State Reports - CEDAW - Mexico - CEDAW/C/MEX/3-4 (1997)

* For the initial report submitted by the Government of Mexico, see CEDAW/C/5/Add.2; for its consideration by the Committee, see CEDAW/C/SR.13 and CEDAW/C/SR.17, and Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-ninth Session, Supplement No.45 (A/39/45) (A/39/45), vol. I, paras. 67-89; for the second periodic report submitted by the Government of Mexico, see CEDAW/C/13/Add.10 and CEDAW/C/13/Add.10/Amend.1; for its consideration by the Committee, see CEDAW/C/SR.163, and Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-fifth Session, Supplement No.38 (A/45/38), paras. 350-369.

1. Women have a primary role in the development process and are an essential factor in that process. Development, however, does not automatically guarantee the emancipation of women, as if women were only passive beneficiaries. On the contrary, it is important to recognize the strategic role of women in promoting social and economic development, furthering democracy and transmitting cultural values, as well as the activities carried out by women on behalf of the development of their family and community.

2. Despite the impact of the economic and social crisis and its adverse consequences as regards the number and quality of opportunities for the integration of Mexican women into national life, the Government of Mexico is continuing to implement policies and measures aimed at improving the standard of living of the population groups most in need, both male and female, particularly the living conditions in rural and deprived urban areas.

3. This report includes data on ongoing governmental programmes and measures aimed at improving the situation of Mexican women and securing their participation on an equitable basis in the economic and social development of the country, in accordance with the National Development Plan (PND).

4. Although the format of the document is in accordance with the provisions of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, it should be noted that the majority of the programmes and measures described form part of the National Development Plan; that is to say, they were not conceived or planned with the sole object of implementing the specific provisions of the articles of the Convention, but form part of the overall measures undertaken under the development policies of the Government of Mexico.

5. Aware of the changes and progress that have been brought about in the integration of women into the development process on a basis of equality with men, the Government of Mexico has made major efforts to illustrate the advances achieved in the pursuit of that policy through the application of gender-specific criteria.

6. One example of the afore-mentioned efforts is the fact that, with effect from the Eleventh National Population Census of 1990, the gender category has been taken into account in the various areas of national development and production.

7. According to the results of the 1995 Population and Housing Census, published by the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics (INEGI), the total number of inhabitants of the Republic of Mexico in that year was 91,158,290, of whom 50.75 per cent, or a total of 46,257,791, were female and 49.25 per cent, or 44,900,499, male, which meant that there were 97.1 males to every 100 females (annex 1). These figures show that, over the past two and a half decades, the population of the country has increased at an average annual rate of approximately 2.6 per cent, a figure which is lower than that recorded for the period 1950-1970, when the rate was 3.2 per cent.

8. The population is distributed geographically in 31 federal states and the Federal District. Mexico State has 11,707,964 inhabitants (12.84 per cent of the total population), followed by the Federal District with 8,489,007 (9.31 per cent). By comparison, the states of Baja California Sur, Colima, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Aguascalientes and Tlaxcala have populations of fewer than 1 million inhabitants, or less than 1 per cent (annex 2).

9. According to the results of the 1995 Population and Housing Census, 24,154,775 Mexicans (26.49 per cent) live in 198,311 rural localities (with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants), while 54,633,429 (59.93 per cent) live in 481 localities with over 15,000 inhabitants. As indicated by INEGI, this shows that the population trends of concentration in the major towns and dispersal into small localities are continuing in Mexico (annex 3).

10. The urban and rural population breakdown by federal entity exhibits significant differences. Indeed, while the urban population in the Federal District and in Nuevo Léon is 99.70 and 92.95 per cent respectively, in the states of Oaxaca and Chiapas it is only 43.49 and 44.14 per cent respectively. At the national level, the average urban population, in other words the population residing in localities with 2,500 or more inhabitants, is 71.44 per cent (annex 4).

11. It is of interest to note that, as the size of the locality increases, the sex ratio (i.e. the number of males to every 100 females) decreases, whereas, as the size of the locality decreases, the number of males increases. As will be seen in the sections dealing with employment and rural women, the major towns continue to be economic and social magnets for woman (annex 5).

12. As regards the age-group structure of the population, Mexico is still a young country, the average age of the total population being 21 to 22 years for women and 20 for men (annex 6); 46.51 per cent of the total population of Mexico is under 19 years of age (annex 7). However, the beginnings of an "ageing" process can now be observed, since the base of the population pyramid (the 0 to 4 years age group) is tending to narrow, compared with the population pyramids for the 1950s and 1970s.

13. Mexico is a multicultural country. According to the data compiled during the 1995 Population and Housing Census, 5,483,555 people speak one of the indigenous languages, a figure which represents 6.01 per cent of the total population over five years of age. Of this total, 49.958 per cent are female and 50.041 per cent male. According to the same source, the indigenous population is to be found in greater numbers in localities with 100 to 499 and 1,000 to 2,499 inhabitants. Of the female population between the ages of 5 and 75, 54.22 per cent are under 30 years of age (annex 8).

14. The indigenous population is distributed irregularly over the entire national territory. The states having the highest percentage of such inhabitants are Oaxaca (18.74 per cent), Chiapas (14.01 per cent), Veracruz (10.77 per cent), Yucatán (9.95 per cent), Puebla (9.62 per cent), Hidalgo (5.98 per cent), Guerrero (5.85 per cent) and Mexico State (5.66 per cent). At the other extreme are Aguascalientes, Colima and Zacatecas, which have less than 1.0 per cent of the indigenous population (annex 9).

15. As regards the number of indigenous languages spoken in the country, the 1995 Population and Housing Census recorded a total of 80, in addition to indicating the names of other indigenous languages of Mexico and other indigenous languages of America. The predominant language is Náhuatl, which is spoken by 24.17 per cent of the population aged five years and over, followed by Maya (14.16 per cent), Zapoteco (7.57 per cent), Mixteco (7.11 per cent), Otomí (5.16 per cent), Tzeltal (5.16 per cent), Tzotzil (4.80 per cent) and Totonaca (3.90 per cent) (annex 10).

16. Of the total number of inhabitants aged five years and over who speak an indigenous language, 84.78 per cent are bilingual, that is to say they also speak Spanish, while 14.73 per cent are monolingual. In the case of indigenous females, 80.70 per cent are bilingual and 18.69 per cent are monolingual, while the corresponding percentages for males are 88.85 and 10.78 per cent respectively (annex 11).

17. The Mexican Constitution, the great social pact which regulates political and legal relations between Mexican men and women, is one of the most advanced in the world.

18. The Mexican Constitution was the first to proclaim and protect social guarantees, in addition to individual guarantees; that is to say, it protects men and women both as individuals and in terms of groups.

19. Individual guarantees require the State to adopt an attitude of respect for human freedoms, since those freedoms constitute an area into which State power cannot penetrate. They are established in the Constitution, in particular in Title I, chapter I. Thus, starting with article 1, the Federal Constitution sets forth and protects the rights of all individuals, without distinction as to sex, age, race or creed, as well as the rights of legal entities.

20. Social guarantees, on the other hand, recognize the right of every human being to lead a dignified existence and require the application of governmental measures to ensure the well-being of all groups forming part of the community; they are set out, above all, in articles 3, 4, 27 and 123, that is to say in those articles which refer to education, the family and the equality of men and women before the law, land ownership and natural resources, and employment.

21. Article 133 of the Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States stipulates that the "Constitution, the laws of the Congress of the Union which emanate therefrom, and all treaties made, or which shall be made in accordance therewith by the President of the Republic, with the approval of the Senate, shall be the supreme law throughout the Union. The judges of every State shall be bound to the said Constitution, laws and treaties, notwithstanding any contradictory provisions that may appear in the constitutions or laws of the States".

22. By virtue of that constitutional precept, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 18 December 1979, signed by Mexico on 17 July 1980, ratified on 23 March 1981 and published in the Diario Oficial of the Federation on 12 May 1981, forms part of the supreme law throughout the Union; its implementation is mandatory at the federal level.

23. In that connection, the Government of Mexico recognizes that the Convention is in itself a programmatic framework which sets out measures to promote the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women, in accordance with the rights recognized in other international instruments.

24. On that basis, Mexico views the Convention as offering recommendations which are necessary in order to eliminate, in the political, economic, social, cultural and civil spheres, acts which could involve discrimination against women.

25. As already indicated in the previous reports, starting with the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, in general terms, women suffer no legal limitation whatsoever, since the law regards them as having the same rights and obligations as men.

26. The legislation setting out regulations relating to the articles of the Constitution which govern daily life contains provisions to ensure the equality of women and men. Reference will be made to these pieces of legislation when the report deals with the degree of implementation of other articles of the Convention.

27. During the period covered by this report, new provisions were adopted as a result of constitutional amendments and legislative work dealing with various matters relating to the situation of women. It should be pointed out that, despite the new legislative provisions, in general there has been no change in the situation indicated in previous reports, in that the Mexican Constitution explicitly recognizes the equality of men and women before the law. This report will provide a general panorama of the recent major reforms and legal initiatives and their impact in relation to women.

Establishment of the National Human Rights Commission and its Programme on Matters relating to Women, Children and the Family

28. The National Human Rights Commission was established by a Presidential Decree published in the Diario Oficial of the Federation on 6 June 1990. Subsequently, on 28 January 1992, a section B was added to article 102 of the Constitution, which laid down the bases for the establishment of organizations of that type throughout the Republic. These actions supplemented the Mexican system for the protection of human rights, in addition to the institution of the writ of protection (juicio de amparo).

"The Congress of the Union and the Legislatures of the States shall, within the limits of their competence, establish organizations for the protection of human rights, which shall be informed of complaints of acts or omissions of an administrative nature by any authority or public servant, with the exception of those forming part of the judiciary of the Federation who violate those rights, and shall formulate autonomous non-binding public recommendations and denunciations and complaints against the respective authorities.

"These organizations shall not be competent to deal with electoral, employment and jurisdictional matters.

"The organization established by the Congress of the Union shall be informed of any lack of conformity in the recommendations, agreements and omissions of the equivalent organizations in the States."

30. The National Human Rights Commission Act does not include specific provisions relating to the rights of women, since the individual guarantees proclaimed in the Constitution provide for the equality of men and women; nevertheless, substantial progress has been made in combating discrimination against women through the establishment in 1993 of the Programme on Matters relating to Women, Children and the Family of the National Human Rights Commission.

31. The Programme on Matters relating to Women, Children and the Family is responsible for hearing complaints submitted by women who believe that their rights pertaining to their status as women have been violated, for studying and proposing solutions to the problems which impede the full exercise of the human rights of women, and for promoting the equality of relations and responsibilities of men and women within the nuclear family. It promotes the access of women to all levels of the educational system and their retention in the system, the right to employment, training and equitable entry levels, to social security and insurance systems, and to health services, in particular reproductive health services.

32. Specifically as far as the work of the National Human Rights Commission with respect to international instruments is concerned, article 6, section XIII, of the Act establishing its functions and responsibilities states:

"XIII. To formulate programmes and propose measures, in coordination with the competent agencies, which will promote the implementation within the national territory of the international treaties, conventions and agreements relating to human rights signed and ratified by Mexico."

33. In 1992, the New Agrarian Act was adopted in line with the amendment to article 27 of the Constitution. Article 63 of the New Agrarian Act states that "the same protection will be given to ... the women's industrial-agricultural unit [as to the land intended for human settlement]". Article 71 of the Act stipulates that of the land forming part of an ejido (unit of communal land) "an area could be reserved, ... preferably in the best land adjacent to the urbanization zone, to be set aside for the establishment of an agricultural and livestock farm or of rural industries operated by women over 16 years of age ... [which] could include facilities designed specifically for the benefit and protection of peasant women". The new Act thereby extended that right to all women, since the previous Act had limited it to women who were not ejidatarias (holders of shares in an ejido).

34. There has, however, been some retrogression compared with the previous Agrarian Act, article 103 of which had made the existence of women's industrial-agricultural units mandatory in each ejido. Now, that decision is left to the assembly of the ejido, as is the extension of a plot of land. Similarly, the right of the wife or common-law wife to be the primary successor to a plot of communal land, a right set forth in article 81 of the 1971 Act, has been abolished, and in its place the new Act establishes that an ejidatario has the right to designate successors at his discretion.

Access of women to education and the retention of women in the educational system

35. In the field of education, the amendment to article 3 of the Constitution, published in the Diario Oficial on 5 March 1993, represents an important advance towards making secondary education - as well as primary education - mandatory, reaffirming the right of every individual to receive an education.

36. The General Education Act of 1993, in conformity with the constitutional amendment, states, in article 8, section III, the precept which stipulates that education must uphold the "ideals of fraternity and equality of rights of every human being, avoiding privileges on account of race, religion, group or sex, or individual privileges".

37. In chapter 3, article 32, relating to equality in education, the General Education Act stipulates that measures should be taken "towards establishing conditions which would allow for the full exercise of the right of every individual to education, greater educational equality, and the attainment of effective equality of opportunity of access to and retention in educational services. These measures will be directed, on a continuing basis, at those groups and regions which are most backward in education or which are experiencing disadvantageous economic and social conditions". It thereby establishes a legal framework which implicitly recognizes the gender differences with regard to the access of females to education and the school dropout rate among females, as well as the need to establish measures targeting vulnerable groups, among which women occupy an important place.

38. On 22 November 1996, the Congress of the Union adopted an addendum to provisional article 22 of the Federal Code of Electoral Institutions and Procedures, which states that the national political parties should consider in their statutes that no more than 70 per cent of the candidates for deputy or senator should be of the same sex.

39. At the state level, on 23 December 1996, the Congress of the State of San Luis Potosí adopted the Electoral Law of that State, article 33 of which states that the political parties must ensure the registration of an equal number of candidates of the two sexes. The Congress of the State of Sonora amended article 89 of that State's Electoral Code to incorporate a requirement that, in the register of proposed candidates, on no electoral roll should more than 80 per cent of the candidates be of the same sex.

40. The Federal Safety, Hygiene and Working Environment Regulations, which have been in force since 21 April 1997, incorporate for the first time in Mexican legislation provisions regulating safety and hygiene in employment in specific activities that have not been considered hitherto - such as forestry, agriculture and the sawmills industry - including measures relating to fixed and temporary installations; agricultural machinery, equipment and implements; agrochemical agents and, especially, the safe use of insecticides and fertilizers. It also incorporates safety and hygiene provisions to protect the fetuses or children of pregnant or nursing working women, and at the same time dictates preventive measures to protect the physical and mental development of minors in the workplace.

41. It states that pregnant women cannot be engaged in employment which involves the operation, transport or storage of teratogenic or mutagenic substances; where there is exposure to sources of ionizing radiation capable of producing contamination in the workplace, in accordance with the applicable legal provisions, regulations and standards; where there are abnormal environmental pressures or disturbed environmental thermal conditions; and where the muscular effort which is required might affect the fetus.

