIRELAND K} L$[29April1994] )[ @+I.LANDANDPEOPLE 9 B.++b >uQ!++B1. b Backgroundstatisticalinformation,usingthemostuptodatefigures  available,ontheUnitedKingdom,isasfollows:  ! ++b;++7!0 b Percapitaincome0;b$b$ 8,999(1992);$;$  b Grossnationalproduct0 ; Atmarketprices 594,511million1/!;$;$  b  ; Atfactorcost 594,9011/(1992) " 0 b Rateofinflation0;b$b$1.9percent(December1992-December1993)]$;$;$  b Externaldebt0 ; 249billion(1993/1994);!m!&;$;$ 0 b Rateofunemployment0;b$b$Males12.3percent)Summer1993#K#(;$;$  b  ; Females8.0percent)ILObasis $:$) 0 b Literacyrate0;b$b$Notavailable%&+;$;$ 0 b Percentageofpopulation ; Notavailable''-b$b$  b speakingmothertongue ((. 0 b Lifeexpectancy0;b$b$Males73.6years)&&&**1993&&0;$;$  b  ; ''G'''Females79.0years) 'G'1 򀀀 )*4  b 1/BasedondefinitionusedforOECD.(Differentfiguresareusedfor ++6 domesticpurposes.) ,,7 ../k00GE.9417611(E) ./;  /0< _ԇR}_:__;_E.++b >uQ!++b E0 b Infantmortalityrate0>b$b$ u B.++b >Q!++7B  Males7.3)Fper100,000livebirths>$>$  b  Y    >   Females5.6) Y 0 b Maternalmortalityrate0b$b$6.0per1,000births}7$$ 0 b Fertilityrate0b$b$ >   1.79(1992)[ $$ 0 b Percentageofpopulation0b$b$Males20percent) V9  M Vmid1992 M$$    <0 b under15    >   Females18percent) b$b$ 0 b Percentageofpopulation  Males12percent)  mid1992  b$b$  b o o ) over65    >   Females17percent) o )  0 b Percentageofpopulationin0b$b$Rural10.4percentM $$ 0 b ruralareasandinurban0b$b$Urban89.6percent(datafrom1991< $$  b areas    >   censusforGreatBritain) +  0 b Percentageofhouseholds0b$b$26percent(1992GeneralHousehold  $$ 0 b headedbywomen0b$b$ >   Survey)$$ K.++b >uQ!++77K@VV$II.GENERALPOLITICALSTRUCTURE  @(A.SystemofGovernment ] 2. b ThesystemofparliamentaryGovernmentintheUnitedKingdomisnotbased ; onawrittenconstitution,butistheresultofagradualevolutionspanning p* severalcenturies.Theessenceofthesystemtoday,asithasbeenformore _ thantwocenturies,isthatthepoliticalleadersoftheexecutivearemembers N ofthelegislatureandareresponsibletoanelectedassembly,theHouseof = Commons,comprisingmembersfromconstituenciesinEngland,Scotland,Wales , andNorthernIreland.TheGovernment'stenureofofficedependsonthe   supportofamajorityintheHouseofCommons,whereithastomeetinformed  !  andpubliccriticismbyanOppositioncapableofsucceedingitasaGovernment !! shouldtheelectoratesodecide. "" ThepowersofParliament $$ 3. b ParliamentisthesupremelegislativeauthorityinBritain.Itsthree &^!& elements-theQueenandthetwoHousesofParliament(theHouseofLordsand 'M"' theelectedHouseofCommons)-areoutwardlyseparate.Theyareconstituted (<#( ondifferentprinciplesandtheymeettogetheronlyonoccasionsofsymbolic q)+$) significancesuchasacoronation,ortheStateopeningofParliamentwhenthe `*%* CommonsaresummonedbytheQueentotheHouseofLords.Asalaw-making O+ &+  organofState,however,Parliamentisacorporatebodyandwithcertain >,&, _exceptions(seebelow)cannotlegislatewithouttheconcurrenceofallits 5 parts. $  4. b ParliamentcanlegislateforBritainasawhole,foranyofthe   constituentpartsofthecountryseparately,orforanycombinationofthem.   ItcanalsolegislatefortheChannelIslandsandtheIsleofMan,whichare   CrowndependenciesandnotpartofBritain,havingsubordinatelegislatures   whichlegislateonislandaffairs.ThelegislaturesoftheChannelIslands   (theStatesofJerseyandtheStatesofGuernsey)andtheIsleofMan(the  x TynwaldCourt)consistoftheQueen,thePrivyCouncilandthelocal g  assemblies.ItisthedutyoftheHomeSecretary,asthememberofthePrivy V  Councilprimarilyconcernedwithislandaffairs,toscrutinizeeach zE  legislativemeasurebeforeitissubmittedtotheQueeninCouncil. i4  5. b TheParliamentAct1911fixedthelifeofaParliamentatfiveyears G  (althoughitmaybedissolvedandageneralelectionheldbeforetheexpiryof 6 thelegalterm).Becauseitisnotsubjecttothetypeoflegalrestraints % imposedonthelegislaturesofcountrieswithformalwrittenconstitutions,  Parliamentisvirtuallyfreetolegislateasitpleases:generallytomake,  unmake,oralteranylaw;tolegalizepastillegalitiesandtomakevoidand  punishablewhatwaslawfulwhendoneandthusreversethedecisionsofthe  ordinarycourts;andtodestroyestablishedconventionsorturnaconvention  intobindinglaw.  6. b Inpractice,however,Parliamentdoesnotassertitssupremacyinthis h way.Itsmembersbearinmindthecommonlawwhichhasgrownupoverthe W centuries,andhavetendedtoactinaccordancewithprecedentandtradition. {F Moreover,bothHousesaresensitivetopublicopinion,and,althoughthe j5 validityofanActofParliamentthathasbeendulypassed,legally Y $ promulgatedandpublishedbytheproperauthoritycannotbedisputedinthe H! lawcourts,noParliamentwouldbelikelytopassanActwhichitknewwould 7" receivenopublicsupport.ThesystemofpartyGovernmentinBritainhelpsto &# ensurethatParliamentlegislateswithitsresponsibilitytotheelectoratein $  mind. %! TheCrownandParliament & # 7. b ConstitutionallythelegalexistenceofParliamentdependsuponthe ("% exerciseoftheroyalprerogative(broadlyspeaking,thecollectionof )z#& residualpowersleftinthehandsoftheCrown).However,thepowersofthe *i$' CrowninconnectionwithParliamentaresubjecttolimitationandchangeby +X%( legislativeprocessandarealwaysexercisedthroughandontheadviceof |,G&) ministersresponsibleto_Parliament. k-6'* Ї8. b Asthetemporal"governor"oftheestablishedChurchofEngland,the F Queen,ontheadviceofthePrimeMinister,appointsthearchbishopsand 5 bishops,someofwhom,as"lordsspiritual"formpartoftheHouseofLords. $ Asthe"fountainofhonour"sheconferspeerages(ontherecommendationofthe  PrimeMinisterwhousuallyseekstheviewsofothers);thusthe"lords   temporal"whoformtheremainderoftheupperHousehavelikewisebeencreated   byroyalprerogative,andtheirnumbersmaybeincreasedatanytime.   