******************************************************************************
This document has been posted online by the Division for the Advancement of
Women, DPCSD. Reproduction and dissemination of the document - in electronic
and/or printed format - is encouraged, provided acknowledgement is made of the
role of the United Nations in making it available.
******************************************************************************
UNITED
NATIONS
CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION
OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION
AGAINST WOMEN
Distr.
GENERAL
CEDAW/C/ANT/1-3
26 September 1995
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
COMMITTEE ON THE ELIMINATION OF
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN
(CEDAW)
CONSIDERATION OF REPORTS SUBMITTED BY STATES PARTIES
UNDER ARTICLE 18 OF THE CONVENTION
Initial, second, and third periodic reports of States parties
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA*
* This document has been reproduced without formal editing.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD 3
INTRODUCTION 5
PART I
Country Profile 6
Political Structure 7
PART II
1. The Constitution And Laws
Of Antigua And Barbuda
As They Relate To Discrimination 8
2. National Machinery For Women 9
3. Sex Roles And Stereotypes 10
4. Prostitution 12
5. Women In Public And Political Life 12
6. Nationality And Citizenship 17
7. Education 18
8. Employment 22
9. Health 25
10. Social And Economic Benefits 30
11. Marriage And Family Law 33
CONCLUSION 35
Foreword
1. This report is the first, second and third to be submitted to the
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) since the
signing and ratification by Antigua and Barbuda of the "Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women" on 3rd May, 1989.
2. The first section of the report provides an introduction and a country
profile. It discusses the position and status of women in Antigua and Barbuda
and provides a brief history and summary of the general, political and social
structure of Antigua and Barbuda.
3. The Sections which follow sets the question of equality of the sexes
generally and the specific provisions of the Convention against the
historical, cultural and socio-economic conditions distinctive to Antigua and
Barbuda. It discusses the framework within which the elimination of
discrimination is approached. This analysis will make reference to and
provide specific information pertaining to: -
a. The Constitution and Laws of Antigua and Barbuda as they relate to
discrimination
b. National Machinery for Women
c. Sex Roles and Stereotypes
d. Prostitution
e. Women in Public and Political Life
f. Nationality and Citizenship
g. Education
h. Employment
i. Health
j. Social and Economic Benefits
k. Marriage and Family Law
4. Statistical data has been provided on all the issues referred to in the
Convention. This helps to provide a clear picture of the status of women in
Antigua and Barbuda in relation to the provisions of the Convention.
PART I
INTRODUCTION
Like other nations of the world, Antigua and Barbuda have become
increasingly sensitive to, and concerned about major issues affecting the
development of women who are a major part of its human resources. Since the UN
Decade for Women, a Women's Desk was established in 1980 and upgraded to a
Directorate in 1985. This decision has enhanced the status of that body.
Formerly male dominance at policy making levels tended to impede
necessary change for the advancement of women. Not withstanding, there is a
preponderance of females in the public service many of whom have risen to the
top of the public bureaucracy.
Although no woman gained any of the 17 seats in the lower house two
women ran as independent candidates but failed to be elected. It is heartening
to report that in March 1994, five women were appointed to higher political
offices. These positions include Speaker of the House, President of the Senate
and two Senators one of which was appointed Parliamentary Secretary with
responsibility for Women's Affairs, and one as Ambassador-At-Large. However,
women are still not yet represented in the Cabinet of the Government. The
Government of Antigua and Barbuda is strongly committed and is working towards
the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women.
Women have shared in the prosperity of Antigua and Barbuda. Many more
jobs have been available to women in the tourist sector the main and fastest
growing in the nation. It is calculated that some 5000 persons in 1992 were
employed in that industry and women accounted for 55% of all workers; however
most women are employed in the housekeeping department, others are waitresses
and front desk personnel. As beneficial as this trend of more women entering
the labour force is for the income earning capacity of women, it has its
drawbacks. Many or most of the jobs in the tourist sector involve working
shifts, nights included. This means that many women have to leave their
children to journey often far away from home to the hotels.
The present Government of Antigua and Barbuda, elected on March 8, 1994
has indicated it's commitment to redress the inequities in power sharing at
the highest policy-making levels. The Prime Minister in announcing his
Cabinet, has vowed to pay more attention to women's issues and concerns.
COUNTRY PROFILE
Antigua the largest of a three Island Grouping, is located in the Eastern
Caribbean and is also referred to as one of the Leeward Islands. Antigua
covers 108 square miles, Barbuda follows with 62 square miles, while
uninhabited Redonda totals less than one square mile. The people of Antigua
and Barbuda are mainly of African descent, their fore-mothers and fathers
were brought as slaves in the 17th and 18th centuries from the West Coast of
Africa. The rest of the population are descendants of British Colonizers and
Portuguese imported as labourers in the l9th century. There is also a growing
number of Europeans and North Americans who have come to Antigua and Barbuda
to retire.