42. In 1996, on the initiative of the executive branch, articles 16, 20 (section I), 21, 22 and 73 (section XXI) of the Constitution were amended to improve the potential to deal with organized crime, which is recognized as one of the most serious problems experienced by Mexico and by the whole international community. At the same time, the Criminal Code was amended to strengthen, inter alia, the provisions relating to the illegal deprivation of liberty when carried out with violence and when the victim is under 16 or over 60 years of age or physically or mentally inferior to the person responsible for the deprivation of liberty.

43. On 7 November 1996, the Federal Act against Organized Crime was published in the Diario Oficial. The purpose of the Act is "to establish rules for the investigation, prosecution, trial, sentencing and enforcement of the penalty in the case of offences committed by any member of organized crime. Its provisions are a public order and are applicable throughout the national territory", inter alia, in matters relating to trafficking in those without identification papers and minors.

44. Moreover, at the Federal District level, the Assembly of Representatives adopted the Domestic Violence Prevention and Assistance Act, which entered into force in August 1996.

45. On 26 November 1996, the Senate of the Republic approved the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women - the Convention of Belém do Paró. In January 1997, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs recommended its ratification.

46. In Mexico, governmental action with regard both to the establishment of programmes in favour of women and to support for legislative reforms goes back several decades; one example was the recognition of the right of women to vote in 1953.

47. Indeed, as indicated in the initial, second and third reports of Mexico,

various programmes and measures have been implemented in the past 20 years to help to improve the status of women. It should be pointed out that 1974 saw the establishment of the National Programme for International Women's Year, which prepared Mexico's report for the 1975 World Conference, held in Mexico. As part of International Women's Year, new advances were made towards achieving the equality of women with the amendment of the Political Constitution of the Republic and various pieces of civil, labour and other legislation.

48. As indicated in the second periodic report, in 1980 the National Programme for the Integration of Women in Development was established within the National Population Council (CONAPO) of the Ministry of the Interior. Later, in 1985, a National Commission for Women was established, also within the Council, to coordinate sectoral activities and projects which formed part of a renewed Plan of Action.

49. In 1993, the work of the Commission was reoriented towards the preparations for the Fourth World Conference on Women, with a National Coordinating Committee.

50. Similarly, in January 1994, the Department for the Coordination of Matters relating to Women was established in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in preparation for and in support of the National Coordinating Committee for the Fourth World Conference on Women; it has the functions of serving as the administrative unit linking national and international agencies which promote the advancement of women, and monitoring the implementation of the relevant international instruments signed by Mexico, as well as the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action.

51. On 8 March 1995, the National Programme for Women: Alliance for Equality (PRONAM) was initiated; the official document was submitted one year later. This Programme constitutes a national mechanism to promote activities designed to improve the status of Mexican women on the basis of new general objectives.

52. The National Programme for Women forms part of the National Development Plan 1995-2000; it too proposes, as a priority social policy objective, the promotion of the full and effective participation of women in the economic, social, political and cultural life of the country on an equal basis with men. (Further details concerning the Programme are provided in the information relating to the implementation of article 3).

53. As a follow-up to the diagnosis drawn up in preparation for the Fourth World Conference on Women and the strategies established in the National Programme for Women: Alliance for Equality, which are in keeping with what was agreed both in the Regional Programme of Action for Women of Latin America and the Caribbean, 1995-2001, and the Beijing Platform for Action, the National Human Rights Commission, with a view to contributing to the full compliance by the Mexican State with its international obligations under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women {and the Convention on the Rights of the Child}, carried out "a very detailed analysis of the principal federal regulations with a view to ascertaining whether they were in line with the provisions of the aforesaid international instruments and proposing any necessary amendments so that the legal equality of men and women could be transformed into a real equality of opportunity for the development of both".

54. The results of the Commission's survey, which also included an analysis of State legislation, are in the process of publication and the proposals for legislative reform will be submitted to the appropriate authorities.

55. In this connection, mention should be made of the readiness of the Mexican State to analyse the proposals of the National Human Rights Commission, which constitute an important and exhaustive diagnosis that will help to draw attention to those situations which require further analysis.

56. Through the Ministry of the Interior, which is responsible for the Section for the Executive Coordination of the National Programme for Women, a meeting was convened on 30 January 1997, within the framework of the Alliance for Equality in the Framework of the New Federalism, for the purpose of analysing the degree of implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women by the States of Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Quintana Roo and Yucatán. One of the topics discussed in this forum was the legal framework with regard to women in each of those autonomous entities. Similar meetings were held in other parts of the Republic.

57. As has already been indicated, the Government of Mexico has implemented various programmes and measures to help to improve the status of women, such as the amendment of article 4 of the Constitution and the establishment of the National Programme for International Women's Year in 1974; the creation of the National Programme for the Integration of Women in Development within the National Population Council (CONAPO) in 1980; and the establishment of the National Commission for Women in 1985.

58. In 1993, the National Coordination Committee was established for the purpose of organizing the preparatory activities for the participation of Mexico in the Fourth World Conference on Women. As a result of the work of the national Coordination Committee, a detailed report was prepared on the situation of Mexican women, as well as a set of thematic diagnoses which served as the basis for Mexico's participation in the Conference and for the preparation of the current National Programme for Women: Alliance for Equality, 1995-2000 (PRONAM).

59. The National Programme for Women: Alliance for Equality, 1995-2000, forms part of the National Development Plan 1995-2000. One of the objectives of the National Plan is the promotion of a set of programmes and measures to guarantee women equal opportunities in education, training and employment; full equality in the exercise of their social, legal, civil, political and reproductive rights; and effective support for their fundamental role in the integration of the family and in the training and socialization of their children.

60. Starting from this basis, PRONAM pursues specific objectives relating to equality between women and men, recognizing that the female population plays a major role not only in the process of economic and social development, but also in democratic advances, in the transmission of our culture and values, in the solidarity of the family and in community development.

61. The National Programme for Women thus starts from recognition of the fact that, among other strategies and measures, it is essential to encourage the broad participation of women in the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of public policies, taking care that the programmes meet their specific demands and needs; to carry out educational and communication activities with a view to creating an awareness among the population of the status of women; to promote consciousness-raising efforts directed towards legislators and officials responsible for drawing up and carrying out public plans and programmes; and to modernize and strengthen the legal and administrative machinery to ensure that women may fully exercise their rights as citizens and that the gap between equality of rights and the actual situation is eliminated.

62. In accordance with the Presidential Decree of 21 August 1996, the agencies of the federal public administration are required to comply with PRONAM within their respective areas of competence, as are public entities, in accordance with the applicable legal provisions.

63. In order to implement the set of strategies and measures drawn up by PRONAM to promote the advancement of women and in order to act as the executive organ of the Federal Government, under the Ministry of the Interior, the Executive Coordinating Office of the National Programme for Women was established; this organ constitutes Mexico's current Government Office for Women. The Executive Coordinating Office is responsible for bringing together and coordinating inter-agency activities which will permit the full implementation of the National Programme for Women and other governmental programmes in favour of Mexican women so that they may achieve their full development and equality, and thereby promoting the implementation of the Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women and the Regional Programme of Action for Women of Latin America and the Caribbean, 1995-2001.

64. Moreover, on 21 October 1996 the Minister of the Interior ordered the establishment of a Consultative Board and a Social Monitoring Board as integrated auxiliary organs for various sectors of society; they are governed by the guidelines of the National Development Plan and PRONAM and by the agreements adopted by their members.

- To encourage and promote the participation of all sectors involved in PRONAM activities in order to expand their scope.

- To contribute to the promotion of joint work by governmental institutions, social and academic organizations and the public.

- To support the strengthening of women's organizations and organizations working for the benefit of women.

- To monitor the implementation of PRONAM to ensure that the activities and goals undertaken are duly carried out.

- To propose measures to enable any deviations from specific projects to be corrected and to monitor their execution.

- To develop mechanisms to promote the strengthening and modernization of the information systems of the agencies participating in the Programme.

- To promote procedures for the evaluation of the quality of the services involved in programmes for women.

67. The organs responsible for the implementation of PRONAM carry out their work on the basis of various priority goals, objectives and strategies determined in accordance with the new programme lines:

68. On the political level in Mexico, affirmative action of various kinds has been taken which has proved to be outstanding particularly in view of the lack of any similar previous experience:

69. The National Human Rights Commission made a proposal to amend the electoral codes in order to make it mandatory for the parties to nominate a percentage of women, a proposal which resulted in the addition of provisional article 22 of the Federal Electoral Institutions and Procedures Code of 22 November 1996, which states that national political parties should consider in their statutes that no more than 70 per cent of the candidates for membership of the Chamber of Deputies or the Senate should be of the same sex. They should also promote greater political participation on the part of women.

70. That action should make it possible to incorporate a greater percentage of Mexican women into political life than at present, a percentage closer to the world goal for the year 2000 of 50 per cent of opportunities for women in political parties and in offices representative of the people.

71. In this context, it should be noted that on 21 June 1996 the Congress of the State of Sonora stipulated, in article 89 of the Electoral Code of that State, that no party should nominate more than 80 per cent of its candidates from the same sex. Similarly, on 23 December 1996 the State Congress of San Luis Potosí stipulated, in article 33 of the Electoral Law of that State, that political parties must try to register candidates of both sexes in equal numbers. In Yucatán, the Congress of Yucatán Women was established in November 1996, by notice of the State Government, for the purpose, inter alia, of dealing with the question of political participation.

72. The affirmative action policies put together by the political institutions have reached a peak in recent months. The September 1966 Assembly of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the party in power, decided that the national and regional lists of candidates for popular election in federal, state and municipal elections should in no case include more than 70 per cent of the candidates of the same sex. Thus, two of the most representative parties in the country (PRD and PRI) now have internal provisions which establish a quota of 30 per cent to ensure that women are represented in popularly elected posts.

73. A significant number of non-governmental organizations, social associations and women's groups of all political parties which operate at the national level held a National Women's Assembly for Democratic Transition on 5 October 1996. The Assembly expressed the view that "there would not be full democracy in Mexico until women participated sufficiently in politics, government and the administration and management of justice". The Assembly therefore proposed to "ensure the political participation of women in decision-making positions in the Government, legislative organs, parties and social organizations through temporary affirmative action measures which would contribute to the participation of the female sex on an equitable basis until the cultural and political limitations had been overcome.

74. It is believed that in Mexico these specific measures will become generalized and will multiply in the short term and that at the same time they set a standard for the establishment of other affirmative action measures designed to contribute to the increased participation of women in the leadership of the political parties.

75. In order to improve the situation of women living in conditions of poverty or extreme poverty, the Federal Government has been implementing the Food, Health and Education Programme (PASE) with effect from 1997; the first phase of the Programme deals predominantly with the rural population of 11 entities in the country. PASE is establishing a series of affirmative measures in favour of the female population, after recognizing the disadvantages women face in terms of food, educational levels and school drop-out: it carries out preventive health care activities starting with the antenatal stage and gives priority to the most vulnerable population - pregnant and nursing women, children under five years of age and young people at the basic education level.

76. PASE provides for a transfer of funds to support family food consumption of basic products, the recipient being preferably the mother. In education, it is considering offering monetary support to prevent school drop-out, especially among girls, providing them with more information and allowing them more opportunities to decide how best to exercise their productive capacity. Accordingly, the amount of the funds assigned to females is greater than that assigned to males and increases as they move up to higher levels in school.

77. On the whole, through affirmative action, PASE is seeking to break the vicious circle of poverty which affects levels of education and health, while at the same time recognizing the special situation of mothers and future mothers and the social function of maternity.

78. The education policy of the Government of Mexico seeks to translate into reality the mandate of article 3 of the Constitution, which stipulates that education should be aimed at developing all the faculties of the human being in a harmonious manner, must contribute towards improving the capacity of people to live together, and must reinforce in people the ideals of fraternity and the equality of rights of all human beings, avoiding privileges based, inter alia, on sex.

The text of that article of the Constitution has been taken up in the General Education Act of July 1993.

79. With regard to the content of the basic education plans and curricula, although the General Education Act does not stipulate that they should be aimed at promoting the equality of men and women expressed in articles 3 and 4 of the Constitution, it should be noted that measures have been taken towards that end. With a view to promoting the equality of men and women before the law, material on that subject has been included in the curricula for primary schools - free textbooks - secondary schools and high schools and in the university studies programme.

80. These efforts, however, have not been sufficient. Educational activities, in general, are not directed by gender-based criteria; this means that it is necessary to make specific proposals for men and women for the immediate future and to carry out a complete revision of the educational content. In this connection, the Ministry of Public Education is drawing up a plan for the revision of the content of free textbooks, similar to the revision carried out in collaboration with the Human Rights Commission to incorporate a human rights perspective into the texts.

81. The foregoing meets the strategic objective of PRONAM, one of the priorities of which is the revision of curricula, teaching material, textbooks and teaching methods to eliminate any stereotyped images of women.

82. Since the Mexican Constitution establishes the right to free expression, as well as the right of all individuals to information, the participation of the communication media is required in Mexico to eliminate gender-based stereotypes.

83. In addition to defining national efforts through specific strategic goals to promote a balanced image of women in the communication media, PRONAM recognizes that technological advances in communications and computer science have helped to foster the development of sophisticated systems for the dissemination of messages which transcend national frontiers and have the capacity to influence the attitudes, values and conduct of individuals, their aspirations and expectations and their perceptions of the opportunities available to them.

84. For that reason, along the same lines as the General Education Act, one of the purposes of which is to encourage esteem for human dignity, PRONAM defines its strategic goals as being to undertake continuing campaigns to arouse an awareness of the variety of roles played by women; to promote the establishment of standards and codes of conduct for the communication media which would help to eliminate the dissemination of reductionist images of women in advertising campaigns; to carry out systematic consciousness-raising activities, including seminars and training workshops, aimed at managers and professional staff of the communication media to promote the elimination of stereotyped images of women in the media; and to promote the broader participation of women in leading positions in the communication media.

85. The activities carried out in this sphere in 1996 included forums, seminars, workshops and national meetings with the State Population Councils in order to raise the consciousness of the Governments of the federal entities and of representatives of non-governmental organizations and the mass communication media about gender aspects and the Cairo, Mar del Plata and Beijing Conferences with a view to developing campaigns in the communication media to arouse an awareness of the diversity of roles played by women.

86. Moreover, in order to meet the goal of carrying out systematic consciousness-raising activities aimed at managers and professional staff of the communication media to promote the elimination of stereotyped images of women in the media, the National Population Council prepared a handbook entitled Gender perspective. Guide to the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of research projects and public and civilian activities.

87. On the other hand, the status of women within the mass communication media is a subject which has been little explored. While it is certain that the presence of women has been gradually increased and diversified, women journalists and commentators still face discrimination as regards salaries and a marked inequality of access to the media. It is also known that the participation of women at the leadership levels in the communication media is still limited; in general they are to be found at the intermediate levels under a hierarchical structure established for men. There are few women who are editors of newspapers, sub-editors or information chiefs, directors of radio or television stations or owners of advertising agencies. In contrast, there is a high degree of participation of women in journalism, communication science and advertising schools.