9. b Parliamentissummonedbyroyalproclamationandisprorogued  x (discontinueduntilthenextsession)anddissolvedbytheQueen.Atthe  g  beginningofeachnewsessiontheQueendrivesinstatetotheHouseofLords V  andopensParliamentinperson.(Inspecialcircumstances,thismaybedone E  &  byroyalcommissionersactingonherbehalf.)Attheopeningceremonythe z4  QueenaddressestheassembledLordsandCommons;theQueen'sspeechisdrafted i#  byherministersandoutlinestheGovernment'sbroadpoliciesandproposed X  legislativeprogrammeforthesession. G 'z_010. b TheSovereign'sassentisrequiredbeforeanylegislationcantake % effect-RoyalAssenttobillsisnowusuallydeclaredtoParliamentbythe  SpeakersofthetwoHouses.TheSovereignhastherighttobeconsulted,the  righttoencourageandtherighttowarn,buttherighttovetohaslongsince  fallenintodisuse.  Parliamentarysessions y 11. b ThelifeofaParliamentisdividedintosessions.Eachsessionusually W lastsforoneyearandisusuallyterminatedbyprorogation,althoughitmay F beterminatedbydissolution.DuringasessioneitherHousemayadjourn {5 itself,onitsownmotion,towhicheverdateitpleases. j$ 12. b Prorogationatthecloseofasessionisusuallyeffectedbyan H! announcementonbehalfoftheQueenmadeintheHouseofLordstobothHouses 7" andoperatesuntilafixeddate.Thedateappointedmaybedeferredor &#  broughtforwardbysubsequentproclamation.Theeffectofaprorogationisat $! oncetoterminatenearlyallparliamentarybusiness.Thismeansthatall %" publicbillsnotcompletedinthesessionlapse,andhavetobereintroduced % # inthenextsessionunlesstheyaretobeabandoned. &!$ 13. b Parliamentisusuallydissolvedbyproclamationeitherattheendofits (z#& five-yeartermorwhenagovernmentrequestsadissolutionbeforetheterminal )i$' date.Inmodernpractice,theunbrokencontinuityofParliamentisassuredby *X%( thefactthatthesameproclamationwhichdissolvestheexistingParliament +G&) orderstheissueofwritsfortheelectionofanewoneandannouncesthedate |,6'* onwhichthenewParliamentistomeet.ShouldtheSovereigndieaftera k-%(+ dissolution,butbeforethegeneralelection,theelectionandthemeetingof 5 thenewParliamentwouldbepostponedfor14days. $ 14. b Anadjournmentdoesnotaffectuncompletedbusiness.Thereassemblyof   Parliamentcanbeaccelerated(iftheadjournmentwasintendedtolastfor   morethan14days)byroyalproclamation,oratshortnotice,ifthepublic   interestdemandsit,bypowersspeciallyconferredbyeachHouseonits   Speaker.   NorthernIreland g  15. b Between1921and1972NorthernIrelandhaditsownParliamentand zE  Government,subordinatetotheParliamentatWestminster,butin1972, i4  followingseveralyearsofsectarianviolenceandterrorism,the X#  NorthernIrelandGovernmentresignedanddirectrulebytheUnitedKingdom G  Parliamentwasintroducedwithexecutivepowersunderthecontrolofa 6 SecretaryofStateforNorthernIreland,acabinetministerwhowasgiven % responsibilityforfunctionspreviouslyexercisedbytheNorthernIreland  & E GovernmentandfortheNorthernIrelanddepartments.Underthe  NorthernIrelandAct1974,mostlegislationformerlycarriedoutby  ActoftheNorthernIrelandParliamentisnowconsideredbythe  WestminsterParliamentintheformofdraftstatutoryinstruments.  TheEuropeanCommunity y 16. b SinceBritainaccededtotheEuropeanCommunityin1973theprovisionsof W theEuropeanCommunitiesAct1972applyingtheTreatyofRomehavecomeinto {F force.TheseprovideforvarioustypesofCommunitylegislation,including j5 'E ?regulationswhicharelegallybindinganddirectlyapplicableinallmember Y $ countries,anddirectives,alsomadebytheCommunity(whoseCouncilof H! MinisterscomprisesrepresentativesoftheGovernmentofeachmemberState). 7" Thesedirectivesarebindingasregardstheresulttobeachieveduponeach &# memberStatetowhichtheyareaddressed,butallowthenationalParliaments $  tochoosetheformandmethodofimplementation.Specialparliamentary %! procedureshavebeenadoptedtokeepmembersofbothHousesoftheBritish %" ParliamentinformedaboutCommunitydevelopments. & # 17. b Britain,liketheothermembercountriesoftheCommunity,sendsanumber ("% ofrepresentativestositintheEuropeanParliament.TheParliament )z#& exercisescontroloverCommunityinstitutionsbyscrutinizinglegislation,by *i$' questioningboththeCommissionandtheCouncilofMinistersandbydebating +X%( allmajorpolicyissuesoftheCommunity. |,G&)  k-6'* ThecompositionofParliament F 18. b Thetwo-chambersystemisanintegralpartofBritishparliamentary $ government.TheHouseofLords(theupperHouse)andtheHouseofCommons  (thelowerHouse)sitseparatelyandareconstitutedonentirelydifferent   principles,buttheprocessoflegislationinvolvesbothHouses.   19. b SincethebeginningofParliament,thebalanceofpowerbetweenthetwo   Houseshasundergoneacompletechange.Thecontinuousprocessofdevelopment  x andadaptationhasbeengreatlyacceleratedduringthepast75yearsorso.  