The first people actually known to have lived in Antigua were of the
Meso-Indian Age and were called "Siboney". Around the second century BC an
Amerindian people, the Arawaks left their original home in Venezuela and
established settlements in Antigua until the first British settlement was
created. Antigua was a British Colony until 1981, when it achieved
independence. The official language is English and education is compulsory
from ages 5 - 16. The climate is mainly hot and sunny all year round. Because
Antigua is situated on the hurricane belt, it therefore experiences a
hurricane season between July and November every year.
Antigua and Barbuda's society is deeply religious. Approximately 35% are
Anglican and the other 65% are associated with Catholic, Methodist, Moravian
and other fundamental denominations. There are over 100 churches throughout
the state, and they are well attended and supported.
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
The structure of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda is very similar
to the structures of other governments in the former British Caribbean
territories. We have a bicameral legislature with an Upper House or Senate, to
which 17 members are appointed by the Governor General and a lower house of 17
elected members of Parliament. Of the members of Senate, 10 are appointed on
the advice of the Prime Minister; 4 on the advice of the Leader of the
Opposition; one on the advice of the Barbuda Council, and two chosen by the
Governor General one of whom must be an inhabitant of Barbuda and the other,
an outstanding citizen of Antigua and Barbuda. The Senate functions mainly as
a body to debate, review and approve decisions of the lower house. The
judiciary is independent of the government and act to safeguard the
constitutional rights and freedoms of te citizens to Antigua and Barbuda. The
government formulates policy in Cabinet - a body of ministerial advisors
chosen in the main from among the elected members of Parliament, usually with
just one or two persons chosen from the nominated members of Senate. Up to the
general elections in March 1994, the number of cabinet members was 14. After
the general elections, the new Prime Minister reduced the number of
ministerial positions from 14 to 10 and none of them was given to a female.
However, five women have been given political positions in the Parliament
which carry a great deal of prestige and some power.
To date, no woman has ever been elected to parliament in Antigua and
Barbuda. In 1958, the first woman was nominated as senator and presently there
are four women senators. No woman has ever been given a ministerial position.
We now have one female Senator as Parliamentary Secretary with
responsibility for Women's Affairs in the Prime Minister's Office, one female
as President of the Senate and one female Senator who represents labour.
Another female is Speaker of the House, while yet another has been appointed
Ambassador-At-Large.
PART II
ARTICLES 1, 2 & 3
1. The Constitution and Laws of Antigua and Barbuda as they relate to
Discrimination.
The Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda is the supreme law and any other
law inconsistent with it is decreed null and void to the extent of the
inconsistency. Also contained in the Antigua and Barbuda Constitution is the
provision which states that no law shall make any provision that is
discriminatory either of itself or in its effect.
The Constitution makes the provision for the protection of the
fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the right
regardless of race, place of origin, political opinions or affiliations,
colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of
others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:
a. life, liberty, security of the person, the enjoyment of property
and the protection of the law
b. freedom of conscience, of expression and of peaceful assembly and
association
c. protection for family life, personal privacy, the privacy of
home, and other property and from deprivation of property without
fair compensation
d. the labour code specifically prohibits discrimination on the basis of
sex. Section C4 (1) provides that "no employer shall discriminate with respect
to any person's hire, tenure, wages, hours, or any other condition of work, by
reason of race, colour, creed, sex, age or political beliefs. Section E 8(1)
of the Labour Code provides that no woman shall, merely by reason of her sex,
be employed under terms of employment less favourable than that enjoyed by
male workers employed in the same occupation and by the same employer.
e. while there is no legislation which specifically addresses the issue of
domestic violence, the law enforcement officers have been accused of treating
lightly many women's complaints, a woman whose husband has been guilty of
persistent cruelty or whose husband has been convicted on indicted of an
assault upon her may apply to a Magistrate for a non-cohabitation order.
In accordance with Article 3 of the Convention, the Government of Antigua and
Barbuda provides the Constitutional guarantee which allows a woman who is
deprived of her Constitutional rights, the opportunity to apply to the Court
for redress. This Constitutional provision guarantees women the full exercise
and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms on a basis of equality
with men. Women as well as men can apply for legal aid in claiming cases as
set out in the Laws of Antigua and Barbuda.
ARTICLE 4
2. National Machinery for Women
The upgrading of the Women's Desk to a Directorate of Women's Affairs in 1985
was seen as the most visible and meaningful effort by the Government to
introduce a machinery responsible for addressing the concerns of women.
This entity falls within the portfolio of the Ministry of the Prime
Minister with a Parliamentary Secretary responsible for Women's Affairs. The
Government is currently in the process of appointing adequate staff to
facilitate effective functioning of this body.
The Directorate is affiliated with a number of local, regional and
international organizations which are concerned with women in development.
There is an Advisory Board to the Directorate. This Board advises on national
policy on women, implementation strategies for an action plan and research.
The Co-ordinating Council of Women and the Advisory Board are also
expected to play a role in the implementation of the National Action Plan For
Women In Development. The task of evaluating and accessing the impact of the
Action Plan is assigned to these groups which work closely with the
Directorate of Women's Affairs.
The Directorate of Women's Affairs plans to accelerate its efforts to
promote women's equality. Policies and practices so far as they affect women
will be researched. Existing laws will be looked at to ascertain whether they
should be modified, or new laws enacted and current legal practices modified.