88. The increased participation of women in the labour market and the growing acceptance of their presence there have not led to any significant reduction in their domestic responsibilities. The tasks which men occasionally carry out, frequently considered only as a "help" to women, continue to be regarded as an exclusively female responsibility. In that connection, it should be pointed out that, according to recent surveys, approximately 2 per cent of those interviewed believed that domestic tasks should be the exclusive responsibility of men, whereas 63 per cent stated that they were the exclusive responsibility of women and the remaining 35 per cent replied that they were the responsibility of both. Relatively similar percentages were recorded in surveys as to who should be responsible for taking care of the children. The data submitted demonstrate that some advance has been made and some change has occurred in concepts of the roles attributed to women and to men during the 1970s.

89. On the basis of the foregoing, it is believed that one priority measure would be a revision of the labour standards and hours of work so that men and women could share family responsibilities on an equal basis, including the mechanisms for obtaining maternity or paternity leave and benefits.

90. The National Programme for Women had this in view when it stated that one of its priority activities was:

- To promote the revision of labour standards and hours of work so that men and women might share family responsibilities on an equal basis, including the mechanisms for obtaining maternity or paternity leave and benefits.

91. The global social and economic process, which in the developing countries has faced a crisis of acute proportions, combined with the rapid advance of communication science and technology, has, inter alia, led to a severe decline in social and cultural standards in the vast majority of countries, which in turn has given rise to a significant increase in violence against women.

92. The new generations are trying to adjust to the speed of social and political change in the development process itself, while at the same time seeking to bring about the necessary changes in traditional thinking and to adapt social stereotyping to the new cultural and economic requirements imposed by modern life.

93. All this has fostered a new social awareness among women of all nations and we are thus witnessing the formation of groups, associations and coalitions of women who are attempting to combine their efforts in order to overcome their fundamental problems, which range from essential respect for their human rights to the task of combating the violence committed against them.

94. In the case of Mexico, the change in attitudes is taking place not only among the general public, where it has occurred more rapidly, but also in government circles, where efforts have been directed both at introducing various guarantees and controls for the offender and also at providing services for the victim.

95. In the major urban areas such as Mexico City, the problem of crime has become accentuated during the past decade, forcing the Government to accord priority attention to dealing with offences involving violence.

96. An institutional analysis made of the incidence of crime has shown that the percentage of reports of sexual offences was extremely low and that the majority of the victims failed to file a complaint with the Department of Public Prosecution.

97. Moreover, as is the case in other countries, there are no statistics in Mexico on physical assaults on women, which represent a major area of the overall problem of violence against women. Nevertheless, the problem has not been ignored.

98. As was stated at the time the second periodic report of Mexico was presented, in 1989 an extensive review of current legislation governing sexual offences was undertaken and a public inquiry was conducted, the findings of which were forwarded to and studied by the Commission of Inquiry of the Chamber of Deputies as part of a series of measures introduced by the Government of Mexico, through the Office of the Public Prosecutor of the Federal District, with a view to reducing the rate of sexual offences committed against women.

99. The public inquiry encompassed civic groups (women's organizations and other community associations) that had carried out extensive work in the area of support for victims of sexual offences and, more generally, on the issue of violence against women.

100. It should be pointed out that the experience gained from the work undertaken jointly with civic groups and associations brought to light the fact that one of the main obstacles that had been encountered by these groups in their endeavours was precisely a lack of linkage between their programmes and the Government's action on the same issues. Such coordination between the public and governmental institutions began in 1989 and has led to the removal of this and other obstacles and to better results through their joint efforts.

101. In addition to the public inquiry referred to above, a scheme involving the establishment of specialized agencies to deal with sexual offences has been mounted, as part of the Criminal Prosecution and Victim Priority Action Programme, in response to the public's demands for changes in the institutional practices of the various prosecution authorities, practices that were seen as humiliating for the victims of such offences.

102. The prime tasks of the specialized agencies are pursued on two interacting levels: providing care and assistance for victims in the form of therapy and information counselling, and making crime investigation as effective as possible. The successful performance of these tasks calls for specialist staff at both levels, i.e. physicians, diagnosticians, psychologists and social workers, as well as judicial and police personnel of the highest calibre.

103. The members of the interdisciplinary team at each specialized agency undergo prior screening based on "psychological profiling to ensure their emotional stability, frustration control, sensitivity in dealing with high-risk victims, integrity and well-balanced psychosexual development".

104. Four such specialized agencies to handle sexual offences were set up in 1989 in the Federal District, and the necessary regulations were issued to enable them to operate as an integral part of the public prosecution service. Also, contacts have been established with those States of the Republic whose Governments have shown an interest in initiating similar programmes.

105. Together with the specialized agencies in the Federal District, three support centres have been established for victims of sexual offences and their families: the Support Therapy Centre (CTA), the Domestic Violence Care Centre (CAVI). and the Missing and Absent Persons Support Centre (CAPEA).

106. Within the Republic, to date, specialized agencies to deal with sexual offences have been set up in Aguascalientes, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Colima, Coahuila, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Mexico State, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, Morelos, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Yucatán and Zacatecas. These agencies also have support programmes and, in the case of Colima, Chiapas, Mexico State, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Morelos and Nuevo León, care centres. Aguascalientes has a shelter and Tamaulipas a prosecution service.

107. In addition to the above, in 1989 the penalty for rape was increased and in 1990, at the invitation of the Federal District Department of Public Prosecution, meetings of leaders of women's groups involved in different sectors of social and political activity, i.e. women legislators (deputies, senators and assembly members), journalists, academics and intellectuals from a variety of social backgrounds and representing diverse ideologies, took place, in an "attempt to tackle the problem" of the incidence of sexual offences and the consequences for the victims. In other words, the issue shifted from the level of "individual and organizational awareness" to that of social mobilization.

108. The diverse and pluralistic body of women referred to above established itself as a formal group under the name of the "Pluralistic Victim Support Committee, A.C." (known as Grupo Plural) after initiating such important steps as the drafting and submission of a series of proposed amendments to the provisions governing sexual offences contained in the Federal District Penal Code, which had already undergone amendment in 1984 when modifications were made to the related legislation but the problem of the consequences of such crimes, i.e. the effects on the victims was not addressed.

109. From the outset, the prime objective of Grupo Plural has been to promote the continuity and permanence of action undertaken to combat violence and sexual offences and to ensure that victim support services established in the future maintain the highest standards and do not deteriorate in quality.

110. In 1991, amendments, additions and derogations to the Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure for the Federal District relating to sexual offences were adopted.

111. In February 1991, the Special Prosecution Service for Sexual Offences was set up with the aim of achieving standards of technical excellence in criminal investigation work and also to serve as a body to promote the defence of the human rights of both victims and offenders.

112. In 1993, the Constitution was amended to establish that it was the State's obligation to provide legal assistance to the victims of sexual offences and that they were entitled to receive reparation for injury and urgent medical attention.

113. 1994 saw the creation of the Specialized Care and Legal Orientation Unit and the Comprehensive Care Programme for the Victims of Sexual Attacks. In addition, a comprehensive care programme for the rehabilitation of victims of sexual attacks was initiated.

114. The following other steps were undertaken recently in accordance with the programme outline of PRONAM:

- In March 1995, the Federal District Department of Public Prosecution (PGJDF) established a sub-department of human rights and community services and a State office to deal with the victims of crime, to provide a network linking the specialized agencies dealing with victims.

- In April 1996, in addition to the Organic Act of PGJDF, the Department of Public Prosecution was given the authority to deal with crime victims by providing legal, social and psychological support.

115. With regard to combating violence, the National Women's Programme promoted the following activities:

2. The elimination of images of violence against women reproduced by the communication media.

4. The promotion of research and the preparation and dissemination of adequate and reliable statistics on violence against women and girls, on its causes and consequences and on measures to prevent it and undo its effects.

5. The creation of the necessary judicial and administrative machinery to ensure that the victims of violence have effective access to indemnity, reparations for damages and other just and effective compensatory measures.

7. The organization and financing of information campaigns and training and education programmes to arouse an awareness of the negative effects of violence in the family, the community and society.

8. The promotion of a programme to publicize methods of self-defence against violence.

9. Training in gender issues to raise the consciousness of the personnel responsible for ensuring and administering justice.

116. The action undertaken by the non-governmental groups - which continued in consultation and coordination with the government agencies - resulted in the adoption on 26 April 1996 by the Assembly of Representatives of the Federal District of the Domestic Violence Prevention and Assistance Act, which is the first specific ordinance on the matter. The Act condemns this type of violence, provides penalties for it and discourages resort to it in various ways. It should be pointed out that the Act was based on the content of the Inter-American Convention against Domestic Violence - the Convention of Belém do Pará.

117. Another of the more recent results of the collaboration between the Government and the general public was the holding of the "Continental Meeting on Domestic Violence" from 28 to 30 October 1996, on the initiative of a non-governmental organization with funding from UNIFEM, UNFPA, UNICEF, WHO/PAHO and OAS and with the support of various government agencies.

118. On 26 November 1996, the Senate of the Republic adopted the Convention of Belém do Pará; it is hoped that the Convention will be ratified in accordance with the procedures stipulated in the Constitution.

119. On 6 December 1996, the Federal District Department of Public Prosecution and various non-governmental organizations which deal with the phenomenon of violence against women signed the Collaboration Agreement whereby non-governmental organizations would continuously monitor the services provided to the public by the Department of Public Prosecution with a view to improving the quality of assistance to victims; would offer services to train the personnel of the administrative unit responsible for assistance to victims and to raise the consciousness of the judiciary police; would cooperate with the Department of Public Prosecution in providing psychological treatment for victims; and would develop preventive programmes.

120. Moreover, during the regular session of the Chamber of Deputies starting in September 1996, a broad and pluralistic group of institutions, as well as individual citizens, both men and women, after extensive work of consultation, analysis and study of comparative law, submitted a proposal for modifications to criminal and civil law and to criminal procedure dealing with domestic violence.

121. Lastly, it should be pointed out that within the Republic a process of emulation has also been initiated by federal entities which are endeavouring to promote initiatives in legislative circles similar to those of the Federal District. For example, the Forty-sixth Legislature of Morelos is currently analysing the draft Domestic Violence Prevention and Assistance Act for the State of Morelos.

122. Prostitution is not regulated in Mexico, although the Criminal and Civil Codes establish the illegality of the sale of sexual services by third parties, especially in the case of children (Criminal Code) and women (Civil Code).

123. An analysis is currently being made as to whether prostitution could be regulated, and in what manner, so as not to violate the human rights of those involved, as well as of its links to other social problems such as HIV/AIDS infection, the sexual exploitation of minors, and procuring.

124. In this connection, on 14 January 1997 the Human Rights Commission of the Federal District submitted a proposal for the regulation of prostitution and for measures to ensure that commercial establishments dedicated to any of the so-called illegal transactions operate strictly in accordance with the applicable legal regulations.

125. On 7 November 1996, the Federal Organized Crime Act was published in the Diario Oficial. The purpose of the Act is "to establish rules for the investigation, prosecution, trial, punishment and enforcement of penalties in respect of offences committed by any member of organized crime", including trafficking in minors and those without identification papers.

126. One of the major advances during the period covered by this report has been in the matter of sexual harassment.

127. Sexual harassment is a practice from which women suffer repeatedly in labour relations or in other areas. However, as with other forms of violence, there is little empirical evidence which would make it possible to measure the real dimensions of this problem.

128. In the official statistical reports some acts of sexual harassment are recorded. In view of the small number of complaints of this type of offence

- often attributable to factors such as the criminal procedure which must track down the victims to confirm their complaints, the uncertain guarantee of the outcome and the possibility that the aggressor would be remanded and brought before the competent authority, as well as the very nature of the penalty, almost always lenient, given to the perpetrator of sexual harassment - the aforementioned draft Act was submitted in 1990 for the purpose of including the offence of sexual harassment in the Criminal Code of the Federal District, establishing penalties of 30 days' minimum wages or eight months' imprisonment for any landlord, employer or supervisor who, making use of his authority, tries to obtain sexual favours from subordinate female workers.

129. In the 1991 amendment, a broader text was adopted referring not only to the conduct of a landlord, employer or supervisor, but also to the conduct of any person in a position of authority over women. Thus, sexual harassment was classified as an offence.

130. As was indicated in the initial report of Mexico (CEDAW/C/5/Add.2) and reiterated in the first periodic report (CEDAW/C/13/Add.10), the right of women to participate in "the political and public life of the country" on equal terms with men is guaranteed in chapter I of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, which embodies the individual freedoms of all inhabitants of Mexico without distinction.

131. The demand for greater participation by women in political activities has been intensified not only through the legal principles described above but also as a consequence of the nation's development, the accelerated process of urbanization, the modernization of the economy and the radical changes in the cultural and educational life of Mexico.

132. However, even though women constitute the majority of the Mexican population and their right to vote and be elected has been recognized for 40 years, they do not enjoy full equality in terms of their participation in politics or in the country's political affairs.

133. In Mexico, according to the poll-books for the latest federal election (August 1994), women constitute 51.6 per cent of the electoral roll and 51.8 per cent of the nominal list of voters; in other words, they constitute more than one half of the population in a position to decide to whom the responsibility for taking decisions concerning the conduct and future of the country should be delegated.

However, the participation of women in decision-making posts in executive, judicial and legislative circles, in businesses and in political parties and in trade unions is still limited.

134. The Executive Coordinating Office of PRONAM is compiling the administrative statistics available in government agencies in order to obtain a picture of the situation of women in this sector. To this end, it has requested 20 offices and 14 entities of the federal public administration to provide information concerning the appointment of women to posts at the middle and senior levels of management.

135. The data received in January 1997 show that of the 40,300 officials serving in the posts indicated, 34 per cent are women. The highly technical entities such as Petróleos Mexicanos (Mexican Petroleum) and the Federal Electricity Commission have the smallest number of women in such posts (6.2 and 3.8 per cent respectively); the Ministry of National Defence has only 5.4 per cent. In contrast, the bodies with the highest number of women are the National Human Rights Commission (36 per cent), the Ministry of Public Education (31 per cent), the Office of the President of the Republic (27 per cent) and the Ministry of Health (27 per cent).

136. In order to obtain similar information concerning the participation of women in state and municipal administrations, information which is relevant if one is to have a broader vision in the national context, the State Governments have been invited to carry out a similar exercise.

137. With regard to the higher levels of management of the public administration, it should be pointed out that from 1953 to date only six women have been Ministers of State (compared with more than 180 men), two of them currently occupying such posts.

138. In the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, there are 12 women ambassadors, eight of them career ambassadors, one of whom is currently on leave. In the diplomatic and consular branch of the Mexican foreign service there are 186 women and 603 men. In the administrative branch of the Mexican foreign service there are 340 women and 175 men. In the Ministry of National Defence there is one woman general.