g  Inmodernpracticethecentreofparliamentarypowerisinthepopularly V  electedHouseofCommons,butuntilthetwentiethcenturytheLords'powerof E  vetoovermeasuresproposedbytheCommonswas,theoretically,unlimited. z4  UndertheParliamentActs1911and1949certainbillsmaybecomelawwithout i#  theconsentoftheLords.The1911ActimposedrestrictionsontheLords' X  righttodelaybillsdealingexclusivelywithexpenditureortaxationand G limitedtheirpowertorejectotherlegislation.Underthe1911ActtheLords 6 werelimitedtodelayingbillsfortwoyears.Thiswasreducedtooneyearby % the1949Act.  20. b TheselimitationstothepowersoftheHouseofLordsarebasedonthe  beliefthattheprincipallegislativefunctionofthemodernHouseofLordsis  revisionandthatitsobjectistocomplementtheHouseofCommonsandnotto  rivalit. y & 4 HouseofLords W 21. b TheHouseofLordsconsistsof: {5  b (a) TheLordsSpiritual:theArchbishopsofCanterburyandYork,the Y  BishopsofLondon,DurhamandWinchester,andthe21nextmostseniordiocesan H! bishopsoftheChurchofEngland; 7"  b (b) TheLordsTemporal,subdividedinto(_i_)allhereditarypeersand $! peeressesofEngland,Scotland,GreatBritainandtheUnitedKingdomwhohave %" notdisclaimedtheirpeerageunderthePeerageAct1963;(ii)alllifepeers % # '4 NandpeeressescreatedbytheCrownundertheLifePeeragesAct1958,and &!$ (iii)LordsofAppeal("lawlords"),createdlifepeersundertheAppellate '"% JurisdictionActs1876and1887toassisttheHouseinitsjudicialduties. (z#& SomelawlordsmayalreadybemembersoftheHouseandallremainsoafter )i$' theirretirement. *X%( 22. b HereditarypeeragescarryarighttositintheHouseofLords(subject |,6'* tocertainstatutorydisqualifications),providedtheholderestablisheshis k-%(+ orherclaimandis21yearsorageorover,butanyonesucceedingtoa 5 peeragemay,within12monthsofsuccession,disclaimthatpeerageforhisor $ herlifetimeunderthePeerageAct._Disclaimants_Ԁlosetheirrighttositin  theHouseofLordsbutgaintherighttovoteatparliamentaryelections,and   toofferthemselvesforelectiontotheHouseofCommons.   23. b Temporalpeerages(bothhereditaryandlife)areconferredbythe   Sovereign,ontheadviceofthePrimeMinister.Theyareusuallygranted   eitherinrecognitionofdistinguishedserviceinpoliticsorotherwalksof  x life,orbecausetheGovernmentofthedaywishestohavetherecipientinthe g  upperHouse.TheHouseofLordsalsoprovidesaplaceinParliamentformen V  andwomenwhoseadviceisusefultotheState,butwhodonotwishtobe zE  involvedinpartypolitics.UnliketheHouseofCommons,thereisnofixed i4  numberofmembersintheHouseofLords.Relativelyfewarefull-time X#  politicians. G  FinalCourtofAppeal % 24. b Inadditiontoitsparliamentarywork,theHouseofLordshasimportant  legalfunctions,beingthefinalcourtofappealforcivilcasesinthewhole  ofBritain,andforcriminalcasesinEngland,WalesandNorthernIreland.  Theoretically,allLordsareentitledtoattendtheHousewhenitissitting  asacourtofappeal,butinpracticeandbyestablishedtradition,judicial  businessisconductedbytheLordChancellor,whositsfromtimetotime,the y LordsofAppealinOrdinary(whoareexpresslyappointedtohearappealsto h theHouse,andaresalaried),and-whenrequired-otherLordswhoholdor W haveheldhighjudicialoffice. {F & g HouseofCommons Y $ 25. b TheHouseofCommonsisarepresentativeassemblyelectedbyuniversal 7" adultsuffrage,andconsistsofmenandwomen(MembersofParliament,"_MPs_") &# fromallsectionsofthecommunity,regardlessofincomeoroccupation.There $  are650seatsintheHouseofCommons:523forEngland,38forWales,72for %! Scotlandand17forNorthernIreland. %" 'gY \26. b MembersoftheHouseofCommonsholdtheirseatsduringthelifeofa '!$ Parliament.Theyareelectedeitheratageneralelection,whichtakesplace ("% afteraParliamenthasbeendissolvedandanewonesummonedbytheSovereign, )z#& orataby-election,whichisheldwhenavacancyoccursintheHouseasa *i$' resultofthedeathorresignationofanMPorasaresultofelevationofa +X%( membertotheHouseofLords. |,G&)  k-6'* _27. b AnMPwhowishestoresignfromtheHouseofCommonscandosoonlyby F usingthetechnicaldeviceofapplyingtotheChancelloroftheExchequerfor 5 "anofficeofprofitundertheCrown".Theholdingofsuchofficeisa $ disqualificationformembershipoftheHouseofCommons,andwhenanMPis  appointedtooneoftheseoffices,hisorherseatisautomaticallyvacated.   ThetwoappointmentsusedforthispurposeareCrownStewardorBailiffofthe   ChilternHundredsandStewardoftheManorofNorthstead,ancientoffices   whichcarrynosalaryandhavenoresponsibilities.Theappointmentlasts   onlyuntilanotherMPasksforit.Arequestforappointmentisnever  x refused.  g  Parliamentaryelections E  28. b Forelectoralpurposes,Britainisdividedintogeographicalareasknown i#  asconstituencies,eachreturningonemembertotheHouseofCommons.To X  ensureequitablerepresentation,BoundaryCommissionsforEngland,Scotland, G WalesandNorthernIrelandmakeperiodicreviewsofparliamentaryandEuropean 6 Parliamentconstituenciesatintervalsofnotlessthan10andnotmorethan % 15years,andrecommendanyredistributionofseatsthatmayseemnecessaryin  thelightofpopulationmovementsorotherchanges.Acommissionmayalso  submitinterimreportsonparticularconstituenciesif,forinstance,itis  necessarytobringconstituencyboundariesintolinewithalteredlocal  governmentboundaries.  