Recommendations will be made to the Prime Minister for appropriate
administrative measures to be adopted where necessary.
The National Machinery as it relates to the Action Plan is
outlined as follows:
Prime Minister
Senator/Parliamentary Secretary - responsible for Women's Affairs
Directorate of Women's Affairs/Advisory Board
Government Ministries - Private Sectors
Co-ordinating Council of Women - Non-Governmental Organizations
Political Groups - Trade Unions
ARTICLE 5
3. Sex Roles and Stereotypes
The elimination of sex stereotyping is a slow and continuous process. The
school is one of the socialising agents and as an institution of learning is
used to inculcate values and attitudes in young people, and can help eliminate
prejudices and stereotypical attitudes of the social, economic and cultural
roles of women and men.
In Antigua and Barbuda, co-education is the policy in primary and
secondary schools, both public and private, and the teaching staff is mixed,
both male and female. The teaching of agriculture, home economics and
technical subjects are not equally available to both girls and boys. Sex
stereotyping in relation to jobs is not very prevalent, however there are
still some occupations which are either male or female dominated.
The complexity of domestic violence indicates that it is a problem that
requires multiple strategies from many disciplines and committed persons who
need to work collaboratively, taking into account the resources of the
country.
Some specific measures have been taken to ensure the elimination of
violence against women in all its forms. With respect to sexual assault, the
Offences Against the Person Act, Cap 58 of the Laws of Antigua and Barbuda and
the Criminal Law Amendment Act, Cap 21, criminalises certain sexual assaults
against women including but not limited to rape, abduction and defilement of
women, sodomy, carnal knowledge, and provides penalties for persons convicted
of such crimes.
The Directorate of Women's Affairs with the Government and other
Community Organizations will be embarking upon an active programme of research
and financial assistance for support services, counselling programmes and the
construction of a temporary shelter for abused women and their children and
more importantly, the sensitizing of all persons involved in the health, law
enforcement and counselling sectors of our society.
The media is also being used as an agent for education, social and
cultural change. Programmes will continue to be planned to help eliminate
violence against women and support systems will be put in place.
The Government of Antigua and Barbuda has demonstrated its commitment
to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women by drafting
legislation that provides just and effective legal remedies. The first of
these legislative measures is the Sexual Offences Bill 1993 which is intended
to repeal and replace the laws relating to sexual crimes. The Bill is drafted
in conformity of the model legislation from the Commonwealth Secretariat.
ARTICLE 6
4. Prostitution
Prostitution is illegal in Antigua and Barbuda. In a few instances,
prostitutes are brought into the country from Santo-Domingo, but are
subsequently deported by Immigration Authorities.
ARTICLES 7 & 8
5. Women In Public and Political Life
Currently, 1993 statistics show that the number of women in the public
service continues to increase. The Civil Service in Antigua and Barbuda is a
major employer of labour as can be seen from Table 1.
Table 1
Established Positions in the Civil Service
1980 1985 1989 1993
M F %F M F %F M F %F M F %F
Total 270 288 51.6 594 380 30 735 1354 64.8 731 1412 65.9
Established
Positions
Source: The Government of Antigua and Barbuda - Ministry of Economic
Development 1991, Directorate of Women's Affairs, International Labour
Organization (ILO) and Researcher Faustina Ward-Osborne: Research and
Information on Women in Antiqua and Barbuda
In 1980, women and men were nearly equal in terms of their employment,
but by 1989 women outnumbered men two to one, of the total established
positions, 64.8% were held by females. In 1989 of the 90 persons in the
highest paid categories (the miscellaneous a and b salary scale), six were
female. Similarly in 1990, of the 89 division heads in the various ministries
of Government, Statutory Corporations, Heads of Missions or Consulates, 18
were female. In 1992, of the 14 positions of Permanent Secretary or its
equivalent, only five were held by females, currently nine females hold
positions as Permanent Secretaries.
Women have been entering the legal profession in Antigua and Barbuda in
increasing numbers. In 1980, there were only eight females in private practice
but today there are 15. This is just under one third of the total of 48. (See
Table 2 below).
Table 2
Women in the Legal System - 1980-1994
1980 1985 1994
Male Attorneys in
private practice 25 26 23
Female Attorneys in
private Practice 8 6 15
Male Judges in Eastern
Caribbean Supreme Court 7 7 5
Female Judges in Eastern
Caribbean Supreme Court 0 0 2
Male Attorneys in
Government Service N.A* N.A
Female Attorneys in
Government Service N.A N.A
N.A - Not Available
Source: Hill, Cecile, "An Analysis on Violence Against Women in
Antigua and Barbuda". Unpublished paper 1994
According to current enrollment figures in the Faculty of Law at the
University of the West Indies, there are more females enrolled as students
than males. If this trend continues, it is likely that by the end of the
century, women will dominate the legal profession in Antigua and Barbuda as
indeed in other Caribbean countries. Already, there are two
female judges out of a total of seven in the Eastern Caribbean
Supreme Court. This is significant advance because in 1980 there
was none.