139. In the legislative branch, in the current Fifty-sixth Legislature, which corresponds to the period 1994-1997, out of a total of 628 seats occupied by deputies (500) and senators (128), 13.3 per cent are held by women. The number of female legislators has increased significantly compared with the previous Legislature, partly as a result of an increase in the total number of seats in the two chambers. Thus, while there were 3 female senators and 42 female deputies in the Fifty-fifth Legislature, the current Legislature has 17 female senators and 69 female deputies. All the Congresses of the 31 federal entities in the country have women representatives. In the Assembly of the Federal District, 15 of the 66 representatives are women, which constitutes 22.7 per cent female participation.

140. Women continue to participate actively in the judicial branch of the Federation, whose functions are administered by the Supreme Court of Justice, the appellate circuit courts, the single-magistrate courts, and the higher and lower circuit courts.

141. The participation of women from 1980 to 1994 was higher than in other areas of the public sector: women comprised 20 per cent of the supreme court judges, 12 per cent of the circuit court judges and 23 per cent of the district magistrates. Of the current 11 Supreme Court judges, one is a women. Altogether women occupy approximately 19 per cent of the higher level posts.

142. Only three women have been governor of a federal entity in Mexico. The participation of women as mayor or president of a municipality is very limited, but has shown a slight increase: while in 1991, 2 per cent of the posts of president of a municipality were occupied by women, four years later the proportion had risen to 4.5 per cent of the total municipalities in the country. The States with a greater proportion of female presidents of a municipality in 1995 were: Baja California (25 per cent), Colima (20 per cent) and San Luis Potosí (14.3 per cent). In 1996 there were 83 female presidents of municipalities - a figure which represents 3.7 per cent of the presidents of municipalities - and 1,908 female councillors. In the Federal District, of the 16 political delegations, four were led by women.

143. The Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) is the political organization which shows the greatest participation of women in the Senate in the Fifty-sixth Legislature (1994-2000), not only in terms of their influence, but also because there is less inequality in the ratio of men and women since there is one female legislator to every six male legislators. In the case of the Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN), the ratio is one female legislator to every 12 male legislators.

144. As for the Chamber of Deputies, in the Fifty-sixth Legislature the Partido de la Revolución Democrática (PRD) has the greatest percentage of women deputies, with 24.3 per cent, and it is the party in which the ratio of male to female deputies is lowest; there is one female deputy to every three male deputies, compared with PRI, which has one female legislator to every six male legislators, and PAN, where the ratio is 1 to 11.

145. In the Assembly of Representatives of the Federal District, it is noted that PAN has the greatest degree of female participation (28.6 per cent), compared with PRI (23.7 per cent) and PRD (20.0 per cent).

146. In the near future it is to be hoped that there will be an increase in the number of women in popularly elected posts, as mentioned in the section relating to the implementation of article 4 of the Convention.

147. In the case of trade union and social groups, the participation of women in the leadership is minimal, despite the fact that there are a considerable number of women members of such groups - it is estimated that approximately 2.5 million women workers belong to some trade union organization. In some branches of activity, such as the Education Workers' Trade Union, the Textile and Clothing Industry Workers' Trade Union, the Telephone Workers' Trade Union and the Banking Workers' Trade Union, the participation of women is significant.

148. It is estimated that the participation of women in higher level management posts (presidents, directors-general and general managers) of public or private institutions or enterprises is 12.1 per cent. At the level of director, manager and administrator in this sector, the participation of women is 19.8 per cent.

149. There are at present many diverse organizations in Mexico which, out of concern for the status and situation of Mexican women, are formulating, planning and carrying out measures aimed at contributing to the improvement of the conditions of the female population of Mexico and, without any doubt, their experiences are making an invaluable contribution towards furthering knowledge about women in Mexico and the possible solutions for those in a disadvantageous situation.

150. The number of active organizations, their nature, the specific objectives which they pursue, the subjects with which they deal and the approach they take, as well as the population which they target, the territory in which they operate and the manner in which sex-gender specificity is incorporated into the activities which they carry out are, to date, little known in the case of the majority of new non-governmental organizations or social groups, which are composed mainly of young people.

151. One example of the foregoing was the National Assembly of Women for Transition to Democracy. This Assembly was held on 5 October 1996 and was convened by various women's organizations with different origins and ideological and party affiliations which called for increased political action by women. The purpose of the meeting was to seek the active participation of women in building a proposed pluralistic and inclusive nation, with social justice and equity, taking into consideration the world trend towards globalization.

152. However, the participation of women in decision-making posts in the executive, judicial and legislative branches, in the political parties, in the private sector and in the organized areas of the community continues to be limited.

153. With regard to the role of women in the international sphere, it can be said that, in general terms, their participation in the implementation of foreign policy is continuing with the same momentum as in 1989 and that the involvement of professional (mostly young) women has increased, according to the figures available.

154. Indeed, between January 1988 and December 1996, six competitive public examinations for entry into the diplomatic and consular branch of the Mexican foreign service were held and each time a greater number of women was successful. In the most recent examination, held in 1994, 13 of the 28 candidates who passed the three stages of the examination were women (46.42 per cent).

155. In 1994, an examination was also held to standardize the administrative branch, admission to which had previously been by appointment.

156. At the different levels of posts in the Mexican foreign service, the participation of women fluctuated considerably between 1987 and 1992, although, in simple percentage terms, it could be regarded as having decreased:

158. With the new Mexican Foreign Service Act and the regulations pertaining thereto, published on 4 January 1994 and 11 October 1994 respectively, the Mexican foreign service was restructured to combine the previous diplomatic and consular branches.

159. Consequently, in January 1997 the Mexican foreign service was made up as follows:

160. In terms of net variations between women and men compared with 1987 and 1992, according to the criterion of the combined diplomatic and consular services, the following changes are noted:

161. From the foregoing it will be seen that, taking 1987 as the base year, by 1997 the diplomatic-consular branch showed an increase in staff of 38.90 per cent, of which women accounted for 38.00 per cent and men 62 per cent, while the administrative branch showed a decrease in staff of 20.40 per cent, of which women accounted for 46.21 per cent and men 53.79 per cent.

162. During this period, in real terms, the number of members of the Mexican foreign service increased by 7.32 per cent. Women accounted for 25.84 per cent of this increase and men for 74.16 per cent.

163. An analysis covering the period 1987-1997, under the criterion of the combined diplomatic and consular branches, reveals the following percentages for the participation of women and men in the Mexican foreign service:

164. It will be noted from these data that, from 1987 to date, the participation of women in the Mexican foreign service has been concentrated mainly in the administrative branch. It is evident, however, that, while in 1987 20.28 per cent of the total number of women were in the diplomatic and consular branches and 79.72 per cent in the administrative branch, at the present time, 35.36 per cent of the women in the Mexican foreign service are in the diplomatic-consular branch and 64.64 per cent in the administrative branch.

165. In 1987, there were seven women with the rank of ambassador, but none with the rank of consul general. In July 1992, there were only five women ambassadors and two women consuls general; in other words, the same number of women occupied the highest level posts in the Mexican foreign service, although the distribution varied between the two substantive branches. At present, there are eight women ambassadors and one woman consul general; this signifies an increase in the number of women occupying the highest level posts under the combined diplomatic-consular branch.

166. In view of the importance for the Mexican State that its representation abroad should be at the highest possible professional level, a mandatory programme at the master's degree level has been established for candidates who enter for the third stage of examinations for admission to the Mexican foreign service. This programme is given at the Matías Romero Institute of Diplomatic Studies of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

167. In order to implement the National Programme for women, which is mandatory for all entities of the federal executive branch, the Mexican Foreign Ministry is preparing a Programme of Action which will lead to a greater degree of participation by women in the Mexican foreign service and will prepare them more effectively for that service.

168. The equality of men and women before the law allows both to exercise the same rights and to assume the same obligations. The acquisition or retention of nationality is therefore governed by the same normative principles.

169. As was stated in the initial report submitted by Mexico, article 30 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States sets out the manner in which Mexican nationality may be acquired, either by birth or by naturalization.

170. This statute establishes that the mother has the same right as the father to confer her nationality on her children, irrespective of whether she acquired it by birth or by naturalization:

"I. Those born in the territory of the Republic, irrespective of the nationality of their parents.

"II. Those born abroad of Mexican parents; of a Mexican father or a Mexican mother.

"III. Those born on board Mexican vessels or aircraft, whether military or commercial.

"I. Aliens who obtain naturalization papers from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

"II. An alien woman or man who enters into marriage with a Mexican man or woman and has or establishes his or her domicile within the national territory."

171. Similarly, in keeping with the constitutional precept, the Nationality Act, which was published in the Diario Oficial of the Federation on 21 June 1993, contains no discriminatory provision. Articles 6, 7 and 16 of the Act reproduce the provisions of article 30 of the Constitution.

172. Mexican legislation does not establish in any act or statute that marriage with a non-national can be grounds for the loss of Mexican nationality. Article 37 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, which establishes the rules governing the loss of nationality, states:

"II. Through acceptance or use of titles of nobility which imply submission to a foreign State.

"III. In the case of a Mexican national by naturalization, through uninterrupted residence in the country of origin for five consecutive years.

"IV. In the case of a Mexican national by naturalization, through entry into any public agency as an alien or through acquisition and use of a foreign passport."

173. Article 26 of the Nationality Act establishes that neither a woman nor a man "who marries an alien man or women ... shall lose his or her nationality because of the marriage" and that "Except in the event of the marriage being annulled, an alien who acquires Mexican nationality {by naturalization on account of the marriage} ... shall retain that nationality even after the marriage has been dissolved. Article 7, section II, states that "An alien woman or man who enters into marriage with a Mexican man or woman and has or establishes his or her conjugal domicile within the national territory" shall be Mexican by naturalization. The Mexican State thus continues to offer egalitarian protection to those Mexican women who, on marrying aliens, are treated on an unequal basis in the other country.

174. It should be pointed out, however, that the acquisition of nationality by an alien spouse is not automatic. The alien spouse must establish his or her domicile within the national territory and must comply with the other requirements to that end indicated by law for the acquisition of Mexican nationality by naturalization.

175. With these rules, the equality of women with men with regard to the right to nationality is guaranteed. However, it should be borne in mind that cultural factors may impede the exercise of these rights, not only in the case of women, but also in that of men. At times, through unfamiliarity with the Act or through ignorance, the population does not exercise its rights.

176. In Mexico, a country which was born to independence after several centuries of colonial domination, education has from the very beginning been the key to national integration and the basis for improving the country's standards of living.

177. Consequently, in Mexico there are no statutory or administrative impediments to the admission of the female population to the education system. Males and females both have access to the same curricula and to the same examinations; the teaching staff is the same for both sexes, and there is no difference in the quality of education for boys and girls.

178. The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States states, in article 3, as amended on 4 March 1993:

"Any individual has a right to receive an education. The Federal State, the states and the municipalities shall provide pre-school, primary and secondary education. Primary and secondary education shall be compulsory.

"II. The criterion governing this education shall be based on the results of scientific progress and shall combat ignorance and its effects, servitude, fanaticism and prejudice.

"(c) It shall contribute to improved human coexistence, both through the elements which it helps to strengthen in the student, combined with an appreciation of the dignity of the person and the integrity of the family and the conviction of the general interests of the community, and through the care which it takes to support the ideals of fraternity and equality of rights of all human beings, avoiding any privileges on the grounds of race, religion, membership of a group, or sex, or individual privileges."

179. Against that background, the basic aim is to improve children's education and provide a better preparation for primary-school pupils, who at the beginning of the next millennium will have to enter the labour market and face national and international conditions which are far more complex.

180. With a view to meeting the challenges raised by the growing demand for the education of men and women at all levels, the Government of Mexico has established various strategies. Of these, mention should be made of the deepening of the process of decentralization of education through the National Agreement for the Modernization of Basic Education of 18 May 1992, which has made it possible to transfer federal control of the national basic education system to the states.

181. Given that the first programme line of the National Programme for Women is education, it has been proposed that the access of women to education and their retention in the system at all levels and in all forms should be guaranteed with a view to promoting their full participation in society, developing their capacities and abilities and strengthening their independence, autonomy, self-esteem and decision-making capacity.

182. In all cases, and principally in basic education, an attempt is being made to broaden the scope of the educational service, making it more diversified and flexible and adapting it to the needs of the consumers, especially those, such as women, who lag behind in education; although the trend has been reversed, there are stilll challenges to be met.

183. The preoccupation of the education sector to comply with the principles governing its work - equity, quality and relevance - is reflected in measures in favour of women carried out at all educational levels. With this objective, the starting point has been the most pressing needs of women, such as how they can learn to read and write, using both non-formal education and the resources of technology and telecommunications.

184. According to the 1995 General Population and Housing Census, the illiterate population of Mexico (15 years of age and over) constituted 11.88 per cent of the total population, 4.57 per cent of the men and 7.31 per cent of the women; in other words, 3,829,019 women 15 years of age or over, or 12.66 per cent of the female population of the country in that age group, could neither read nor write.

185. The highest percentages of illiteracy, in relation to the population of each State selected, are to be found in Chiapas (26.02 per cent), Guerrero (23.93 per cent) and Oaxaca (23.07 per cent). At the other extreme are the Federal District (2.97 per cent), Nuevo León (3.80 per cent) and Baja California (3.96 per cent).

186. Approximately 38 per cent of the women aged 60 or over can neither read nor write, compared with 26.19 per cent of the men. In fact, with regard to the level of education, only one in four older women has completed primary school or above. In contrast, illiteracy has been practically wiped out among young men and women; currently only 4.04 per cent of the population between 15 and 24 years of age is illiterate.

187. As for the indigenous population over 15 years of age (4,133,863), approximately one half are women, of whom 48.86 per cent can neither read nor write, a level which is about 20 per cent higher than that for men. Only two out of three indigenous girls between 6 and 14 years of age attend school, an attendance rate which is lower than that for boys.

188. Since 1993, basic education in Mexico comprises a total of 10 years, one year of pre-school education, six years of primary education and three years of secondary education.

189. In Mexico, enrolment in primary education is today almost universal among minors and no significant differences can be noted between boys and girls. According to the 1995 General Population and Housing Census, the population between 6 and 14 years of age attending school corresponds to 92.15 per cent of that age group. Broken down by sex, the percentages are 92.89 for males and 91.40 for females. In 1992, however, it was noted that more girls between 11 and 14 years of age attended school.

190. With regard to secondary education, during the period 1995-1996, there were 194,162 more students than in the previous school year, with a total registration of 4.7 million. This signified an entry rate of 87 per cent for females, which was a result of improved attendance in the primary cycle and the incorporation of secondary education into the compulsory education cycle and the efforts to increase coverage through telesecondary education.