29. b Thelawrelatingtoparliamentaryelectionsiscontainedinthe h RepresentationofthePeopleActs.Undertheirprovisionselectiontothe W HouseofCommonsisdecidedbysecretballot.Britishcitizens,citizensof F otherCommonwealthcountriesandcitizensoftheIrishRepublicresidentin {5 theUnitedKingdomareentitledtovoteprovidedtheyareaged18yearsor j$ overandnotlegallydisqualifiedfromvoting.Thefollowingpeoplearenot Y  entitledtovoteinaparliamentaryelection:peersandpeeressesintheir H! ownright,whoaremembersoftheHouseofLords;aliens;patientsdetained 7" undermentalhealthlegislation;convictedoffendersdetainedincustody;and &#  anyoneconvictedwithinthepreviousfiveyearsofcorruptorillegalelection $! &  practices.Tobeeligibletovoteinaparticularconstituencyanelector %" mustberegisteredinthecurrentelectoralregisterforthatconstituency. % # Theelectoralregisteriscompiledannuallybyelectoralregistrationoffices &!$ ineachconstituency. '"% 30. b Votingisnotcompulsory,butatageneralelectionthemajorityofthe )i$' '%kelectorate(over32.5millionpeopleor75.4percentatthegeneralelection *X%( inJune1987)exercisetheirright.Atby-electionspollingpercentagesmay +G&) besubstantiallylower.Asageneralrule,electorsvoteinpersonatpolling |,6'* stationsspeciallyestablishedforthepurpose. k-%(+ Ї31. b AnymanorwomanwhoisaBritishcitizen,acitizenofanother 5 CommonwealthcountryoracitizenoftheIrishRepublic,whoisnot $ disqualifiedfromvotingandhasreachedtheageof21,maystandasa  candidateataparliamentaryelection.Thosedisqualifiedfromelection   includeundischargedbankrupts,peoplesentencedtomorethanoneyear's   imprisonment,membersoftheHouseofLords,clergyoftheChurchesof   England,ScotlandandIrelandandtheRomanCatholicChurch,andthose   precludedundertheHouseofCommonsDisqualificationAct1975-forinstance,   holdersofjudicialoffice,civilservants,membersoftheregulararmed  x forcesorthepoliceservice,orBritishmembersofthelegislatureofany g  countryorterritoryoutsidetheCommonwealth.Alsoprecludedareholdersof V  awiderangeofpublicposts-forinstance,inpubliccorporationsand zE  governmentcommissions.Acandidateusuallybelongstooneofthemain i4  nationalpoliticalparties,althoughsmallerpartiesorgroupingsalso X#  nominatecandidates,andindividualsmaybenominatedwithoutpartysupport. G  Acandidate'snominationforelectionmustbesignedbytwoelectorsas 6 proposerandseconder,andbyeightotherelectorsregisteredinthe % constituency.  32. b Thesystemofvotingusedisthesimplemajoritysystem:candidatesare  electediftheyhaveamajorityofvotesoverthenextcandidate,althoughnot  necessarilyamajorityoverthesumoftheothercandidates'vote.  33. b Questionsconcerningchangesinelectorallawareconsideredperiodically y ataSpeaker'sConference,consistingofMPsmeetingunderthechairmanshipof h theSpeaker.Aswithotherparliamentarycommittees,thepartycompositionof W theConferencereflectsthatoftheHouse.Theproceedingsareinprivateand {F recommendationsarepublishedintheformoflettersfromtheSpeakertothe j5 PrimeMinister. Y $ Thepartysystem 7" 34. b TheexistenceinBritainoforganizedpoliticalpartieseachlayingits $  ownpoliciesbeforetheelectoratehasledtowell-developedpolitical %! divisionsinParliament,whichareconsideredtobevitaltodemocratic %" government.Thepartysystemhasexistedinoneformoranothersincethe & # eighteenthcentury,andbegantoassumeitsmodernshapetowardstheendof '!$ thenineteenthcentury.Wheneverthereisageneralelection(ora ("%  by-election)thepartiesmayputupcandidatesforelection;anyother_citizen )z#& &     whowishesmayalsostand.Theelectoratethenindicates,byitschoiceof F candidateatthepollsonelectionday,whichoftheopposingpoliciesit 5 wouldliketoseeputintoeffect.Thecandidatewhopollsthemostvotesis $ elected;anabsolutemajorityisnotrequired.  35. b Since1945sevengeneralelectionshavebeenwonbytheConservative   'FQ{PartyandsixbytheLabourParty,andthegreatmajorityofmembersofthe   HouseofCommonshaverepresentedeitheroneorotherofthesetwoparties.   InthegeneralelectionofJune1987all650constituenciesinBritainwere  x contested.InEngland,WalesandScotlandtheLabourPartycontestedallthe  g  633seatsandtheConservativeParty(whichdidnotcontesttheSpeaker's V  constituency)contested632.TheLiberalandSocialDemocraticparties,which E  hadformedanalliancein1981tocontestthe1983and1987generalelections, z4  betweenthemalsohad633candidates;theScottishNationalPartycontested71 i#  ofthe72Scottishseats,whilePlaidCymru(WelshNationalists)contestedall X  38constituenciesinWales. G Governmentandopposition % 36. b Thepartywhichwinsthemostseats(butnotnecessarilythemostvotes)  atageneralelection,orwhichhasthesupportofamajorityofmembersin  theHouseofCommons,isusuallyinvitedbytheSovereigntoforma  Government.Onoccasionswhennopartysucceedsinwinninganoverall  majorityofseats,aminorityGovernmentmaybeformed. y 37. b Bytradition,theleaderofthemajoritypartyisappointedPrime W MinisterbytheSovereign,andchoosesateamofministers,includinga F Cabinetofabout20members. {5 38. b Thepartywiththenextlargestnumberofseatsisofficiallyrecognized Y  as"HerMajesty'sOpposition"(or"theOfficialOpposition"),withitsown H! leaderanditsown"shadowcabinet",whosemembersactasspokesmenonthe 7" subjectsforwhichgovernmentministershaveresponsibility.Membersofany &#  otherpartiesandanyindependent_MPs_Ԁwhohavebeenelectedsupportoroppose $! theGovernmentaccordingtotheirpartyortheirownviews. %" 39. b TheGovernmenthasthemajorshareincontrollingandarrangingthe &!