An important arm of the government comprises the law enforcement
agencies, notably the police. Females for some years have been part of the
Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda but, as is the case in many
countries of the world, their percentage involvement in the force is low.
Table 3
Strength of the Royal Police Force by Sex
1980 1985 1994
Number of Actually Number of Actually Number of Actually
established employed established employed established employed
positions positions positions
M F M F M F M F M F M F
390 38 325 33 395 46 338 40 407 62 387 59
Strength
of female
numbers: 9.2% 10.6% 13.2%
Source: Unpublished Police Statistics.
Table 4
Rank of Female in the Royal Police Force
Rank 1980 1985 1994
Commissioner of Police - - -
Asst. Commissioner of Police - - -
Superintendent - - -
Asst. Superintendent - 1 1
Inspector 1 1 2
Senior Sergeant 1 2 2
Sergeant 4 4 4
Corporal 7 12 13
Constable 20 20 36
TOTAL 33 40 56
Source: Unpublished Police Statistics.
In Antigua and Barbuda as Table 3 shows, there are established
positions in the force for a certain number of females and a certain number of
males. However, not all of the positions are filled. One reason for this is
that the Police Force in Antigua and Barbuda has traditionally found it
difficult to attract local young women and men. Over the years, recruits have
come from other Caribbean territories notably St. Vincent and more recently,
Guyana.
The teaching profession is one dominated by women.
Table 5
No. of Teachers in Selected Educational Institutions in Antigua
and Barbuda by Sex - 1991/92
Status Male Female Total
Primary 57 339 396 (Gov't
Heads 5 26 31 only)
Secondary 114 174 288 (Gov't
Heads 4 8 12 & Private
Antigua State 44 48 92
College Head 1 - 1
UWI School of
Continuing 12 8 20
Studies - 1 1
Hotel Training 6 8 14
Centre Head - 1 1
Source: Unpublished Statistics, Ministry of Education, Government of Antigua
and Barbuda.
In total, there are more female teachers in the system at all levels -
primary, secondary, tertiary. Females have preeminence as principals or heads
of schools and other educational institutions. As can be seen from Table 3,
women outnumber men as heads in all institutions except for the Antigua State
College whose head is a male.
Table 6
Gender Disaggregation in Management and Key Posts in Business
Organizations
1980 1985 1989
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Managing Director - - 1 - 1 -
Executive Director - - 2 1 3 1
General Manager 1 1 2 1 5 1
Manager 6 1 13 1 19 1
Assistant Manager 2 - 4 2 2 1
Financial Controller 1 - 1 1 1 3
Chief Accountant - - 1 - 2 -
Accountant - 2 - 3 1 3
Data Processing Supt. - 1 - 1 - 1
Personnel Director - - 1 - 1 1
Source: By ILO/Directorate of Women's Affairs and
Researcher: Faustina Ward-Osborne
The data in Table 6 pertain to 21 of the largest business organizations
including banks, the media, hotels and supermarkets. Statistics are available
only up to 1989. In that year, at the level of General Manager, men
outnumbered women five to one. Similarly, at the level of Manager, in 1989,
there was a ratio of 19 men to one woman. Interestingly enough, at the level
General Manager, in 1980, there was an equal number of men and women.
That women do not move up the hierarchy at the same pace as men cannot be
seen merely as deliberate Government inaction to further the cause of women.
Ward points out in her study, that women have to juggle work with other fixed
responsibilities in the domestic sphere; this tends to hinder their
performance on the job. In addition, women's availability for promotion and
movement are dependent usually on their domestic arrangements.
Women as well as men have the same right to vote in all elections, and
have been eligible for election to all elected bodies. There are no legal
barriers to women's participation in politics in Antigua and Barbuda, however
few women come forward to contest elective office.
The two political parties in Antigua and Barbuda have presented women
candidates at the polls, dating back to the 1967 elections, none of them
however have ever been successful.
To date, no woman has ever been elected to Parliament. In 1958, the
first woman was nominated a Senator and presently there are four women
Senators. We have one female Senator as Parliamentary Secretary with
responsibility for Women's Affairs in the Prime Minister's Office, one female
as President of the Senate and one female Senator who represents labour.
Another female is Speaker of the House, while yet another has been appointed
Ambassador-At-Large.
The Directorate of Women's Affairs is currently planning a Seminar
entitled "Women's Participation In Politics". This seminar will stress the
need for more women to declare their candidacy in the political area and
address the existing imbalance among the sexes.
It must be noted however that women in Antigua and Barbuda seem more
inclined to give their allegiance to the male candidates by actively
campaigning, attending political meetings and voting.
ARTICLE 9
Nationality and Citizenship
The Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda provides for a person to become
a citizen if either parent or grandparent was born in Antigua or was
registered or naturalised while resident in Antigua. It is noteworthy that
this provision does not discriminate against the female sex. Similarly,
foreign husbands or wives of persons who became citizens by virtue of Section
112 of the Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda on the 31st October 1991 are
entitled to Antigua Citizenship upon application.