191. School attendance between 6 and 14 years of age increases in localities with more than 15,000 inhabitants (95.74 per cent) and decreases in localities with fewer than 15,000 inhabitants (87.86 per cent).

192. Over 14 years of age, school attendance tends to decrease, a more marked reduction being noted among females than among males. Of the population between 15 and 24 years of age, only 28 per cent of the females and 31 per cent of the males attended school in 1992.

193. Of those between 15 and 19 years of age, 64 per cent had secondary or higher education, a percentage which is much higher than that noted in the past. Similar levels of education are found among young people between 20 and 24 years of age.

194. The evolution of school enrolment at the intermediate and higher intermediate levels shows that the gap between the sexes has been reduced in the past decade: 89 females to every 100 males at the beginning of the 1980s, 94 to every 100 in the early 1990s. It has been argued, however, that the increase in the proportion of females to males enrolled in school might reflect a higher school drop-out rate among males rather than a higher rate of attendance among females.

195. The participation of women in higher education has also shown a steady increase in recent years. In the 1994-1995 academic year, 82 women were registered to every 100 men. This ratio declines to 64 women to every 100 men at the post-graduate levels.

196. At present, programmes are being prepared to allow for an increase in the level of education at all levels with a view to emphasizing measures which will promote the access to education of young people with fewer resources, and their competence on the completion of their studies, so that they will not become school drop-outs.

197. The education policy of the Government of Mexico seeks to translate into reality the mandate of article 3 of the Constitution, which guarantees the access of men and women to free, secular, democratic and nationalist basic education, seeking to achieve an ever higher level of competence on the completion of studies at all levels. It must be noted, however, that educational measures are not guided by gender criteria. In this connection, one of the priority actions set out in the National Programme for Women is to carry out a revision of the materials, textbooks and educational methods to incorporate that aspect.

198. The General Education Act sets out the measures to be taken to achieve equity in education. These measures include: attention to schools with a higher drop-out rate on account of marginalization and the marginalization of the teachers working in them; the promotion of child development centres, social integration centres, boarding schools and hostels which favour apprenticeships and on-the-job training; and support for those who drop out of basic education to encourage them to complete it.

199. From an analysis of the data by states and regions in Mexico it is evident that there is a need to pay special attention to young and adolescent girls and women, given the socio-economic inequality in the country. This has led to the establishment of compensatory programmes aimed at overcoming the educational backwardness in rural and indigenous communities which are in a state of extreme poverty or are isolated and without access to normal educational services. Out of a sense of justice and social equity, attention is being paid to those regions which are the most backward, especially with regard to the female population, given the impact of women's influence on the well-being of the family.

200. The National Institute of Adult Education (INEA), an institution which directs its activities at a population composed of a majority of women,

is working on a proposed new basic adult education curriculum. It is endeavouring to comply with the principle of relevance in education and to make reading, writing and mathematics become a useful tool for the solution of practical problems faced by adults. A survey is also being carried out which should lead to the classification of the educationally backward adult population by identifying the various groups which it comprises, with a view to determining and evaluating the degree of knowledge of those covered. So far, 8,488 people, half of them women, have been polled in five federal entities, in order to estimate their degree of knowledge, their occupations and their desire for apprenticeships, in three types of area: scattered rural, rural and urban.

201. At the same time, with a view to promoting literacy and overcoming the educational backwardness among females over 15 years of age who have not completed primary education, INEA is also offering non-formal employment training services. In this option, the educational models used meet the needs of adults and are not adapted to formal curricular or accreditation expectations. In the past academic year, 1,347,200 adults have been trained under this method.

202. With regard to indigenous education, over a period of 10 years, there has been a significant increase in the expansion of services. The number of centres for the teaching of initial education more than quintupled and the beneficiary population more than tripled; moreover, the number of children in pre-school education increased by 46.2 per cent and the number in primary education by 40 per cent. The training of teachers has been essential to this progress; in 1995 alone, 3,104 new teachers were trained, 1,660 of whom became primary school teachers while the rest became community educators. To support this programme, 32 videos were produced in 20 different languages.

203. The participation of women in the area of initial indigenous education has been very important. In the past school year, 34,035 children have been involved, with the participation of 1,180 women promoters.

204. For the school year 1995-1996, through the compensatory programmes carried out by INEA, measures were planned, with the help of 18,200 literacy tutors and 473 promoters, to reach 850,000 adults in the 12 states with the greatest illiteracy problems and in those in which there is a higher percentage of women.

205. In order to overcome educational backwardness through compensatory policies, attempts are being made to implement integral strategies which will bring the basic services closer to the population and at the same time promote social participation to increase productivity and the incomes of those involved. The aim is to enhance the social balance and promote equitable development, which would dilute differences in a context of state responsibility and the responsibility of society.

206. The National Educational Promotion Council (CONAFE), in its efforts to overcome one of the reasons why female minors have no access to, or do not remain in, school - a reason which is related to the refusal of parents to allow them to attend rural schools at the centre of catchment areas - has proposed the establishment of schools in the communities themselves which would make it possible to provide the necessary facilities for the education of girls.

207. Moreover, in response to the educational needs of the population living in extreme poverty in the Federal District, in 1982 the Department of Primary Education established the Primary School Attendance Service 9-14, which provides a flexible alternative allowing children and young people, especially females, who are over age for the regular primary course to complete primary education in three years.

208. The following are other compensatory programmes designed for the disadvantaged population, of which women form an important section in rural, marginal urban and indigenous areas:

209. Article 4 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States establishes the legal equality of men and women. Article 123 of the Constitution grants women the right to work and to receive an equal salary and the social protection of maternity. Thus, the only difference in the constitutional and legislative framework with regard to the possibility of incorporating women in productive activities lies in the reproductive function of women.

210. The Federal Labour Act, which establishes the rules for the implementation of article 123 of the Constitution, adheres to the principle of equality in stating, in article 3, that: "no distinctions may be established between workers on the grounds of race, sex, age, religious belief, political doctrine or social status". At the same time, it establishes equality of remuneration and of conditions of employment for both sexes (articles 5 and 86).

211. The same Act, in a separate section, proclaims the right of women to work and establishes the fundamental aspects for the protection of maternity. At the same time, it includes special provisions to regulate domestic employment and home-based work, activities in which women, in particular, are engaged.

212. On the other hand, there are other legal measures of a regulatory nature relating to employment the provisions of which are aimed at protecting the health and physical well-being of workers and which are applicable without any distinction on the grounds of sex, except in relation to pregnancy.

213. Of the international measures, Mexico subscribed to Conventions Nos. 45 (underground work) in 1938, 100 (equal remuneration) in 1952, and 111 (discrimination) in 1961.

214. In the area of social security, the legislation in force grants women workers rights relating to maternity, the provision of health services, day care centres, the payment of pensions, leave and other benefits. This constitutes a fundamental aspect in compliance with the guidelines included in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

215. Despite the fact that the regulations require that women should be given equal treatment in matters relating to employment, some cases have been detected in which women are hired only if they are not married or pregnant and for less good jobs than those given to men. As occurs in other countries in the world, in response to the labour requirements set out in legislation concerning women and their reproductive function, employers choose to make the hiring of women conditional on their not being pregnant or married. Employers are afraid that their time and energy will be distracted from their work in order to meet their commitments as mothers and wives. Whether or not this fear is well founded, it means that the situation is unfair to those who make up more than one half of the population and have more than enough ability and, most of the time, pressing needs which their families share.

216. It is important to draw attention to one unavoidable question: that the situation of women is characterized by the fact that a large number of them live in conditions of extreme poverty or marginalization. There is a very large number of women who are either formally or virtually heads of families for various reasons (they are widowed, unmarried, divorced, abandoned or separated). The entry of Mexican women into the labour market is thus more than a right; it is a necessity that is dealt with in a manner contrary to another fundamental right which, on the other hand, represents a requirement of social concern: care for the family.

217. Major differences and inequalities still exist for women in terms of the number and quality of opportunities available to them, especially in the field of employment, such as problems of occupational segregation and differences in the entry level and in the level of training opportunities, and these differences must be taken into account.

218. The principal difference or inequality with which women must contend is the domestic and child-care workload assigned to them by society as a responsibility that is specific and exclusive to their sex. As is the case in other countries, this situation has forced Mexican women to enter the labour market without having the social facilities that would enable them to escape this "double working day" and would provide them with sufficient assistance to prevent any disruption of the family unit or their children's upbringing.

219. The growing participation of the female labour force in the economically active population, although not yet on a full-time basis, has shown a rapid increase compared with that recorded in past decades. Various factors help to explain this phenomenon. In the 1970s, the participation of women was linked mainly to factors such as the growth of industry, the process of urbanization and the improvement of education and health which led to the increased incorporation of women without regard to age or civil status and in a variety of conditions of employment.

220. In the 1980s, the economic crisis, which had been noted since 1982, affected the entry levels and levels of well-being of the population and gave rise to a more rapid process of incorporation of women into the labour market. Moreover, the loss of dynamism in job creation and the transformations which the productive machinery underwent had a different effect on men and women. Recent studies have shown a loss of jobs incurred by men while women have gradually increased their participation in activities in which they had previously been insignificant.

221. The monetary contribution of Mexican women to the family income is now becoming increasingly essential to meet the basic needs of the household, owing to a drop in the purchasing power of wages resulting from the recession and the adjustment policies.

222. The above situation has meant that paid female employment constitutes a survival mechanism when families are faced with an urgent need to increase their income and women become a key actor in this strategy.

223. The rate of participation of women increased from 19.1 per cent in 1990 (according to census data) to 34.5 per cent in 1995 (according to figures compiled by the National Employment Survey (ENE)). On the other hand, during the same period the rate of participation of men increased at a more moderate rate, from 68.0 per cent to 78.2 per cent.

224. One further indicator which clearly shows the growing incorporation of female labour into the labour market is the rate of growth of the female economically active population (EAP). Between 1991 and 1995 the rate of growth was 3.3 per cent, 2.8 per cent in the case of men and 4.5 per cent in the case of women. As will be noted, the participation of women grew at a faster pace than that of men (annex 1).

225. By age group, the profile of incorporation changes. As in other countries, at the beginning of the 1990s the age group 35 to 39 years showed the highest level of participation, which means that the acquisition of family responsibilities is no longer, as in previous decades, an element which restricts the active participation of women. In fact, a higher rate of participation has been noted in the central age groups (20 and 49 years) with levels of approximately 40.0 per cent.

226. On the other hand, the 50 and over age group showed a decline in participation, although between 1991 and 1995 this age group recorded a slight increase for both men and women.

227. By civil status, although the information available shows the prevalence of unmarried women in significant numbers, married women showed more significant increases in participation. The 1991 National Employment Survey (ENE) shows that 36.5 per cent of the economically active female population was married; in 1995 the proportion had risen to 39.4 per cent. That could corroborate the thesis that in recent years a significant part of work outside the home is directly linked to the need to supplement the precarious family income. Moreover, the problem arises that women have a heavier workload when one considers the "double working day" involved with care of the family and the home as part of the role assigned to women by society.

228. Another factor to be considered together with demographic factors is the level of education. As the level rises, the rate of female participation increases. Thus, females aged 12 years or over without any education participate to a lesser degree than women with intermediate or higher education, more than half of whom are engaged in productive activities (annexes 2 A, B and C).

229. Between 1970 and 1990, significant changes occurred in the sectoral distribution of the national EAP. Particularly noticeable were the relative increase in tertiary sector activities, from 31.9 per cent in 1970 to 46.1 per cent in 1990, and the reduction in primary sector activities, from 39.3 per cent in 1970 to 22.6 per cent in 1990. There was also an increase in the secondary sector, from 23.0 per cent in 1970 to 27.9 per cent in 1990.

230. In recent years, considerable changes have occurred in the number of women participating in the labour market. The trend towards concentration in certain occupations has not, however, changed at the same speed.

231. Traditionally, the principal employer of female labour has been the services and commerce sector (annex 3), particularly in jobs such as clerical workers, saleswomen, domestic workers and teachers. In 1995, however, according to the breakdown by sex, women had a significant rate of participation as professional and technical personnel (28.1 per cent) and specialized personnel (44.6 per cent), although males were still predominant (71.9 and 55.4 per cent respectively). That has clearly not altered the fact that women are still employed in a limited number of activities (as domestic workers, secretaries, typists, teachers, cashiers and nurses) which respond to certain determining factors - cultural and educational - and to the characteristics of the sectors themselves. There are fewer women employed in the production processes than in the aforementioned occupations (annex 4).

232. Broken down by employment status, of the total employed female population in 1995, 54.3 per cent were in the wage-earning category, 22.3 per cent were self-employed and 18.2 per cent were unpaid. This differs considerably from the breakdown of the male population, for which the percentages were 49.3, 26.8 and 10.5 respectively. It will thus be seen that there are marked gender differences in employment.

233. It should be pointed out that, in the case of unpaid labour, according to figures compiled by the National Employment Survey, there has been an upward trend from 17.4 per cent in 1991 to 18.2 per cent in 1995. This is generally accounted for by family workers, where the woman plays an important role in carrying out tasks regarded more as family support than as work. Moreover, if a shop or productive establishment is in the home, women's activities are regarded as complementary to reproductive and domestic tasks.

234. Of the total employed population in 1995 (33.5 million), 65.6 per cent had no social benefits. In the case of men, the percentage was 67.6, whereas that for women was 61.5. This shows, in some way, the deterioration noted in employment conditions in the labour market as a result of the economic crisis (annexes 5 and 6).

235. It should be noted, however, that of the women in the formal sector of the economy, 56.8 per cent have social security and other benefits, while men have a tendency to be concentrated among those without benefits (44.0 per cent). This has meant that women have been able to enjoy benefits such as day-care centres, which provide very valuable assistance with regard to the care and development of children and improve their opportunities of employment.

236. An analysis of income levels shows a relatively deteriorating situation. In 1991 18.2 per cent of the total working population received less than the minimum wage, while in 1995 the figure was 19.1 per cent. The breakdown by sex showed considerable variations. While in 1991 17.1 per cent of men received less than the minimum wage, in 1995 the percentage was 16.9. In the case of women, the figure in that category was 20.9 per cent in 1991 and 23.6 per cent in 1995 (annex 7).

237. At the other extreme, however, in the category of those with incomes exceeding five times the minimum wage, the proportion of men rose from 6.8 per cent in 1991 to 8.2 per cent in 1995. In the case of women, there was an increase of 2.0 per cent, from 2.7 to 4.7 per cent.

238. From an analysis of income level and level of education, it is apparent that the higher the level of education the higher the income; however, women with schooling at the vocational education level have incomes of between three and a half and six times the minimum wage, whereas men have incomes ranging from over five to ten times the minimum wage.

239. With regard to the various forms of payment of employed women - according to the 1995 National Employment Survey breakdown - 52.8 per cent receive a fixed salary, 20.4 per cent receive profits, 18.1 per cent receive no income, 8.6 per cent have a variable income, and 0.2 per cent fall under other headings.