$ businessofthetwoHouses.Astheinitiatorofpolicy,itindicateswhich '"% actionitwishesParliamenttotake,andexplainsanddefendsitspositionin (z#& publicdebate.UnlikeGovernmentsofthepast,whichwerefrequentlyobliged )i$' bymembersoftheirownpartytowithdrawmeasures,mostpresent-day *X%( Governmentscanusuallycountonthevotingstrengthoftheirsupportersin +G&) theHouseofCommonsand,dependingonthesizeoftheiroverallmajority,can |,6'* thussecurethepassageoftheirlegislationinsubstantiallytheformthat k-%(+ theyoriginallyproposed.Thisdevelopment,whichistheresultofthegrowth 5 ofpartydiscipline,hasstrengthenedthehandoftheGovernment,butithas $ alsoincreasedtheimportanceoftheOpposition.Thegreaterpartofthework  ofexertingpressurethroughcriticismnowfallsontheOpposition,whichis   expectedandgiventheopportunity,accordingtothepracticeofbothHouses,   todevelopitsownpositioninParliamentandstateitsownviews.   &  Parliamentarycontroloftheexecutive   40. b ControloftheGovernmentisexercisedfinallybytheabilityofthe g  HouseofCommonstoforcetheGovernmenttoresign,bypassingaresolutionof V  "noconfidence"orbyrejectingaproposalwhichtheGovernmentconsidersso zE  vitaltoitspolicythatithasmadeitamatterofconfidence,orultimately i4  ' byrefusingtovotethemoneyrequiredforthepublicservice. X#  41. b Inadditiontothesystemofclosescrutinyoftheworkofgovernment 6 departmentsbyselectcommittees,theHouseofCommonsoffersanumberof % opportunitiesforasearchingexaminationofgovernmentpolicy,bothbythe  OppositionandbytheGovernment'sownbackbenchers.Asarepresentativeof  theordinarycitizen,anMPmaychallengethepolicyputforwardbyaminister  (_i_)duringadebateonaparticularbill,whenheorshemayobjecttoits  broadprinciplesonthesecondreadingor,asregularlyhappens,mayput  forwardamendmentsat_committee_Ԁstage,(ii)throughtheinstitutionof  parliamentaryquestionsandanswers,(iii)duringadjournmentdebatesor y (iv)duringthedebateson"Oppositiondays". h QuestionTime {F 42. b QuestionTimeintheHouseofCommons,initsmodernusage,islargelya Y $ developmentofthetwentiethcentury.Untilwellintothenineteenthcentury H! MembersofParliamenthadalmostunlimitedopportunitiestospeaktotheHouse 7" intheordinarycourseofevents.Nowadays,whenparliamentarytimeis &# devotedmainlytopublicbusiness,questionsareregardedasthebestmeansof $  elicitinginformation(towhichmembersmightnototherwisehaveaccess)about %! theGovernment'sintentions,aswellasthemosteffectivewayofairing,and %" possiblysecuringsomeredressof,grievancesbroughttothenoticeof_MPs_Ԁby & # theirconstituents.Fromtimetotimequestionsmaybeusedaspartofan '!$ organizedgroupcampaigntobringaboutachangeingovernmentpolicy,and ("% theremaybe"inspired"questions,whenamemberisaskedtoputdowna )z#& questionsothattheminsterresponsiblecanmakeapublicstatement. *i$' 43. b Therulesgoverningadmissiblequestionshavebeenderivedmainlyfrom |,G&) decisionstakenoveralongperiodbysuccessiveSpeakersinrelationto k-6'* individualquestions,althoughchangesinthepracticeandprocedureof F QuestionTimeweremadefollowingaHouseofCommonsselect_committee_Ԁreport 5 in1972. $ @pp/B.TheLaw   Administration   44. b TheUnitedKingdomjudiciaryisentirelyindependentoftheGovernment  x andisnotsubjecttoministerialdirectionorcontrol.Responsibilityfor  g  theadministrationofjusticerestswiththeLordChancellor,theHome V  SecretaryandtheSecretariesofStateforScotlandandNorthernIreland. E  AlsoconcernedisthePrimeMinister,whorecommendsthehighestjudicial z4  appointmentstotheCrown. i#  & x 45. b TheLordChancelloristheheadofthejudiciary(andsometimessitsasa G judgeintheHouseofLords);heisconcernedwithcourtprocedureandis 6 responsiblefortheadministrationofallcourtsotherthanmagistrates'and % coroners'courts,andforanumberofadministrativetribunals.Heappoints  magistrates,andhasgeneralresponsibilityforthelegalaidandadvice  schemes.Heisalsoresponsiblefortheadministrationofcivillawreform.  'xGŚ46. b TheHomeSecretaryisconcernedwiththecriminallaw,thepolice  service,prisons,andtheprobationandafter-careservice,andhasgeneral y supervisionovermagistrates'courts,togetherwithsomespecific h responsibilities(suchasapprovingtheappointmentofjustices'clerks). W Prisonpolicyandtheadministrationofcustodialcentresarefunctionsofthe F HomeOfficePrisonDepartment,andtheHomeSecretaryappointstoeachprison {5 establishmentaBoardofVisitorsrepresentingthelocalcommunitywhoneedto j$ satisfythemselvesastothestateofprisonpremises,administrationand Y  treatmentofinmates.TheyarerequiredtoreporttotheHomeSecretaryany H! abuseormatterofconcernwhichcomestotheirattention.Boardshave 7" disciplinarypowersinrelationtoseriousbreachesofdisciplineandhear &#  applicationsorcomplaintsfrominmates.TheHomeSecretaryisadvisedbya $! specialParoleBoardonthereleaseofprisonersonlicence. %" 47. b Responsibilityforthetreatmentofoffendersunder17issharedbetween &!