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The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant : . 05/05/2003.
CCPR/C/74/CRP.4/Rev.3. (General Comments)

Convention Abbreviation: CCPR
78th session
Human Rights Committee



Draft General Comment on Article 2
The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant

1. This General Comment replaces General Comment No 3, reflecting and developing its principles. The general non-discrimination provisions of article 2, paragraph 1, have been addressed in General Comment 18 and General Comment 28, and this General Comment should be read together with them.

1bis. [replaces old paragraph 7, substantially modified]
While article 2 is couched in terms of the obligations of State Parties towards individuals as the right-holders under the Covenant, every State Party has a legal interest in the performance by every other State Party of its obligations. This follows from the fact that the 'rules concerning the basic rights of the human person' are erga omnes obligations .ICJ, Barcelona Traction Case, paragraph 34. that, as indicated in the fourth pre-ambular paragraph of the Covenant, there is a United Nations Charter obligation to promote universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms, and that the contractual dimension of any treaty involves any other State Party to a treaty being obligated to every other State Party to comply with its undertakings under the treaty. The mere fact that a formal interstate mechanism for complaints to the Human Rights Committee exists in respect of States Parties that have made the declaration under article 41 does not mean that this procedure is the only method by which States Parties can assert their interest in the performance of other States Parties. On the contrary, the article 41 procedure should be seen as supplementary to, not diminishing of, States Parties' interest in each others' discharge of their obligations.Accordingly, the Committee reminds States Parties that article 2 clearly enjoins them to view violations of the Covenant guarantees by any State Party as deserving their attention. To draw attention to possible breaches of Covenant obligations by other States Parties should not be regarded as an unfriendly act but as a reflection of legitimate community interest. The Committee reminds States Parties of the desirability of making the declaration contemplated in article 41. It also reminds those States Parties already having made the declaration of the potential value of availing themselves of the procedure under that article.2. Article 2 defines the scope of the legal obligations undertaken by States Parties to the Covenant. A general obligation is imposed on States Parties to respect the Covenant rights and to ensure them to all individuals in their territory and subject to their jurisdiction. Pursuant to the principle articulated in article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, States Parties are required to give effect to the obligations under the Covenant in good faith.

3. The obligations of the Covenant in general and article 2 in particular are binding on every State Party as a whole. All branches of government [executive, legislative and judicial], and other public or governmental authorities may be in a position to engage the responsibility of the State Party. The executive branch that usually represents the State Party internationally, including before the Committee, cannot point to the fact that an action incompatible with the provisions of the Covenant was carried out by another branch of government as a means of seeking to relieve the State Party from responsibility for the action and consequent incompatibility. This understanding flows directly from the principle contained in article 27 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, according to which a State Party 'may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty'. Although article 2, paragraph 2, allows States Parties to give effect to Covenant rights in accordance with domestic constitutional processes, the same principle operates so as to prevent States parties from invoking provisions of the constitutional law or other aspects of domestic law to justify a failure to perform or give effect to obligations under the treaty. In this respect, the Committee reminds States Parties with a federal structure of the terms of article 50, according to which the Covenant's provisions 'shall extend to all parts of federal states without any limitations or exceptions'. 4. The article 2, paragraph 1, obligation to respect and ensure the guarantees in the Covenant has immediate effect for all States parties. Moreover, article 2 forms a backdrop to all of the rights guaranteed in the Covenant. It provides the overarching framework within which the rights specified in the Covenant are to be promoted and protected. [The Committee has as a consequence previously indicated in its General Comment 24 that reservations to article 2, paragraphs 1 and 2, would be incompatible when considered in the light of the objects and purposes of the Covenant.]

5. The legal obligation under article 2, paragraph 1, is both negative and positive in nature. States Parties must refrain from violation of the rights guaranteed in the Covenant, and any restrictions on those rights must be permissible under the relevant provisions of the Covenant. Where such limitations are permitted, States must in any case demonstrate their necessity and only take measures which are proportionate to the pursuance of legitimate aims in order to ensure continuous and effective protection of Covenant rights. In no case may the limitations be applied or invoked in a manner that would impair the essence of a Covenant right, as has been previously indicated by the Committee in General Comment No. 27.

6. In addition, the obligation of States Parties to ensure the rights guaranteed implies, [under certain circumstances] if the need arises, the use of positive measures in order effectively to promote and protect the Covenant's guarantees in the domestic arena. Article 2 requires that States Parties act to remove all obstacles which impede the effective realization of Covenant rights and to that end should pursue legislative, judicial, administrative, educative and other appropriate measures in order to fulfil their legal obligations.