Similarly, Section (a) of the Status of Children Act 1986 provides that
the status, rights, privileges and obligations of a child born out of wedlock
are identical in all respects to those born in wedlock. Section 3(b) further
provides that the status, rights and obligations of the parents are the same
as if the child was born in wedlock but there is a qualification in that the
provision does not affect the status, rights and obligations of the parents as
between themselves.
Another progressive piece of legislation, the birth and Death Amendment
Act 1986, makes provision for the name of the father of a child born out of
wedlock to be stated on the birth certificate either at the joint request of
the mother and the father or at the request of the mother, supported by
statutory declarations as to paternity by both the mother and the father.
Women share equal rights as men as they pertain to travel. Women can
obtain their own passports and can travel without their husbands permission.
Children can travel on either the father's or mother's passport without
consent being required from either parent. Consent is not needed from the
father or the mother to take the children out of the country.
ARTICLE 10
7. Education
The Government of Antigua and Barbuda stresses the significance of
education for economic and social development and has recently passed an
education levy in order to assist families, and supplement the cost of books,
thereby enhancing the percentage of its national budget allocated to
education.
There is equal access to education and the policy of the Government is
that education in Antigua and Barbuda should be co-educational. Girls and boys
also have the same opportunity to pursue subjects which were traditionally sex
stereotyped. The Government offers a number of scholarships to students at the
secondary level. Supplementary assistance is also given to a number of
university students.
Continuing education for both young and old form part of the education
system in Antigua and Barbuda. Various institutions and organizations such as
the School for Continuing Studies at the University of the West Indies, the
Council for Adult Education, the Directorate of Women's Affairs, the National
Development Foundation and the Youth Skills Training Programme at the Ministry
of Economic Development provide opportunities for upgrading and or learning
new skills.
In addition, Government and Non-Government Organizations around the
Island offer courses to meet the demands of the job market. These courses
include secretarial, business and computer studies.
It is estimated that the country has a comparative literacy rate of
88.7% of the population. Disaggregated figures by sex are not available.
Pre-school education has grown rapidly over the last 10 years. From
some 12 or so private pre-schools and nurseries in the early 1980's, there are
now over 60 today. A number of Government owned schools have infant and
kindergarten classes attached to them. It is important to point out that all
nursery/pre-school teachers in both the public and private schools are female.
Indeed all of the private schools catering for infants and pre-schools are
supervised by women and most are owned by them. Of the 29 Primary Schools, 22
of the heads are women and women also head four out of the nine Secondary
Schools.
Table 7
Percentage Enrollment in Schools and Tertiary Institutions by Sex
1993/1994 Session
NO. OF NO. OF
INSTITUTION FEMALES % MALES % TOTAL
Primary/Element-
ary Schools* 4776 47.6 5264 52.4 10040
Secondary/High
Schools** 1713 58.2 1230 41.8 2943
Antigua State
College 462 60.5 302 39.5 764
University of the
West Indies,
School of 54 79.4 14 20.6 68
Continuing
Studies
Hotel Training
School 64 72.0 25 28.0 89
* These figures are for the 1992/93 session and do not include two small,
private schools.
** These figures are for the 1992/93 session and include the three private
Secondary Schools.
Source: Ministry of Education, Unpublished statistics.
Table 8
Percentage Enrollment at the Antiqua State College by School/
Department and Sex: 1993/1994
SCHOOL/DEPARTMENT FEMALE % MALE % TOTAL
Advanced Level 157 59.0 110 41.1 267
Commercial 196 82.4 42 17.6 238
Business Studies
Programme 36 73.6 13 26.5 49
Engineering 6 5.1 111 95.0 117
Teacher Training 37 71.2 15 28.8 52
1st Year
University of the
West Indies 23 69.7 10 30.3 33
Programme
Guidance and
Counselling 7 87.5 1 12.5 8
TOTAL 462 60.5 302 39.5 764
Source: Antigua State College, Unpublished statistics, 1994.
As one progresses up the levels of the education system the percentage of
female enrollment increases. At the tertiary level, there are three main
institutions in Antigua and Barbuda - the Antigua State College, the
University of the West Indies School of Continuing Studies and the Hotel
Training School. At the Antigua State College females out number males in all
departments except engineering. (See Table 8) It must also be pointed out that
in the Commercial Department, an area of study that is traditionally
considered female, the female students far outnumber the males. This shows
that traditional areas of study that are considered female remain the same;
and with over 90% of the students in the engineering class being male, the
traditional pattern of male dominance in this area of study also remains the
same.
In the University of the West Indies School of Continuing Studies,
Antigua and Barbuda, more women are registered in all professional courses
than males. As can be seen from Table 8, over the last five years, this
pattern has remained unchanged.
Table 9
Enrollment in all Professional Courses
at UWI School of Continuing Studies (Antigua and Barbuda)
1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94
Male 24 29 25 24 14
Female 86 81 113 90 54
Total 110 110 138 114 68
Source: Annual Reports, UWI School of Continuing Studies (Antigua and
Barbuda).
The higher enrollment of women may be accounted for by the fact that
some women are forced to defer their higher education until after marriage and
when their children are older. It may also be that, having entered the
workforce with minimal qualifications, they later realize that they need to
upgrade their academic status in order to progress in the workplace. The
School of Continuing Studies gives them a chance to obtain matriculation
status to enter university. And by attending a local institution, women have
the opportunity to continue their domestic routines.