$ theHomeOfficeandtheDepartmentofHealth.TheHomeSecretaryisalso '"% responsibleforadvisingtheQueenontheexerciseoftheroyalprerogativeof (z#& mercytopardonapersonconvictedofacrimeortoremitallorpartofa )i$' penaltyimposedbyacourt. *X%( 48. b TheAttorneyGeneralandtheSolicitorGeneralaretheGovernment's |,6'* principaladvisersonEnglishlaw,andrepresenttheCrowninappropriate k-%(+ domesticandinternationalcases.Theyareseniorbarristers,electedmembers 5 oftheHouseofCommonsandholdministerialposts.TheAttorneyGeneralis $ alsoAttorneyGeneralforNorthernIreland.Aswellasexercisingvarious  civillawfunctions,theAttorneyGeneralhasfinalresponsibilityfor   enforcingthecriminallaw:theDirectorofPublicProsecutionsissubjectto   theAttorneyGeneral'ssuperintendence.TheAttorneyGeneralisconcerned   withinstitutingandprosecutingcertaintypesofcriminalproceedings,but   mustexerciseanindependentdiscretionandmustnotbeinfluencedby   governmentcolleagues.TheSolicitorGeneralis,ineffect,thedeputyofthe  x AttorneyGeneral. g  49. b TheSecretaryofStateforScotlandrecommendstheappointmentofall zE  judgesotherthanthemostseniorones,appointsthestaffoftheHighCourt i4  ofJusticiaryandtheCourtofSession,andisresponsibleforthe X#  composition,staffingandorganizationofthesheriffcourts.Districtcourts G  arestaffedandadministeredbythedistrictandislandslocalauthorities. 6 TheSecretaryofStateisalsoresponsibleforthecriminallawofScotland, % crimeprevention,andthepoliceandthepenalsystem,andisadvisedon  parolemattersbytheParoleBoardforScotland.TheSecretaryofStateis  alsoresponsibleforlegalaidinScotland.  &  50. b TheLordAdvocateandtheSolicitorGeneralforScotlandarethechief  legaladviserstotheGovernmentonScottishquestionsandtheprincipal  representativesoftheCrownforthepurposesoflitigationinScotland. y Botharegovernmentministers.TheLordAdvocateiscloselyconcernedwith h questionsoflegalpolicyandadministrationandisalsoresponsibleforthe W Scottishparliamentarydraftsmen.Hehasoverallresponsibilityforthe {F 'IprosecutionofcrimeinScotlandand,althoughheholdsaministerialpost,he j5 mustexerciseanindependentdiscretionincarryingoutthisresponsibility. Y $ 51. b Theadministrationofallcourtsistheresponsibilityofthe 7" LordChancellor,whiletheNorthernIrelandOffice,undertheSecretary &# ofState,dealswiththepoliceandthepenalsystem.TheLordChancellor $  hasgeneralresponsibilityforthelegalaidandadviceschemein %! NorthernIreland. %" Criminalcourts '!$ 52. b InEnglandandWalestheinitialdecisiontobegincriminalproceedings )z#& normallylieswiththepolice.Oncethepolicehavebroughtacriminal *i$' charge,thepapersarepassedtotheCrownProsecutionServicewhichdecides +X%( whetherthecaseshouldbeacceptedforprosecutioninthecourtsorwhether |,G&) theproceedingsshouldbediscontinued.InScotlandpublicprosecutors k-6'* (procuratorsfiscal)decidewhetherornottobringproceedings.In F NorthernIrelandthereisaDirectorofPublicProsecutions.InEnglandand 5 Wales(andexceptionallyinScotland)aprivatepersonmayinstitutecriminal $ proceedings.Policemayissuecautions,andinScotlandtheprocuratorfiscal  maywarn,insteadofprosecuting.   53. b InApril1988theSeriousFraudOffice,agovernmentdepartment,was   establishedtoinvestigateandprosecutethemostseriousandcomplexcasesof   fraudinEngland,WalesandNorthernIreland.  x EnglandandWales V  54. b TheCrownProsecutionServicewasestablishedinEnglandandWalesbythe z4  ProsecutionofOffencesAct1985.TheDirectorofPublicProsecutionsisthe i#  headoftheService,whichisresponsiblefortheprosecutionofcriminal X  offencesinmagistrates'courtsandtheCrownCourt.TheServiceisdivided G into31areas,eachheadedbyalocallybasedChiefCrownProsecutorappointed 6 bytheDirectorofPublicProsecutions.TheServiceprovideslawyersto % prosecutecasesinthemagistrates'courtsandbriefsbarristerstoappearin  theCrownCourt.Althoughthedecisiontoprosecuteisgenerallydelegatedto  theChiefCrownProsecutors,somecasesaredealtwithbytheheadquartersof  theService:theseincludecasesofnationalimportance,exceptional  difficultyorgreatpublicconcernandthosewhichrequirethatsuggestionsof  localinfluencebeavoided.Suchcasesmightincludeterroristoffences, y breachesoftheOfficialSecretsActs,large-scaleconspiraciestoimport h drugsandtheprosecutionofpoliceofficers. W & V Scotland {5 55. b DischarginghisdutiesthroughtheCrownOfficer,theLordAdvocateis Y  responsibleforprosecutionsintheHighCourtofJusticiary,sheriffcourts H! anddistrictcourts.Thereisnogeneralrightofprivateprosecution;witha 7" fewminorexceptionscrimesandoffencesmaybeprosecutedonlybythe &#  LordAdvocateorhisdeputesorbytheprocuratorsfiscal,whoarethe $! LordAdvocate'slocalofficials.ThepermanentadvisertotheLordAdvocate %" onprosecutionmattersistheCrownAgent,whoisheadoftheprocurator % # 'V {>fiscalserviceandisassistedintheCrownOfficebyastaffoflegally &!$ qualifiedcivilservants,allofwhomhavehadexperienceasdepute '"% procuratorsfiscal.ProsecutionsintheHighCourtarepreparedby (z#& procuratorsfiscalandCrownOfficeofficialsandprosecutedbythe )i$' LordAdvocate,theSolicitor-GeneralforScotland(theLordAdvocate's *X%( ministerialdeputy)andadvocatesdeputewhoarecollectivelyknownasCrown +G&) Counsel.Crimestriedbeforethesheriffanddistrictcourtsarepreparedand |,6'* prosecutedbyprocuratorsfiscal.Thepoliceandotherlawenforcement k-%(+ _agenciesinvestigatecrimesandoffencesandreporttotheprocuratorfiscal, 5 whodecideswhetherornottoprosecute,subjecttothedirectionsofCrown $ Counsel.  