240. As for working hours, in 1995 40.3 per cent of employed women worked less than 35 hours a week, whereas only 20.1 per cent of men had such a schedule. The total population in this category was divided almost equally between the two sexes. The motives for such working hours were, however, different for the two.

241. While the majority of women stated that those were their normal working hours (61.0 per cent) and more than a quarter stated that there were other reasons (26.2 per cent), the men stated, as the main reasons, that those were their normal working hours (44.4 per cent) or that it was because of reasons related to the market (25.2 per cent). This tendency to prefer intermediate working hours is probably due to the need women have to combine work with carrying out their family responsibilities, whereas for the men it may be due to the fact that they are studying.

242. As for working hours of over 48 hours a week, it is noted that, while 30.3 per cent of men have such a schedule, only 17.2 per cent of women do. It is estimated that men predominate in this category of the population, comprising 78.9 per cent of those involved, while the remaining 21.1 per cent are women (annex 8).

243. It may be noted that, despite the progress made in incorporating female labour, women continue to be in a situation of inequality in view of the problems of occupational segregation and differentiation in incomes even when for work of equal difficulty requiring equal ability, as well as the prevailing so-called "double working day".

244. In the past 15 years, the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, has carried out a variety of measures to benefit certain groups such as rural women and women in marginal urban areas. Through these measures, institutional support has been provided for training, funding and technical support for the establishment of craft workshops and farming by rural women, as well as developed forms of self-employment and the integration of small and micro-enterprises.

245. In the employment sector, various studies have been carried out under the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and under the National Population Council (CONAPO), initially as part of the Programme of Community Development with the Participation of Women (PINMUDE) and later in connection with the National Population Programme 1990-1994.

246. At present, special attention is being paid to the need to train women under the Training Fellowships for Unemployed Workers Programme (PROBECAT). With the implementation of this Programme, there has been considerable progress in the number of women trained in recent years. According to the administrative records available, in the past twelve months there has been an increase of 15.6 per cent in the levels of participation of women in the programme in question. As for the programme to help the disabled unemployed, the participation of women increased from 16.5 per cent to 18.5 per cent during the same period.

247. Another of the activities carried out recently with very satisfactory results has been the Comprehensive Quality and Modernization Programme (CIMO), through which attention is paid to groups of women. One example is the support in training materials given to the Association of Mexican Businesswomen (ADEM), a private non-profit institution. Through participatory work, approximately 100 businesswomen from a little over 50 micro-enterprises were given training in 1995 and 1996.

248. At the institutional level, there have been many efforts of various kinds to contribute to the integration of women into productive activities and the benefits of development on a basis of equality. There is, however, still much to be done; economic and social developments have had such repercussions that many groups of women still find themselves excluded from those benefits. In view of this situation, the federal executive branch has included in the National Development Plan 1995-2000 an element which is of particular importance to the attainment of social development: the goal of strengthening the family and improving the status of women.

249. This objective is supported by the National Programme for Women, 1995-2000 (PRONAM), which aims to promote the formulation, organization, coordination and implementation of measures aimed at expanding and intensifying the participation of women in the development process on a basis of equality of opportunity with men.

250. In the matter of employment, PRONAM has established the following as its objectives: to facilitate the access of women to employment opportunities and to guarantee respect for their labour rights, by promoting the improvement of their working conditions, expanding their employment alternatives, and adapting their training to the needs of their development as working women.

251. In this context, the labour sector plays a supremely important role, particularly when it is recognized that, in order to correct the inequalities between men and women in educational and employment opportunities, it is essential to reinforce the special training and employment social security programmes in such a way that women will have access to jobs that are more productive and better paid and offer appropriate social security services.

252. Thus, PRONAM has established as its primary objective the execution of projects dealing with the following aspects:

- Research and the compilation of statistics relating to the employment of women

253. These projects reflect the continuing commitment of the labour sector to participation in inter-agency programmes and in the determination and application of policies designed to ensure the full participation of women in the country's economic and social development.

254. Each of these projects represents the continuation of the various efforts undertaken recently to strengthen the training programmes for both the unemployed and the actively employed labour force.

255. Moreover, the National Employment Service has been reinforced so that it can more effectively carry out the functions of mediating in the labour market, monitoring vacant posts and channelling requests for employment, with the result that it has been possible to place women in jobs.

256. A project to provide training to improve health has been organized jointly with institutions in the health sector. This project includes measures targeting mainly women between 16 and 65 years of age living in rural communities or poor urban districts, to provide them with basic health services.

257. In order to promote the study of the problems of women and to help to determine their participation in the labour market, gender-disaggregated statistics have been compiled through inter-agency cooperation with the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics (INEGI), on the basis of the National Employment Survey and its training module and the National Micro-enterprise Survey. Moreover, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, jointly with the College of the Northern Frontier (COLEF), has carried out a survey of migration on the northern frontier of Mexico. The results of both surveys have been disseminated extensively, both in academic circles and among agencies.

258. In addition, encouragement has been given to the carrying out of studies on the participation of women and to activities to monitor the exercise of labour rights without distinction as to sex and the application of the legislation and secondary legislation relating to safety and hygiene and social security have been promoted.

259. At the same time, specific continuing research activities have been undertaken. At the present time, three research projects are in progress on the following topics: the working conditions of women in rural areas; the labour rights of women; and an analysis of discrimination in matters relating to employment and earnings against women in various economic activities. Through the latter two projects, it is hoped that it will be possible to identify those areas where discriminatory situations persist and to evaluate the possibility of organizing measures to eradicate them.

260. At the same time, various measures are being evaluated for their impact on the expansion of opportunities for women in the labour market, as well as the current situation with regard to child-care services, coverage, the characteristics of the services, and alternatives suited to the needs of women workers.

261. The results obtained from the measures and studies which have been undertaken will help to improve the opportunities and conditions for women in the employment sector and will contribute to the full integration of women into productive life.

262. As indicated in the first periodic report of Mexico, the principle of the protection and care of the health of the population, both male and female, is embodied in article 4 of the Political Constitution of Mexico.

263. In that connection, it is important to point out that during periods of economic crisis the social spending policy had a marked effect on the quality and extent of public health services available to a large proportion of the country's low-income population.

264. In 1991, the proportion of the total population not covered by or not formally enrolled with one of the public health institutions was 15 per cent. At the present time, one of the most important challenges in the health sector is to ensure full coverage, principally of the marginalized and vulnerable groups numbering approximately 10 million inhabitants.

265. Through various forums, information has been disseminated on the very important role played by women in matters of health and on the importance of the health of women since women are fundamental to the process of educating the family and the community.

266. Between 1984 and 1988, in accordance with the Five-year Regional Plan of Action for Women in Health and Development introduced in several States members of the Pan-American Health Organization, the National Women and Health Programme (PROMUSA) was implemented. From 1989 to 1994 it was transformed into the Women, Health and Development Programme and since 1991 it has comprised four projects: "Migrant indigenous women", "Health of women prostitutes", "Women in prison and their health" and "Care for the victims of domestic violence". In 1995, the Ministry of Health once again instituted the Women, Health and Development Programme.

267. With a view specifically to meeting the needs of women with regard to their reproductive function, the Reproductive Health and Family Planning Programme 1995-2000

was designed. The Programme is based on a holistic concept which views health as the general state of physical, mental and social well-being in all aspects related to the reproductive system, its functions and its processes.

268. One of the particularly relevant components of the Programme is the incorporation of the gender perspective in all activities relating to the setting of standards, education and communication, the provision of services, and research and evaluation in matters concerning reproductive health with a view to ensuring equitable relations between the sexes and equality of opportunity in order to contribute to the emancipation and protection of the rights of women, particularly their sexual and reproductive rights.

269. The implementation of the Programme is linked to the process of the decentralization of the health services and it is supplemented by the new health care model for those who have not had access to health services, which guarantees a greater number of Mexicans access to timely information and quality services. In order to ensure coverage, a basic health services package has been designed consisting of a combination of essential health services to which every person is entitled, reproductive health being an essential component, together with preventive medicine and nutrition.

270. The objectives of the Reproductive Health and Family Planning Programme include:

- To promote the participation of women in employment and politics in order to raise their level of education and information, especially information relating to sexuality and reproduction.

- To reduce the number of unwanted, unplanned or high-risk births, thereby contributing to the prevention of abortion and a decline in maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality.

- To strengthen the family structure, fostering a responsible attitude among men and women towards sexuality and reproduction.

- To encourage the active participation of men in family planning and their co-responsibility in sexual and reproductive decisions.

- To prevent unwanted pregnancies, abortion and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, among the adolescent population and to promote the use of condoms.

- To provide information and high-quality services for pregnant adolescent girls, with an emphasis on counselling and post-coital birth control.

- To guarantee the right of women to appropriate information and quality services on perinatal health, including the encouragement of maternal nutrition and prenatal monitoring with an emphasis on high-risk pregnancies, the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS, the handling of complications of abortion as well as adequate care during confinement, access to emergency obstetrical services, care during the post-natal period, guidance and counselling in post-coital birth control with full respect for reproductive rights, care of the newborn child and full breast-feeding. The primary goal in the area of perinatal health in the comprehensive reproductive health context is to achieve risk-free maternity among the population.

- In matters relating to comprehensive reproductive health, to cooperate with the regulatory bodies in the prevention, early detection and reporting of cases of cancer of the cervix and uterus and breast cancer, with an emphasis on primary care in rural areas.

271. As a result of the advances in medical science and technology and the institutionalization of public health and social security services, life expectancy at birth has increased steadily in recent years, for both men and women. Since 1930, there has been a steady decline in mortality levels in Mexico and this has led to a significant increase in life expectancy at birth for both men and women, although to different degrees.

272. This indicator shows a significant gender difference since it is higher among women than among men. In 1930, men had a life expectancy of 35 years and women of 37 years; in 1990, the life expectancy had risen to 66.45 and 73.08 respectively, and in 1994 to 69.4 and 75.8 respectively. In other words, between 1930 and 1994 this indicator practically doubled.

273. The female morbidity rate has not been calculated at the national level, only the hospital morbidity rate in units of institutions which form part of the National Health System (SNS). Information on this subject is available only for the years 1991, when the rate was 260.49, and 1994, when it was 314.71.

274. In 1994, the 10 principal causes of female morbidity in hospitals of the National Health System were: normal births; conditions directly related to obstetrical causes; abortions; traumatism and poisoning; circulatory diseases; urinary diseases; malignant tumours; diabetes mellitus; diseases of the osteo-muscular system and of the connective tissue; and abdominal hernias.

275. The decline in mortality rates in Mexico varies. The risk of dying differs according to sex and age group. In 1990, there was a total of 422,803 deaths, of which 182,696 were of women, while in 1994, the figures were 419,074 and 181,136 respectively. In those years, the mortality rate among women was almost the same, corresponding to 43.21 per cent and 43.22 per cent respectively.

276. In 1990, the national mortality rate among men was 6 per thousand, while among women it was 4.4 per thousand. In 1994, this indicator declined to 5.3 and 3.8 per thousand respectively.

277. In 1994, the 10 principal causes of female mortality were, in order of importance: diabetes mellitus; acute heart attacks; pneumonia; certain conditions originating in the perinatal period; nutritional deficiencies; nephritis, nephritic syndrome and kidney diseases; cirrhosis and other chronic diseases of the liver; congenital anomalies; malignant tumours of the cervix; and undefined intestinal infections.

278. An analysis of the causes of female mortality by age group shows that malignant tumours, including breast tumours and tumours of the cervix and uterus, are the cause of almost half the deaths among women between 15 and 64 years of age. In 1994, barely one in four women of child-bearing age had had a PAP test (the figure was only 17 per cent in rural localities).

279. With regard to infant mortality during the period 1988-1994, there was a decline both in the number of deaths and in the rate itself. In 1988, there were 61,803 infant deaths with a rate of 23.6 per 1,000 live births registered, while in 1994, the figure had declined to 49,305, with a rate of 17.0; that represented a decrease of 20.2 per cent and 28 per cent respectively. Infant mortality among girls along fell from 19.9 per cent to 6.3 per cent during the same period.

280. In 1995, the infant mortality rate showed a slight increase to 17.46 per thousand live births registered, despite the fact that the number of deaths declined to 48,023. That year the principal causes of death were: certain conditions originating in the perinatal period, congenital anomalies, influenza and pneumonia, infectious intestinal diseases and nutritional deficiencies.

Order

CAUSE

Conditions originating in the perinatal period

Congenital anomalies

Influenza and pneumonia

Infectious intestinal diseases

Nutritional deficiencies

Accidents

Acute respiratory infections

Septicaemia

Chronic and unspecified bronchitis, emphysema and asthma

Heart diseases

Meningitis

Nephritis, nephritic syndrome and kidney diseases

Anaemia

Homicide and injuries inflicted intentionally by another person

Intestinal obstruction other than hernias

Cerebro-vascular diseases

Malignant tumours

Abdominal hernias

Pneumoconiosis and other pulmonary diseases caused by external agents

Epilepsy

Cardiac arrhythmia

Inadequately defined signs, symptoms and conditions of diseases

All other causes

TOTAL

CIE KEY

LIST 45

321,322

E47-E53

310-312,320

038

323

25-28

220

350

200

E55

344

08-14

343

326

225

281

046

01-E56

DEATHS

20503

7383

5975

3500

1463

1265

980

710

603

361

270

248

217

140

111

108

229

1202

2488

48023

RATE

7.454

2.684

2.172

1.273

0.532

0.460

0.356

0.258

0.219

0.131

0.098

0.090

0.079

0.051

0.040

0.039

0.029

0.024

0.023

0.21

0.83

0.437

0.905

17.46

281. The decline in maternal mortality has played an important role in increasing life expectancy among women. In the past two decades, a significant decline in maternal mortality can be observed, although in 1994 and 1995 both the number and the rate increased, probably as a result of better registration. Despite this decline, mortality associated with the perinatal stage is still high, although the great majority of its causes could be foreseen with good antenatal care.

282. In 1995, 1,454 maternal deaths were recorded, which represented a rate of 5.3 per 10,000 live births registered. The principal causes of maternal mortality that year were: toxaemia during pregnancy, haemorrhages during pregnancy or confinement and puerperal complications. There is no register of illegally induced abortions.

283. The decline in the risk of death during pregnancy, confinement or the post-natal period is the result of measures taken by the public health institutions in the field of perinatal care and family planning; an intensive public information, consciousness-raising and training campaign on the problem has been promoted in all health institutions under the direction of the National Committee for Risk-free Maternity and with the collaboration of governmental and non-governmental agencies.

284. The official Mexican standards on maternal and child health and family planning were recently revised and updated and activities have also been undertaken to promote health care for women, for example the use of the "Expectant mother's card" which promotes and facilitates greater involvement by the woman herself, and the creation of antenatal care clinics in which maternal and child health nurses participate.

285. Training has also been provided for midwives operating in scattered rural localities in order to ensure better links between community health agents and institutional services.