In the Hotel Training School which prepares trainees for the hotel
industry, females outnumber males significantly. But there seems to be some
gender bias in the choice of courses selected by applicants. Women tend to
apply for front desk courses, whereas men tend to apply for kitchen, pastry,
restaurant and bar courses. Generally, very few students either male or female
express a desire to go into housekeeping.
ARTICLE 11
8. Employment
Women have always formed a significant part of the work force in Antigua
and Barbuda. According to the census of 1991, of the 26,783 persons employed
12,189 or 45.58 were women. The highest category of female employment is in
the occupational group of service workers/shop sale workers, and they
outnumber men in this category.
In the professional ranks, males outnumber females. It can also be seen
that in those occupations traditionally considered male, men outnumber women
by seven to one.
Table 9
Employed Persons Past Week* by Main Occupational Group and Sex:
1991
Occupational Groups Total Male Female
Legislators/Senior
Officials/Managers 1,402 887 515
Professionals 1,400 775 625
Technicians & Associates
Professionals 2,762 1,432 1,330
Clerks 3,688 769 2,919
Service workers/shop sales
Workers 5,216 2,113 3,103
Agricultural, Forestry &
Fishing workers 451 401 50
Craft & related workers 4,448 4,060 388
Plant & Machine Operators/
Drivers & Assemblers 1,603 1,402 201
Elementary Occupations 5,396 2,455 2,941
Defence Force 103 85 18
Not stated 284 185 99
TOTAL 26,753 14,564 12,189
*Main Economic Activity = "Worked" or "Had a job but did not
work".
Source: National Population Census, 1991
Next to the Public Service, the Tourism Industry is the biggest
employer of labour in the country. In this sector, there is an almost equal
number of males and females but the females have a slight edge over the males.
As mentioned before, female employment is concentrated mainly in the area of
housekeeping and front desk services. Again, in traditionally male dominated
industries such as fishing, mining and quarrying and construction, men
outnumber women considerably.
Table 10
Employed Persons Past Week* by Industry and Sex
Industry Total Male Female
Agriculture, Hunting &
Forestry 767 495 272
Fishing 273 264 9
Mining & Quarrying 64 59 5
Manufacturing 1,444 913 531
Electricity, Gas & Water 435 404 31
Construction 3,109 2,884 225
Commerce & Trade 3,862 1,909 1,953
Hotels & Restaurants 4,662 2,004 2,658
Transport, Storage &
Communications 2,395 1,634 761
Finance & Insurance 711 220 491
Real Estate & Rent 743 389 354
Public Administration &
Defence 2,572 1,250 1,322
Education 1,360 390 970
Health & Social Work 1,038 236 802
Other Community Services 1,436 757 679
Private Household
employing persons 997 175 822
Extra-Territorial
Organizations 376 247 129
Not stated/don't know 509 334 175
TOTAL 26,753 14,564 12,189
*Main Economic Activity = "Worked" or "had a Job but did not
work".
The Civil Service, which is part of the wider Public Service, is a
major employer of women. Indeed, women account for 60% of the workforce. Women
are to be found at all levels throughout the system and while some 30 years
ago there were only one or two women in the top echelons, women now hold
positions as:- Permanent Secretaries, Medical Consultants, Manager - Tourist
Department, Director - Pharmaceutical Services, Chief Welfare Officer, and
Chief Education Officer to mention only a few.
On the question of salary, the Civil Service classification with salary
scales, forms part of the Civil Service Act and is amended by an order
relating to either classification or remuneration published by the minister.
This rules out any question of payment at different rates. However,
salaries in the public service are smaller than those that can be earned in
the private sector, so men keep vacating the public service, choosing the
upward mobility which can be gained in economic terms from the private sector.
In the teaching profession, a similar trend is evident whereby women
outnumber men. Again this is because the public service is no longer
attractive to many men. And although training and promotion are to be given to
deserving officers alike, when men remain in the public service, they climb
the ladder of success much more quickly then women.
In terms of employment generation, many of our women have taken the bold
step of entering into self-employment with support from financial
institutions. Some areas ventured into are: Catering, Comestology, Dress
Making, Food Preservation, Crafts, Horticulture and Boutiques. Their success
has encouraged others to perfect their skills. Many of them, however, do not
have the physical structures from which to market their wares - particularly
crafts - and are obliged to conduct their businesses from the sidewalk.
In this area, much credit must be given to the Directorate of Women's
Affairs. Over the past ten years, the machinery for women has, through
training and lectures, done much to promote income generation activities for
women. However, it must be noted that the jobs for which these women are
trained are still traditionally female oriented ones.
In agriculture, women have always played a very important function in
the provision of local fruits and vegetables from their farms. A few years
ago, a woman achieved the position of "Farmer of the Year". Women have also
served in senior graduate positions in the Agricultural Department.
It is regrettable that because of the paucity of nonexistence of
statistical data to show numbers employed over the years, it is impossible to
properly assess the advancement of women in the labour force. Women are making
important contributions to the economy of Antigua and Barbuda in addition to
shouldering the traditional function of homemaking and mothering.