56. b UndertheCriminalJustice(Scotland)Act1987aprocuratorfiscalmay   makeaconditionalofferoffixedpenaltytoanallegedoffenderinrespectof   certainminoroffencesasanalternativetoprosecution:theoffenderisnot   obligedtoacceptanofferbutifheorshedoessotheprosecutionlosesthe   righttoprosecute.  x NorthernIreland V  57. b TheDirectorofPublicProsecutionsforNorthernIreland,whois i4  responsibletotheAttorneyGeneral,prosecutesalloffencestriedon X#  indictment,andmaydosoinsummarycasesofaseriousnature.Othersummary G  offencesareprosecutedbythepolice. 6 CourtsinEnglandandWales  58. b Criminaloffencesmaybegroupedintothreecategories.Offencestriable  onlyonindictment-theveryseriousoffencessuchasmurder,manslaughter,  rapeandrobbery-aretriedonlybytheCrownCourtpresidedoverbyajudge  sittingwithajury.Summaryoffences-theleastseriousoffencesandthe  vastmajorityofcriminalcases-aretriedbyunpaidlaymagistratessitting y withoutajury.Athirdcategoryofoffences(suchastheft,burglaryor h maliciouswoundings)areknownas"eitherway"offencesandcanbetried W eitherbymagistratesorbytheCrownCourtdependingonthecircumstancesof {F eachcaseandthewishesofthedefendant. j5 & g 59. b Inadditiontodealingwithsummaryoffencesandthe"eitherway" H! offenceswhichareentrustedtothem,themagistrates'courtscommitcasesto 7" theCrownCourteitherfortrialorforsentence.Committalsfortrialare &# eitherofindictableoffencesorof"eitherway"offenceswhichithasbeen $  determinedwillbetriedintheCrownCourt.Committalsforsentenceoccur %! whenthedefendantinan"eitherway"casehasbeentriedsummarilybutthe %" courthasdecidedtocommithimorhertotheCrownCourtforsentence. & # 'gH!60. b Magistratesmustasarulesitinopencourttowhichthepublicandthe ("% mediaareadmitted.Acourtnormallyconsistsofthreelaymagistrates- )z#& knownasjusticesofthepeace-advisedonpointsoflawandproceduresbya *i$' legallyqualifiedclerkoraqualifiedassistant.Magistratesareappointed +X%(  bytheLordChancellor,exceptinLancashire,GreaterManchesterand |,G&) MerseysidewhereappointmentsaremadebytheChancelloroftheDuchyof F Lancaster.Therearenearly28,000laymagistrates. 5  61. b Thereare63full-time,legallyqualifiedstipendiarymagistrateswhomay  sitaloneandusuallypresideincourtsinurbanareaswheretheworkloadis   heavy.   62. b Casesinvolvingpeopleunder17areheardinjuvenilecourts.Theseare   speciallyconstitutedmagistrates'courtswhicheithersitapartfromother  x courtsorareheldatadifferenttime.Onlylimitedcategoriesofpeoplemay  g  bepresentandmediareportsmustnotidentifyanyjuvenileappearingeither V  asadefendantorawitness.Whereayoungpersonunder17ischargedjointly E  withsomeoneof17orover,thecaseisheardinanordinarymagistrates' z4  courtortheCrownCourt.Iftheyoungpersonisfoundguilty,thecourtmay i#  transfertoajuvenilecourtforsentenceunlesssatisfiedthatitis X  undesirabletodoso. G 63. b TheCrownCourtdealswithtrialsofthemoreseriouscases,the % sentencingofoffenderscommittedforsentencebymagistrates'courts,and  appealsfrommagistrates'courts.Itsitsatabout90centresandispresided  overbyHighCourtjudges,full-time"circuitjudges"andpart-timerecorders.  Allcontestedtrialstakeplacebeforeajury.Magistratessitwithacircuit  judgeorrecordertodealwithappealsandcommittalsforsentence.  64. b TheGovernmentisplanningtoaltercourtproceduresregardingcasesof h seriousorcomplexfraudwithaviewtobypassingfullcommittalproceedings W inmagistrates'courtsatthediscretionoftheprosecution,butwitha F specialprocedureunderwhichtheaccusedwouldbeabletoapplytothe {5 CrownCourttobedischargedonthegroundthattherewasnocasetoanswer. j$ Appeals H! 65. b Apersonconvictedbyamagistrates'courtmayappealtotheCrownCourt &#  againstthesentenceimposedifhehaspleadedguilty,oragainstthe $! convictionorsentenceimposedifhehasnotpleadedguilty.Wheretheappeal %" isonapointorprocedureoflaw,eithertheprosecutororthedefendantmay % # appealfromthemagistrates'courttotheHighCourt.Appealsfromthe &!$ CrownCourt,eitheragainstconvictionoragainstsentence,aremadetothe '"% CourtofAppeal(CriminalDivision).TheHouseofLordsisthefinalappeal (z#&  courtforallcases,fromeithertheHighCourtortheCourtofAppeal. )i$' BeforeacasecangototheLords,thecourthearingthepreviousappealmust 5 &   certifythatitinvolvesapointoflawofgeneralpublicimportanceand $ eitherthatcourtortheLordsmustgrantleavefortheappealtobeheard.  ThenineLordsofAppealinOrdinaryarethejudgeswhodealwithLords   appeals.   '$66. b TheAttorneyGeneralmayseektheopinionoftheCourtofAppealona   pointoflawwhichhasariseninacasewhereapersontriedonindictmentis   acquitted;thecourthaspowertoreferthepointtotheHouseofLordsif  x necessary.Theacquittalintheoriginalcaseisnotaffected,noristhe g  identityoftheacquittedpersonrevealedwithouthisorherconsent.Under V  aprovisionintheCriminalJusticeAct1988,whichhasnotyetbeen zE  implemented,theAttorneyGeneralwouldbeempowered,whereheconsideredthat i4  asentencepassedbytheCrownCourtwasover-lenient,toreferthecaseto X#  theCourtofAppeal,whichwouldbeable,ifitthoughtfit,toincreasethe G  sentencewithinthestatutorymaximumlaiddownbyParliamentfortheoffence. 