7. The article 2, paragraph 1, obligations are directed to States and do not, as such, have direct horizontal effect as a matter of international law. The Covenant cannot be viewed as a substitute for domestic criminal or civil law. However the positive obligations on States Parties to ensure Covenant rights, referred to in paragraph 6, will only be fully discharged if individuals are protected, not just against violations of Covenant rights by the State and its agents, but also against acts committed by private persons or entities that would [substantially] impair the enjoyment of [the essence of] Covenant rights. There may be circumstances in which a failure to ensure Covenant rights as required by article 2 would give rise to violations by States Parties of those rights, as a result of States Parties' permitting or failing to take appropriate measures or to exercise due diligence to prevent, punish, investigate or redress the harm caused by such acts by private persons or entities. States are reminded of the interrelationship between the positive obligations imposed under article 2 and the need to provide effective remedies in the event of breach under article 2, paragraph 3. The Covenant itself envisages in some articles certain areas where there are positive obligations on States Parties to address the activities of private persons or entities. For example, , the privacy-related guarantees of article 17 must be protected by law. It is also implicit in article 7 that States Parties have to take positive measures to ensure that private persons or entities do not inflict torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment on others within their power. [At least in fields affecting basic aspects of ordinary life such as work or housing, individuals are to be protected from the relevant kinds of discrimination referred to in article 26.] 8. As individuals are the intended beneficiaries of the Covenant guarantees, the Covenant does not protect the legal rights of juridical entities as such. However, the significance of such entities is recognized in the context of rights that are to be enjoyed collectively such as the right to freedom of association under article 22 or the rights of members of minorities under article 27.

9. States Parties are required by article 2, paragraph 1, to respect and to ensure the Covenant rights to all persons who may be within their territory and to all persons subject to their jurisdiction. This means that a State party must respect and ensure the rights laid down in the Covenant to anyone within the power or effective control of that State Party, even if not situated within the territory of the State Party. As indicated in General Comment 15 adopted at the twenty-seventh session (1986), the enjoyment of Covenant rights is not limited to citizens of States Parties but must also be available to all individuals, regardless of nationality or statelessness, such as asylum seekers, refugees, migrant workers and other persons, who may find themselves under the territory or subject to the jurisdiction of the State Party. This principle also applies to those within the power or effective control of the forces of a State party acting outside its territory, including a national contingent of a State party assigned to an international peace-keeping or peace-enforcement operation.10. Moreover, the article 2 obligation requiring that States Parties respect and ensure the Covenant rights for all persons in their territory and all persons under their control entails an obligation not to extradite, deport, expel or otherwise remove a person from their territory, where there is a real [and substantial] risk [i.e., a necessary and foreseeable consequence] of irreparable harm, such as that contemplated by articles 6 and 7 of the Covenant. The relevant judicial and administrative authorities should be made aware of the need to ensure compliance with the Covenant obligations in such matters.


11. Article 2, paragraph 2, requires that States Parties take the necessary steps to give effect to the Covenant rights in the domestic order. It follows that, unless the Covenant's rights are already protected by their domestic laws or practices, States Parties are required on ratification to make such changes to domestic laws and practices as are necessary to ensure their conformity with the Covenant. Where there are inconsistencies between domestic law and the Covenant, article 2 requires that the domestic law or practice be changed to meet the standards imposed by the Covenant's substantive guarantees. Article 2 allows a State Party to pursue this in accordance with its own domestic constitutional structure and accordingly does not require that the Covenant be directly applicable in the courts, by incorporation of the Covenant into national law. The Committee takes the view, however, that Covenant guarantees may receive enhanced protection in those States where the Covenant is automatically or through specific incorporation part of the domestic legal order. The Committee invites those States Parties in which the Covenant does not [alternatively: already] form part of the domestic legal order to consider incorporation of the Covenant to render it part of domestic law to facilitate full realization of Covenant rights as required by article 2.12. The requirement under article 2, paragraph 2, to take steps to give effect to the Covenant rights is unqualified and of immediate effect. A failure to comply with this obligation cannot be justified by reference to social, cultural or economic considerations within the State. 13. States Parties are reminded that effective protection of Covenant rights will be achieved through a range of measures including but not limited to legislative, administrative and educative policies and programmes. In addition the Committee believes that it is important to raise levels of awareness about the Covenant not only among public officials and State agents but also among the population at large.