286. There is currently a National Committee for the Study of Maternal and Perinatal Mortality, as well as equivalent committees in each federal entity, which provide epidemiological and operative care.

287. Antenatal care is one of the central concerns of the reproductive health services, since the risk factors which endanger the health of the mother and child can be identified and controlled during that period.

288. Between 1987 and 1994, the proportion of women receiving antenatal medical care during pregnancy rose from 63.3 to 85.3 per cent.

289. The results of various surveys carried out in Mexico show that antenatal care coverage by a health agent has increased significantly in recent years. According to the National Family Planning Survey (ENPF) carried out by the National Population Council (CONAPO) in 1995, medical personnel participated in the care of 86.1 per cent of the total number of pregnancies occurring during the period 1993-1995, a percentage which has increased by more than half in the past 20 years. However, 6.7 per cent of the total number of women still receive no antenatal care, although this indicator has declined significantly.

290. The Reproductive Health and Family Planning Programme 1995-2000 emphasizes that care during childbirth must be provided in hygienic conditions and by trained personnel. In that connection, the results of ENPF indicate that 68.5 per cent of births occurring during the period 1993-1995 were attended in an institution in the public sector, 20 per cent in a unit in the private sector and 11.5 per cent at the home of the mother or the midwife. Although the percentage of attended births occurred in relatively unfavourable conditions has declined, it is essential to intensify activities to train community personnel and traditional midwives in hygienic delivery and in referring women with high-risk pregnancies. (Tables).

291. According to the Bulletin of Statistical Information of the National Health System, the average number of days women giving birth remained in health centres in 1991 was 1.03. In 1994, it was 1.2.

292. Currently, women attended for a natural birth stay in health centres for an average of two days. This can vary in cases where there has been a Caeserean section, which requires increased care; the length of time in hospital is then an average of four to five days, and this has not changed.

293. Women's exposure to health risks associated with pregnancy has been reduced substantially in Mexico as fertility has declined. The overall fertility rate in 1970 was 6.6 children per women and declined to 2.8 children by the end of 1995, according to ENPF. It is important to point out that, if the rate of growth observed in 1970 had been maintained, the total population of the country would now be over 106 million inhabitants instead of a little over 91 million as indicated in the 1995 Population and Housing Census.

294. The decline in the fertility rate, however, varies markedly depending on the federal entity. In 1995, States such as Chiapas, Puebla, Oaxaca and Zacatecas showed a fertility rate of 3.30 live children per woman, in other words more than one child more than in the federal entities of the Federal District, Nuevo León and Baja California, which had fewer than 2.30 children per woman.

FEDERAL ENTITY

AVERAGE

1987-1991

1995

Aguascalientes

Baja California

Baja California Sur

Campeche

Coahuila

Colima

Chiapas

Chihuahua

Federal District

Durango

Guanajuato

Guerrero

Hidalgo

Jalisco

México

Michoacán

Morelos

Nayarit

Nuevo León

Oaxaca

Puebla

Querétaro

Quintana Roo

San Luis Potosí

Sinaloa

Sonora

Tabasco

Tamaulipas

Tlaxcala

Veracruz

Yucatán

Zacatecas

3.66

3.10

2.91

3.76

3.11

3.01

4.60

3.19

2.15

4.05

3.89

4.47

3.48

3.88

3.41

4.23

3.03

3.68

2.54

4.56

4.33

4.14

3.70

4.08

3.17

2.89

3.44

2.80

3.89

3.23

3.77

4.30

2.92

2.28

2.45

2.91

2.56

2.59

3.68

2.55

2.19

3.07

3.03

3.16

2.94

3.11

2.73

3.06

2.57

2.91

2.24

3.42

3.44

3.23

2.65

3.29

2.60

2.46

2.84

2.41

3.06

2.67

2.95

3.38

National

3.46

2.80

295. The decline in fertility is closely linked to the contraceptive methods coverage of women of child-bearing age in a relationship, which has increased significantly - more than doubled - in Mexico in the past 20 years, mainly as a result of the increased availability of services and the training of health personnel through the Family Planning Programme. Thus, while in 1976 30.2 per cent of women of child-bearing age who were married or in a relationship practised birth control, the percentage rose to 63.1 in 1976 and to 66.5 in 1995.

296. There is still, however, a high unmet demand for contraceptive methods, especially among women belonging to rural and marginal urban groups.

297. In 1987, 61.5 per cent of women of child-bearing age living in urban areas used a contraceptive method, a percentage which increased to 71.3 in 1995. On the other hand, in rural areas, usage was 32.5 per cent in 1987 and rose to 52.7 per cent in 1995.

298. The percentage of those using contraceptives has increased in all age groups. Among women 25 to 39 years of age, coverage is higher than that observed at the national level (66.5 per cent), above all in the 35 to 39-year age group in which the indicator was as high as approximately 80 per cent.

Among adolescents in a relationship, however, only 36.1 per cent practised birth control.

299. In Mexico, the contraceptive method most used by the female population is that of birth-control pills, followed by condoms, contraceptive suppositories and foams, and the rhythm method or abstention. Intrauterine devices, contraceptive injections, tubal ligation and salpingectomy are also used. None of the methods can be applied without the consent of the woman.

300. Rather than regulating those methods, the Act deals with them in the chapter on family planning of the Regulations relating to the General Population Act, article 14 of which states:

"For the purposes of these Regulations, family planning, within the meaning of article 4 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, is the exercise of the right of every person to decide freely, responsibly and in an informed manner on the number and spacing of his or her children and to obtain information and appropriate services."

301. One cause of concern is adolescent pregnancy, which results in unwanted children born to immature mothers who are unaware of the responsibilities of motherhood, abortions performed on adolescents who are ignorant of the physical and psychological consequences involved, malnourished and low-weight babies whose life expectancy is consequently minimal and - if they survive - underdeveloped children of limited human capacity.

302. The reasons why adolescent girls become exposed to the risk of pregnancy stem from a variety of factors such as promiscuity, overcrowding, loss of parental authority, abandonment, inexperience in gauging the risk, peer pressure and imitation of the behavioural patterns of "modern" society, which frequently includes other harmful conduct such as alcohol and drug abuse. Further factors are inadequate sex education and information, as well as other aspects that vary according to the social environment in which the young people develop.

303. The problem is exacerbated in the case of teenage girls who come from poor social and economic backgrounds, since such girls are caught in a vicious circle of poverty and cultural deprivation, which increases their personal insecurity and diminishes their prospects for social and economic betterment.

304. The problem of adolescent or early pregnancy is harming the populations not only of developing countries but also of the most developed countries. Although the view exists that the early commencement of sexual activity is directly linked to the cultural and economic environment, the increase in teenage pregnancies in many countries justifies the need for the problem to be discussed and studied further, with emphasis on the influence exerted by advances made in the mass media.

305. With regard to the biophysiological risks, adolescent pregnancies appear to increase the likelihood of complications, including toxaemia, anaemia, haemorrhaging, cephalo-pelvic disproportion, premature births and protracted labour.

306. As regards the psychological aspects, adolescent pregnancies are a cause of stress, since teenage mothers are more vulnerable because of their immaturity; they tend to suffer loneliness and to feel trapped as they face their future; they lose their self-esteem and are overwhelmed by the uncertainty of being able to cope with motherhood. It has also been observed that the children of teenage mothers figure among the population sector that runs a high risk of physical abuse, neglect, malnutrition and retarded development; such children subsequently develop school-related problems and ultimately turn to juvenile delinquency. In short, the outward manifestations of their rejection at birth can be seen.

307. Pregnancies among these age groups are in some cases intentional, the mother wishing to receive care and attention. However, surveys carried out have shown that approximately 70 per cent of premarital pregnancies among adolescents are not intended.

308. One important consequence of unwanted pregnancies is the incidence of induced abortions. In Mexico, abortion is not recognized as a method of family planning and its practice is regarded as endangering the woman's health.

309. Abortion is the fifth cause of maternal mortality in Mexico, although in recent years both the number of deaths and the mortality rate from abortions has declined. Whereas in 1987 146 deaths from abortions were registered, with a rate of 5.2 per 10,000, in 1994 the number declined to 95 deaths, with a rate of 3.3. This means a decline of 34.9 and 36.5 per cent respectively.

310. There is evidence that the incidence of induced abortions has declined, mainly as a result of women's greater access to modern contraceptive methods which meet their reproductive expectations. There are, however, still sectors of women who have no access to family planning and reproductive health and for whom greater efforts must be made to prevent unwanted pregnancies and, consequently, to reduce induced abortions, particularly among adolescents.

311. In order to strengthen family planning services, the health sector has initiated measures designed to reinforce and expand the range of contraceptive methods offered by health institutions to young and underpriveleged women. Moreover, the creation of a single administrative unit responsible for the planning and supervision of maternal and child care and family planning services represents an important step towards the establishment of a reproductive health approach.

312. One public health problem on the rise is HIV/AIDS, which, although it affects a larger number of men,

constitutes an important aspect in the analysis and care of women's health. For this reason, at the time of presentation of the first periodic report to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) it was stated, in reply to one of the questions raised by the Committee's experts, that the Government of Mexico had been pursuing a variety of measures to prevent and deal with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) since 1986, when it had established the National Committee for AIDS Prevention, which was subsequently transformed into the National Council for AIDS Prevention and Control (CONASIDA).

313. In Mexico, the reporting of cases began in 1983 and, by early 1996, a total of 22,539 cases had been recorded. The most recent figure has risen to about 29,207, with an incidence of 3,797 cases, or 13 per cent of the total, among women. It is believed, however, that not all cases are registered and that there is some late reporting, and that there are a little over 38,000 cases.

314. Given the period of incubation of HIV, information of cases of AIDS indicates that the transmission of the disease occurred five or ten years earlier. With the data available, it is important to point out that at the beginning of the epidemic there was one case among women for every 25 cases among men, but in April 1996 there was one case among women for every six cases among men.

315. Up to 1986, blood transfusions were the main source of HIV transmission to Mexican women.

At the present time, the most frequent method is sexual transmission.

Unlike in other countries, where the virus is transmitted through intravenous drug use with a high incidence among women, the rate of infection by such means is extremely low in Mexico.

316. In order to deal with this problem, the Government has taken steps to train and arouse the awareness of health personnel and of those involved in providing social counselling and guidance in this area.

317. The General Health Act requires the launching of campaigns to control and eradicate transmissible diseases which present a real or potential problem for the general health of the community and, in article 136, makes it mandatory that the health authority should be informed of cases of infectious diseases, including AIDS. The relevant articles of the Act were also amended to make HIV testing compulsory in the case of all blood transfusions and to ban the sale of blood plasma.

318. The magnitude of the problem led to the establishment, in September 1990, of the first centre for the detection of the acquired immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted diseases, especially among women.

319. Continuing campaigns are waged in the electronic and mass communication media, directed at the entire population, with a view to preventing this disease and informing the population that persons afflicted with it may live with others without any danger of contagion.

320. CONASIDA is an agency which has the task of promoting, supporting and coordinating the measures taken in the public, private and social sectors to combat AIDS and liaising with institutions that work to control AIDS. In particular, CONASIDA promotes and organizes the dissemination of information on AIDS prevention and treatment as part of the health education programme. In this way, those who have questions on the subject, mainly young people, can come to CONASIDA, or telephone using a special line set up for this purpose called TELSIDA.

321. CONASIDA provides psychotherapeutic services for those suffering from this disease. It offers them the tools necessary to optimize their quality of life, transforming them into active agents of prevention and making a thorough assessment of their ability to fit into society. It also provides them with support in the form of social services, advice on human rights, referral to institutions, nutritional guidance, psychological support for both patients and their families and others close to them, providing company for terminal patients and maintenance for their families and home care visits, as well as assistance with funeral and administrative arrangements.

322. These same activities are carried out by governmental organizations which have emerged from the community, among which mention might be made of the following: Fundación Mexicana de Lucha contra el SIDA (Mexican Foundation to Combat AIDS), Asociación Mexicana de Servicios Asistenciales en VIH/SIDA I.A.P. (Mexican Association of Social Security Services for HIV/AIDS), Arbol de la Vida (Tree of Life), Enfermos en Superación (Overcoming disease), Ser Humano (Human Being), Grupo "Padrinos" ("Godparents" Group), Fundación Francisco Estrada Valle (Francisco Estrada Valle Foundation), Mujeres por la Salud en acción contra el SIDA, A.C. (Women for Health to combat AIDS), Organización de Atención Integral en SIDA (Comprehensive AIDS Care Organization) and Salud Integral para la Mujer, A.C. (Comprehensive Women's Health), among many others.

323. As has been mentioned, cancer of the cervix and uterus and breast cancer are two of the main causes of mortality among women between 15 and 64 years of age. In fact, both causes combined currently account for approximately 5 per cent of deaths among women 15 years of age and over. In Mexico, the mortality rate for breast cancer has increased since 1980, rising from a rate of 1.8 per 100,000 in 1980 to 3.1 per 100,000 women in 1994. As for cancer of the cervix and uterus, the rate reached its highest point in 1988 and 1989 and then showed a slight tendency to decline in the 1990s.

324. In addition to the programmes and activities mentioned, it should be pointed out that the Ministry of Health has established programmes such as the Early Antenatal Monitoring Programme, directed at both the urban and rural female population; the Programme on Information, Prevention and Early Treatment of Tumours of the Breast, Cervix and Uterus; and the AIDS Information, Education, Prevention and Care Programme.

325. Another programme which is being carried out is the "Friend of the Child and the Mother Hospital" Programme, which, inter alia, offers family planning measures, antenatal care, promotion and support of breast-feeding, strengthening of the mother during the post-natal period, and measures for the early detection of cancer of the breast, cervix and uterus.

326. The health sector is also implementing programmes for the care of adolescent mothers and has launched a reproductive health programme directed specifically at the young population. The non-governmental organizations, in their turn, have carried out comprehensive sexual education activities among young people and have taken steps to train teachers in the educational system.

327. In order to offer counselling services and background on aspects of reproductive health, sexuality, mental health and family and interpersonal relationships, a telephone line has been set up for young people in Mexico City which operates 24 hours a day.

328. As for older women, the Government is endeavouring to broaden access to social security programmes, medical treatment and other social services, and to encourage the establishment of early detection programmes for diseases occurring among older women and promote nutritional programmes for them.

329. The health sector is carrying out a comprehensive Information, Education and Communication (IEC) strategy covering all educational and promotional activities relating to reproductive health. The IEC strategy is undertaking the following programmes:

The programme provides information, education and guidance, as well as comprehensive biopsychosocial treatment for adolescents with an emphasis on reproductive health, and is being carried out in the 32 federal entities of the country.

Provides adequate and appropriate information so that people can take responsible decisions about their sexuality and reproduction.

- Care during pregnancy, confinement and the post-natal period by traditional trained midwives.