6 Scotland  67. b InScotlandtheHighCourtofJusticiarytriessuchcrimesasmurder,  treasonandrape;thesheriffcourtisconcernedwithlessseriousoffences  andthedistrictcourtwithminoroffences.Criminalcasesareheardeither  undersolemnprocedure,whenproceedingsaretakenonindictmentandthejudge  sitswithajuryof15members,orundersummaryprocedure,whenthejudge y sitswithoutajury.AllcasesintheHighCourtandthemoreseriousonesin h sheriffcourtsaretriedbyajudgeandjury.Summaryprocedureisusedin W thelessseriouscasesinthesheriffcourts,andinallcasesinthedistrict {F courts.Districtcourtsaretheadministrativeresponsibilityofthedistrict j5 andtheislandslocalgovernmentauthorities;thejudgesarelayjusticesof Y $ thepeaceandthelocalauthoritiesmayappointuptoonequarteroftheir H! electedmemberstobeexofficiojustices.InGlasgowtherearefour 7" stipendiarymagistrateswhoarefull-timesalariedlawyersandhaveequivalent &# criminaljurisdictiontoasheriffsittingundersummaryprocedure.Children $  under16whohavecommittedanoffenceorareforotherreasonsspecifiedin %! statuteconsideredtoneedcompulsorycaremaybebroughtbeforeachildren's %" hearingcomprisingthreemembersofthelocalcommunity. & # 68. b Scotland'ssixsheriffdomsarefurtherdividedintosheriffcourt ("% districts,eachofwhichhasoneormoresheriffs,whoarethejudgesofthe )z#& court.TheHighCourtofJusticiary,Scotland'ssupremecriminalcourt,is *i$' bothatrialandanappealcourt.Anyofthefollowingjudgesisentitledto +X%( trycasesintheHighCourt:theLordJusticeGeneral(theheadofthe |,G&) court),theLordJusticeClerk(thejudgenextinseniority)oroneofthe k-6'* LordCommissionersofJusticiary.ThemainseatofthecourtisinEdinburgh, F althoughtheHighCourtalsotriescasesinothertowns. 5 69. b AllappealsaredealtwithbytheHighCourtinEdinburgh.Inboth  solemnandsummaryprocedure,anappealmaybebroughtagainstconviction,or   sentence,orboth.TheCourtmayauthorizearetrialifitsetsasidea   conviction.ThereisnofurtherappealtotheHouseofLords.Insummary   & g proceedingstheprosecutormayappealonapointoflawagainstacquittalor   sentence.TheLordAdvocatemayseektheopinionoftheHighCourtonapoint  x oflawwhichhasariseninacasewhereapersontriedonindictmentis  g  acquitted.Theacquittalintheoriginalcaseisnotaffected. V  NorthernIreland z4  70. b ThestructureofNorthernIrelandcourtsisbroadlysimilartothatin X  'g /EnglandandWales.Theday-to-dayworkofdealingsummarilywithminorcases G iscarriedoutbymagistrates'courtspresidedoverbyafull-time,legally 6 qualifiedresidentmagistrate.Youngoffendersunder17andyoungpeople % under17whoneedcare,protectionandcontrolaredealtwithbyjuvenile  courtsconsistingoftheresidentmagistrateandtwolaymembers(atleastone  ofwhommustbeawoman)speciallyqualifiedtodealwithjuveniles.Appeals  frommagistrates'courtsareheardbythecountycourt.  71. b TheCrownCourtdealswithcriminaltrialsonindictment.Itisserved y byHighCourtandcountycourtjudges.Proceedingsareheardbeforeasingle h judge,andallcontestedcases,otherthanthoseinvolvingoffencesspecified W underemergencylegislation,takeplacebeforeajury.Appealsfromthe F CrownCourtagainstconvictionorsentenceareheardbytheNorthernIreland {5 CourtofAppeal.ProceduresforafurtherappealtotheHouseofLordsare j$ similartothoseinEnglandandWales. Y  Trial 7" 72. b CriminaltrialsintheUnitedKingdomtaketheformofacontestbetween $! theprosecutionandthedefence.Sincethelawpresumestheinnocenceofan %" accusedpersonuntilguilthasbeenproved,theprosecutionisnotgrantedany % # advantage,apparentorreal,overthedefence.Adefendant(inScotland, &!$ calledanaccused)hastherighttoemployalegaladviserandmaybegranted '"% legalaidfrompublicfunds.Ifremandedincustody,thepersonmaybe (z#& visitedbyalegaladvisertoensureaproperlyprepareddefence.InEngland, )i$' WalesandNorthernIrelandduringthepreparationofthecase,theprosecution *X%( usuallytellsthedefenceofrelevantdocumentswhichitisnotproposedto +G&) putinevidenceanddisclosesthemifaskedtodoso.Theprosecutionshould |,6'* alsoinformthedefenceofwitnesseswhoseevidencemayhelptheaccused_and k-%(+ whomtheprosecutiondoesnotproposetocall.Thedefenceorprosecutionmay 5 suggestthatthedefendant'smentalstaterendershimorherunfittobe $ tried.Ifthejury(or,inScotland,thejudge)decidesthatthisisso,the  defendantisadmittedtoaspecifiedhospital.   73. b Criminaltrialsarenormallyinopencourtandrulesofevidence   (concernedwiththeproofoffacts)arerigorouslyapplied.Ifevidenceis   improperlyadmitted,aconvictioncanbequashedonappeal.Duringthetrial   thedefendanthastherighttohearandcross-examinewitnessesforthe  x prosecution,normallythroughalawyer;tocallhisorherownwitnesseswho, g  iftheywillnotattendvoluntarily,maybelegallycompelledtoattend;and V  toaddressthecourtinpersonorthroughalawyer,thedefencehavingthe zE  righttothelastspeechatthetrial.Thedefendantcannotbequestioned i4  & g withoutconsentingtobeswornasawitnessinhisorherowndefence.When X#  heorshedoestestify,cross-examinationaboutcharacterorotherconductmay G  bemadeonlyinexceptionalcircumstances;generallytheprosecutionmaynot 6 introducesuchevidence. % 74. b InEngland,WalesandNorthernIrelandtheCriminalJusticeAct1987  providesthatincomplexfraudcasesthereshouldbeapreparatoryopenCrown  Courthearingatwhichthejudgewillbeabletohearandsettlepointsoflaw  'gXAandtodefinetheissuestobeputtothejury.  Jury y 75. b Injurytrialsthejudgedecidesquestionsoflaw,sumsuptheevidence W forthejuryandinstructsitontherelevantlaw,anddischargestheaccused {F orpassessentence.Onlythejurydecideswhetherthedefendantisgu