The Labour Code specifically prohibits discrimination on the basis of
sex. Section E8 (1) of the Labour Code provides that no woman shall merely by
reason of her sex be employed under terms of employment less favourable than
that employed by male workers employed in the same occupation and by the same
employer.
The Antigua and Barbuda Labour Code applies to both men and women.
Special protection is however afforded women, children and young persons by
Division E of the Labour Code.
ARTICLE 12
Health
The Government of Antigua and Barbuda has pursued a policy of providing
health care to all of its citizens. There are satellite health centres in each
village and eight main centres at strategic locations throughout the Island
thus making health care accessible to all. Particular emphasis is placed on
mothers, children and the elderly. This care ranges from preventative
intervention to routine medical care. In addition, secondary health care and
rehabilitation services are made available at the General Hospital, the Mental
Hospital and Geriatric Institute. Health services are provided not only by the
Government but private health care is available from a small in-patient clinic
and several private physicians and dentists. Health care to women and children
is provided mainly at the health centres and sub-centres. This is in the form
of prenatal and post-natal care to women and maternal and child care services.
A married woman has access to family planning services without the
husband's authorization. However, the husband's authorization is required in
practice before the wife can have tubal ligation or sterilization.
Abortion is not legal in Antigua and Barbuda, however abortions are
often performed in doctor's office.
Demographic Indicators
Population (1,000s) 59.3 (1991)
Population density 145 sg. km. (1991)
Birth rate (live births per 1,000
inhabitants) 20.13 (1990)
19.9 (1991)
21.2 (1992)
Crude death rate (per 1,000 inhabitants) 6.5 (1990)
Life expectancy - Women and men 70 years (1980
Men 70 years (1990)
Women 73 years (1990)
Population growth rate Approx. 1.3 per annum
Population (1,000) 63.8 (1991)
32,767 Females
30,003 Males
Live Births 1104 - 1987
1104 - 1988
1137 - 1989
1288 - 1990
1178 - 1991
Source: Ministry of Health - 1994
Major cases of death in women 15 - 49 years of age (per 10,000 women)
1980 Malignant Neoplasms 1.28
Heart Disease .51
Diseases of Musculo/Skeletal System .51
Epilepsy .51
Diabetes .26
Chrome Liver Disease .26
Pulmonary Circulation .26
Diseases of Arteries .26
Toxaemia of Pregnancy .26
Psychosis .26
1990 Malignant Neoplasms 1.52
Heart Disease .91
Diseases of the Digestive Tract .91
Pulmonary Circulation .61
Injury and Poisoning .61
Diseases of the Blood .30
Nutritional and Endovine/
Methabolic Disorder .30
Source: Ministry of Health - 1994
Maternal Mortality
1987 1 death
1988 1 death
1989 0 death
Maternal Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births)
1990 0
1991 9.49
1992 0
General Fertility Rate
1990 71.63
Age Specific Fertility
1990 10-14 years 1.13
1990 15-19 years 63.79
Source: Ministry of Health - 1994
Pre-Natal Mortality Rate
(per 1,000 live births)
1987 26.8
1988 43.75
1989 22.6
1990 31.06
1991 31.74
1992 27.59
Contraceptives
(Number of Active Acceptors at the End of the Years)
Year Total Under 17 17-19 20-34 35+ Not Known
1988 1,977 40 211 1,571 126 29
1989 2,928 47 309 2,282 214 76
1990 2,758 35 223 2,184 232 84
1991 3,368 61 295 2,303 365 344
1992 2,944 58 307 2,227 326 26
Added Information
* Percentage of Women using contraceptives = 25.5 (1990)
* Percentage of methods used (1990)
Oral contraceptives = 48.4
Injection = 31.1
Condoms = 17.6
* Accepts in the 20-34 year age group = 79.2 (1990)
Source: Ministry of Health - 1994
Number of Antenatal Patients with Abnormal Test Results for Haemoglobin: HB
lOgm or less)
Year Number
1988 70
1989 86
1990 120
1991 87
1992 68
* An analnae control programme was put in place in 1991.
* Number of women using clinics outside St. John's with Haemoglobin below 8gm
= 208 (1978).
* Number of women (Holberton Hospital Antenatal Clinic) with Haemoglobin below
8gm = 189 (1978-79).
Source: Ministry of Health - 1994
Added Information
* Abnormal results found in antenatal women screened according to specific
conditions at first visit (1990).
Hypertension = 17
Urmalyses (glucose) = 27
* Malignant Neoplasms Cervical Cancer
6 = 1980
6 = 1981
1 = 1984
5 = 1985
2 = 1990
* Major causes of gynaecological mortality related to cancer.
Uterus 2 (1990)
2 (1985)
Breast 1 (1980)
7 (1982)
8 (1990)
Source: Ministry of Health 1994
ARTICLE 13
10. Social and Economic Benefits
There are no legal restrictions that prevent women from having equal
access with men to bank loans, mortgages or any other form of financial
credit. The policy as regards to the granting of loans to males or females is
the same. Two of the major criteria are the ability to repay and provide
collateral to secure the loan.