14. Article 2, paragraph 3, requires that in addition to effective protection of Covenant rights States Parties must ensure that individuals also have accessible, effective and enforceable remedies to vindicate those rights. The Committee attaches considerable importance to States Parties' establishing appropriate judicial and administrative mechanisms for addressing claims of rights violations under domestic law. [The Committee notes that the enjoyment of the rights recognized under the Covenant will be effectively promoted, for example, by courts' acknowledging their direct applicability where domestic law allows individuals to invoke provisions of international law that are considered to be self-executing.] Administrative mechanisms are particularly required to give effect to the general obligation to investigate allegations of violations promptly, thoroughly and effectively through independent and impartial bodies. A failure by a State Party to investigate allegations of violations could in and of itself give rise to a separate breach of the Covenant.15. [old paragraph 19, as modified]
Article 2, paragraph 3, requires that States Parties make reparation [synchronize language versions of term "reparation"] to individuals whose Covenant rights have been violated. Without reparation to individuals whose Covenant rights have been violated, the obligation to provide an effective remedy, which is central to the efficacy of Article 2, paragraph 3, is not discharged. In addition to the explicit reparation required by articles 9, paragraph 5, and 14, paragraph 6, the Covenant generally requires appropriate monetary compensation. The Committee notes that, where appropriate, reparation can take other forms such as public apologies, public memorials [check language consistency of these terms] and changes in relevant laws and practices, as well as bringing to justice the perpetrators of human rights violations. These modes of reparation will normally be in addition to that of compensation.

16. In general, the purposes of the Covenant would be defeated without an obligation integral to article 2 to take measures to prevent a recurrence of a violation of the Covenant. Accordingly, it has been a frequent practice of the Committee in cases under the Optional Protocol to include in its views the need for measures, beyond a victim-specific remedy, to be taken with a view to avoiding recurrence of the type of violation in question. Such measures may require changes in the State Party's laws or practices.

17. [old para. 16, second half, and old para. 17, merged into new paragraph, substantially modified]
Where the investigations referred to in paragraph 16 reveal violations of certain Covenant rights, States Parties must ensure that those responsible are brought to justice. As with failure to investigate, failure to bring to justice perpetrators of such violations could in and of itself give rise to a separate breach of the Covenant. These obligations arise notably in respect of those violations recognized as criminal under international law, such as torture and similar cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment (article 7), [summary and arbitrary killing (article 6) and enforced disappearance (articles 7 and 9 and, frequently, 6).] Indeed, the problem of impunity for these violations, a matter of sustained concern by the Committee, [is often seen as] [may be] an important contributing element in the recurrence of the violations. When committed on a systematic basis or on a widespread scale in the context of an attack on a civilian population, these and certain other violations of the Covenant are crimes against humanity (see Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, article 7).Accordingly, where public officials or State agents are deemed to have committed violations of the Covenant rights referred to in this paragraph, the States Parties concerned may not relieve perpetrators from personal legal responsibility, as has occurred with certain amnesties (see General Comment 20 (44)). Furthermore, no official status justifies persons who may be accused of responsibility for such violations being held immune from legal responsibility. Other legal impediments to the establishment of legal responsibility should also be removed, such as the defence of obedience to superior orders or unreasonably short periods of statutory limitation [ translation in F: prescription] in cases where such limitations [translation in F: périodes ou délais de prescription] are permissible.

18. The Committee further takes the view that the right to an effective remedy may in certain circumstances require States Parties to provide for and implement provisional or interim measures to avoid continuing violations and to endeavour to repair at the earliest possible opportunity any harm that may have been caused by such violations. [Particularly, interim relief or protection may be called for if victims pursue remedies before national courts.] 19. Failure to implement provisional measures indicated by the Committee in cases under the Optional Protocol with a view to avoiding irreparable harm pending the Committee's consideration of a case should be regarded as incompatible with the obligation to respect in good faith the Covenant, in particular its article 2 and the right of individual communication under the Optional Protocol. While Article 2, paragraph 3, is primarily concerned with the provision of remedies within the domestic legal system, those States Parties which have not yet done so are reminded of the importance of ratifying the [first] Optional Protocol in order to allow individuals to address the Human Rights Committee regarding alleged violations of their rights under the Covenant.


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