There are no legal barriers to females owning land in Antigua and
Barbuda. A census taken in 1984 by the Ministry of Agriculture indicated that
the proportion of female ownership of family land under cultivation was low, a
ratio of 4:1 in favour to males. See Table 12.
Table 12
The Total Acreage of Family Owned land by Private Farmers Broken Down by Sex
and Extension Districts - 1984
All
District Male Female Sex
1. S. East 37 7 44
2. S. Central 113 26 139
3. S. West 51 27 78
4. N. East 41 4 46
5. N. Central 17 9 26
6. N. West 161 35 196
7. Barbuda 5 0 5
Nation 425 107 532
Source: Antigua and Barbuda Agricultural Census 1984:
Ministry of Agriculture Project published in 1986.
Using the data drawn from the survey conducted in 1991 by Faustina
Ward-Osborne, of the sample of 820 households, more females owned houses than
males, but significantly more males owned the more costly concrete structures.
A large percentage of women in Antigua and Barbuda work towards owning their
own homes, however many of the costly structures are jointly owned by women
and men.
Table 13
Type of Ownership by Sex of Household Head
Ownership Male Female Total
Own 231 312 543
Rent 90 146 236
Other 17 24 41
Total 338 482 820
Source: Faustina Ward-Osborne, "Research and Information on Women in Antigua
and Barbuda". An ILO/Directorate of Women's Affairs Project, 1991.
Table 14
Type of Dwelling Unit by Sex of Household Head
Dwelling Description Male Female Total
Concrete 92 88 180
Wood 130 217 347
Concrete & Wood 114 174 288
Other 2 3 5
Total 338 482 820
Source: Faustina Ward-Osborne, "Research and
Information on Women in Antigua and Barbuda".
An ILO/Directorate of Women's Affairs Project, 1991.
However, in Barbuda, of the sample of 51 households, 20 or 55% were
owned by men and, similarly, more men owned the more costly concrete houses.
(See Tables 15 and 16).
Table 15
Type of Ownership by Sex of Household Head (Barbuda)
Ownership Male Female Total
Own 20 16 36
Rent 4 6 10
Other 1 4 5
Total 25 26 51
Source: Faustina Ward-Osborne, "Research and
Information on Women in Antigua and Barbuda".
An ILO/Directorate of Women's Affairs Project, 1991.
Table 16
Type of Dwelling Unit by Sex of Household Head (Barbuda)
Dwelling Description Male Female Total
Concrete 92 88 180
Wood 130 217 347
Concrete & Wood 114 174 288
Other 2 3 5
Total 338 482 820
Source: Faustina Ward-Osborne, "Research and
Information on Women in Antigua and Barbuda".
An ILO/Directorate of Women's Affairs Project, 1991.
Both married and unmarried women have access to and can claim family
benefits such as children's allowances, health insurance or other government
subsidies or allowances. There are no legal obstacles to the full
participation of women in recreational activities, sports and other aspects of
cultural life.
Culture however, has played a major role in several sports continuing to
be either male or female dominant. Antigua and Barbuda's national sports
include cricket, football and dominoes which are male dominant and basketball,
tennis and netball are played by both sexes. An all female cricket team has
recently been formed.
ARTICLE 14
11. Marriage and Family Law
Both men and women in Antigua and Barbuda are free to choose a spouse
and to enter into marriage once they have reached the age of 18. Under the
Marriage Ordinance, the age of maturity was reduced from age 21 to age 18. Any
male or female desiring to be married at a younger age must have the consent
of a parent or guardian. Child marriages contracted under the age of 15 are
not legal.
The registration of all marriages is compulsory. The Marriage Act also
stresses that a marriage should be solemnised with the publication of banns
and with the authority of a license or magistrate's certificate. Arranged
marriages or the practice of payment of a dowry are not the custom in Antigua
and Barbuda.
A married woman may choose to keep her maiden name or take her husband's
name or a combination of both. Most women do take their husbands surname.
Non-marital unions are mainly to be found in the lower socio-economic
strata and the law provides that couples who have lived together continuously
for 5 years or more can bring proceedings to court in respect to their title
and rights to property.
Married women have equal rights and responsibilities with men with
regard to guardianship, trusteeship and adoption of children.
If the marriage is to be dissolved, the same grounds apply equally to
men and women. On dissolution of marriage, the women have an equal right to
apply to the court for property acquired during the marriage. She can also
apply for maintenance for herself and any children they might have had.
The Matrimonial Causes Act sets out the grounds in which a husband or
wife may ask the Court for a decree of divorce. These are Adultery, Desertion
without cause for at least three years, Cruelty, Incurable or unsound mind,
and has been continuously under care and treatment for at least five years. A
wife may apply for divorce on grounds that her husband has been guilty of
rape, sodomy or bestiality.
CONCLUSION
As stated, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda is strongly committed
and is working towards the elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women. The Prime Minister has indicated his commitment to redress the
inequities in power sharing at the highest policy making levels. We are aware,
however, that the achievement of this goal is a gradual process and will
involve all sectors of society.