In order to continue to improve the quality of antenatal care in rural areas and reduce maternal mortality, the training of traditional midwives is continuing. During 1995, trained midwives provided perinatal care in 279,335 cases.

The idea is promoted that all pregnant women should receive medical attention during pregnancy, confinement and the post-natal period with a focus on the risks involved. To that end, efforts are being made to ensure that every pregnant women receives at least five antenatal consultations, in the case of those at low risk, and more in the case of those who require it on account of complications or because they are at high risk.

- Care during pregnancy, confinement and the post-natal period by institutional personnel

With a view to reducing the risks inherent in these stages of reproductive life, efforts are being made to ensure that women receive care in health units which have the minimum essential resources to reduce maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality and that the care is provided by qualified personnel.

In accordance with national policies, in all health units which provide obstetrical and paediatric care, keeping the baby with the mother and breast-feeding are encouraged; the latter is also promoted in first-level units and in the community.

It has been proposed that a blood sample should be taken from every child born in hospitals of the National Health System and that the sample should be tested so that mental retardation of metabolic origin (congenital hypothyroidism) can be detected early and corrective medical measures can be taken.

Cancer of the cervix and uterus and breast cancer continue to be significant causes of death among Mexican women. This situation calls for a reinforcement of the information and services provided which help to reduce these diseases. Encouragement will be given to the carrying out of Pap tests on all women at risk at least every three years and to the self-examination of breasts in a systematic manner.

Approximately one third of couples have problems of infertility; there are therefore plans to provide quality services and information from the first level of treatment.

As a consequence of the increased life expectancy at birth, a considerable number of women will spend a significant part of their lives in a post-menopausal condition. It is therefore important to identify the risk factors which women face in the post-reproductive phase and to establish measures which would improve their quality of life.

During the period 1990-1995, 46 workshops were held on "Guidance and counselling in contraceptive methods and family planning", in which 1,251 service providers from different States in the Republic were given training.

The general purpose of these workshops was to provide the necessary knowledge on promotion and counselling to improve the quality of family planning services - all the foregoing - with a specific health message for women, since the workshops dealt with subjects such as sexuality, reproductive health and family planning, contraceptive methods, sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS, interpersonal relationships and the quality of counselling services and guidance, with emphasis on the gender perspective.

Six strategic supervisory workshops were also given, directed at the supervisory personnel at different levels in the federal entities. The general purpose of these workshops was to provide those attending with the elements which would enable them to carry out their functions in an optimal manner and thus to check that the training and educational activities were reaching the female population.

The principal aim of the National Traditional Midwives Programme is to contribute to the decline in maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality by training traditional midwives who are recognized by their community in the treatment of pregnancy, childbirth, the puerperium and the newborn.

There are at present approximately 10 million midwives who have received training lasting from two to four weeks. The training includes topics which are of paramount importance for women's health, such as care during pregnancy, nutrition, hygiene, the prevention of tetanus, the detection of cancer of the cervix and uterus and breast cancer, breast-feeding, family planning and the prevention of diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases.

Subsequently, in most of the States where the traditional midwives programme is being carried out, training is continuing through periodic meetings at which other topics are reviewed or the topics mentioned above are reinforced, mainly with a view to providing the necessary elements for the midwives to carry out their promotional activities, detect cases at risk and refer them to the health units so that they can receive the treatment they require in a timely manner.

330. During the period 1990-1995, the Ministry of Health trained various health personnel in rural areas in different courses. These courses were given in order to provide the health attendants and traditional midwives with technical information concerning family planning, the treatment of pregnancy, confinement and the post-natal period and the care of the newborn and of those under five years of age, with a view to promoting the health of the maternal and child population and of scattered rural communities with a population of fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. During the above-mentioned period, a total of 4,498 health attendants from as many communities were trained.

331. As far as family planning is concerned, article 16 of the regulations relating to the General Population Act states that: "Family planning services must be integrated and coordinated with health, education, social security and public information and other services designed to ensure the well-being of individuals and of the family".

332. Article 17 also states: "Information and health, education and other services relating to family planning programmes shall be free of charge when they are provided by departments and agencies in the public sector".

333. Although the population suffering from some type of physical, sensory or mental disability in Mexico has been receiving attention for decades, it was not until 1995 that a comprehensive strategy was established with the aim of improving the situation of the disabled Mexican population in such areas as employment, health, education, transport, culture, sports, legal matters, human rights, communication media, and so on.

334. The National Programme for the Well-being and Incorporation into Development of Persons with Disabilities, which was approved by the President of the Republic in May 1995, represents the culmination of efforts by individuals, social organizations, private institutions and government departments with a view to giving unity and coherence to the activities already being carried out throughout the country and developing and expanding other activities deemed necessary.

335. Although the Programme is not directed specifically at women, the many activities undertaken under it benefit women since it is based on equality of opportunity in:

336. In the various entities of the Republic, similar efforts are being made thanks to the installation of State Commissions, presided over by each of the Governors. The Councils for the Support for Persons with Disabilities bring together or are in contact with the organizations in their respective states. A national network has also been formed; in each state there is a promoter of support for persons with disabilities.

337. Institutionally, the National Commission for the Integration of Persons with Disabilities is responsible for coordinating the efforts of the ministries, the departments and entities of the federal public administration and the state and municipal governments; the organizations for persons with disabilities; the solidarity organizations, the Congress of the Union, the local Congresses and the Assembly of Representatives of the Federal District. The Commission is assisted by the promoters and those appointed for that purpose by the National Scheme for Comprehensive Family Development.

338. The National Programme seeks to promote the social integration of persons with disabilities and their integration into development; to create a new culture of consideration for persons with disabilities and respect for their dignity and social, political, economic, civil and cultural rights. Specifically, it requires the adoption of measures to guarantee persons with disabilities access to employment opportunities and health, education and training services.

- To guarantee the dignity and social integration of persons with disabilities. To promote the unity and strength of the family for their benefit and to stimulate the harmonious development of the community and society as a whole in order to offer them opportunities for development.

- To provide equal opportunities for persons with disabilities which would lead to their full integration into social, economic, political and cultural development.

- To promote a new culture of respect, dignity and integration in relation to persons with disabilities, removing all the physical and mental barriers which still exist.

- To regard persons with disabilities as strategic actors in their own development, since their participation is vital to the enrichment of society as a whole.

- To regard the unity and strength of the family as the motive power to bring about the harmonious development of the community and of society in general.

- To guarantee full respect for human, political and social rights, eliminating all forms of discrimination and exclusion.

- To consolidate the role of the State as the leader and prime mover in the social integration of this important population group.

- To make institutions, organizations and individuals aware of disabilities and of their co-responsibility in dealing with this problem.

- To promote self-sufficiency based on personal overcoming of difficulties and on equality of opportunities for persons with disabilities.

- To support the families of persons with disabilities as a first step towards their integration into the life of the community.

341. With regard to health, well-being and social security, the measures being undertaken as part of the National Programme to offer preventive and rehabilitation services during all stages of the life of the population include, inter alia, campaigns to promote prevention from the antenatal stage on, care during pregnancy, vaccination, prevention of accidents, and prevention campaigns in the communication media. These measures have involved the Ministry of Health, the National Scheme for Comprehensive Family Development, the Mexican Social Security Institute, the Government Employee Social Security and Services Institute, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security and the Ministry of Communications and Transport.

342. Given the legal equality of women and men established by article 4 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, in Mexico all persons have the right, on a basis of equality, to any type of bank credit. Access to financing is governed by the General Credit Instruments and Operations Act, commercial law in general, and common law according to the regulations established in the Civil Code of the Federal District.

"All persons who have the legal capacity to enter into contracts, in accordance with the legislation mentioned in the previous article, may carry out the transactions referred to in this Act, with the exception of those which require special authorization or concession."

I. By the provisions of this Act and of other special relevant legislation; failing that:

IV. By common law, and for this purpose the Civil Code of the Federal District is declared applicable throughout the Republic."

344. In accordance with civil legislation, women have full capacity to inherit, on an equal basis with men. With regard to the property ownership system, a woman has the same right to administer property when she is the designated representative for that purpose; a cultivable plot of land may be part of the family patrimony. As for the joint ownership of property by husband and wife, the administration of the property remains the responsibility of whichever of the spouses may have been designated in the marriage articles; each retains the right to dispose of his or her property unless the property is in joint ownership, in which case the permission of the other spouse is required.

345. It is clear that there is no provision in the applicable legislation which requires the authorization of the husband or the father for a woman to obtain bank loans, mortgages and other forms of financial credit.

346. In Mexico, women have access to financing not only as a right; it is part of a development strategy. In accordance with the priority goal stipulated in the National Development Plan - which in a section dedicated to social development states that "Mexico's principal challenge is to reduce poverty and alleviate the inequality which exists between different strata of the population" - the Government of Mexico is carrying out various financing programmes to foster the productive capacity of women, especially those who are the most vulnerable - rural women

- and, more recently, has begun to incorporate strategies for financial support specifically for micro-enterprises owned by women.

347. Government efforts are seeking to establish a framework to overcome the decline in the capacity of the business sector resulting from a prolonged period of economic crisis - which reduced the possibilities for the lower-income population to reach higher levels of well-being - in order to help to generate permanent employment. In this connection, the specialized support for low-income businesswomen acquires strategic relevance, as an instrument of the economic and social development strategy of the policy of combating poverty, since experience has shown that businesswomen have a greater awareness and disposition to direct the larger share of their income towards meeting the essential needs of their families; moreover, they show greater responsibility in assuming their contractual commitments and payment obligations.

348. According to the results of the Eleventh National Population and Housing Census, micro-enterprises comprise 97 per cent of the existing economic units in the country, generate 47 per cent of the jobs, and contribute 31 per cent of the national income. Some 30.3 per cent of these productive establishments are managed by or are under the ownership of women, although the percentage might be higher since in various cases the management and ownership of micro-enterprises are registered in the name of fathers or husbands, even when it is the women who run them.

349. In this connection, the programme for the encouragement and support of low-income businesswomen, introduced by Nacional Financiera in March 1997, is directed towards encouraging initiatives and giving practical and programmatic support to micro-enterprises managed by women, from a business development angle. However, the programme does not view credit as the only requirement for the successful operation of micro-enterprises owned by women; it believes it is essential to provide comprehensive support involving various stages: information, technical advice, training, technological support and financing.

350. It is envisaged that approximately 243,000 women's micro-enterprises could participate in the programme, to which various local agents such as state governments and municipalities, bankers and financiers, universities and higher educational institutes, and non-governmental organizations, inter alia, would also contribute.

351. Under another scheme, the National Rural Credit Banking System (BANRURAL) offers financial support for agricultural activities, both in the organized sector (UAIM) and among women owners and ejidatarias (women holding shares in communal land) as individuals who take out loans to finance their smallholdings; other activities supported are the fattening up of livestock and manufactures. During the year 1995, BANRURAL financed productive activities through 451 loans taken out by women.

352. The activities of the agriculture-related trusts established by the Bank of Mexico (FIRA) form part of the National Programme for Women 1995-2000, which has the primary goal of promoting, within the financial institutions, the development of credit machinery and the channelling of resources to support viable production projects operated and managed by women.

353. As part of the strategies organized by the Federal Government to benefit the rural social sector, FIRA allocates financial resources for rural development and the development of agriculture and livestock raising, agribusiness, forestry and fishing, with subsidized loans for periods of up to 15 years for capital investment. It also grants credit for particular business purposes secured on the equipment or the product (creditos de habilitación o de avío), short-term loans and credit on chattel mortgages, mainly in support of the marketing of products. Thus, in 1996, FIRA channelled 2.2 million pesos into agricultural and livestock-raising activities.

354. In addition to the foregoing, FIRA has organized a programme of financing and collateral support for developing producers, which is based on the integration and processing of those receiving credit, to support them with additional services such as the Organization of Producers and Technical Assistance, as well as guarantees of recovery of loans, inter alia, which are all available to specific projects in which rural women participate. In this connection, FIRA promotes closer links with non-governmental organizations concerned with rural development with a view to identifying and modifying the conditions which could be limiting the granting of loans.

355. Moreover, the Trust responsible for the Rural Women's Programme of the Department of Agrarian Reform has made a commitment to grant financing up to a total of 12 million pesos for the establishment and development of evaluated programmes and for the monitoring of the operational progress and the achievements of groups supported prior to 1997. During the period March 1996 to March 1997, this Programme granted financing in the amount of $5,252,122 for 233 projects which generated 5,289 jobs in the States of Campeche, Chiapas, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Yucatán and Zacatecas, in highly and very highly marginalized areas.

356. The Programme also expanded its coverage through the signing of agreements for supplementary resources with the State Governments of Oaxaca and Guerrero and with the National Arid Zone Commission. Agreements are in the process of being signed with the States of Morelos, Chiapas and Yucatán and with the National Agrarian Development Institute, all of them for the benefit of rural and indigenous women.

357. Along the same lines, the Ministry of Social Development has established a framework for encouraging productive business enterprise projects, through the contribution of investment resources, among social groups living in conditions of poverty, with a view to improving their economic environment.

358. It should be pointed out that a study is in progress on "Credit institutions and systems for women in Mexico", on the initiative of the National Population Council, as part of the measures designed to involve the community in the National Programme for Women, which will indicate whether the credit institutions and systems analysed are useful credit instruments in promoting the economic development of women and of persons living in conditions of poverty.

359. It should, moreover, be noted that there are no discriminatory provisions concerning social and employment benefits for single working mothers.

360. Similarly, women in Mexico have equal rights to participate in all aspects of cultural life and in recreational activities and sports.

361. Based on the size of a locality, the population residing therein can be classified as rural or urban. Rural localities are deemed to be those which have fewer than 2,500 inhabitants and, although the percentage of the population living in rural localities has been decreasing, the number of such localities has increased significantly. In 1995, there were 201,138 localities, of which 98.6 per cent (198,311) were rural.

362. The average number of inhabitants per rural locality is 122; this gives an idea of the scattered nature of the rural population since a small percentage of the population is concentrated in a considerable number of localities. In general, it is believed that rural localities are in a more precarious situation than urban localities and that they have fewer facilities and less of an urban infrastructure.

363. The ratio of the rural population to the urban population in Mexico has been decreasing: in 1970, the rural population comprised 41.3 per cent of the population; it comprised 33.7 per cent in 1980 and declined to 28.7 per cent in 1990 and 26.49 per cent in 1995. However, in absolute figures, Mexico's rural population has increased, from a total of 21,640,424 in 1970 to 22,527,382 in 1980, 23,289,924 in 1990 and 24,154,775 in 1995. In 1995, 50.43 per cent of the rural population was male and 49.57 per cent (11,974,434) female. These percentages differ from the percentages for the national population, 50.75 per cent of which was female in 1995. The reason for this difference in the percentages can be found mainly in the migration of rural women to urban areas in search of employment. In this connection, it should be pointed out that in rural areas a slight majority of males can be noted, since in 1995 the sex ratio was 100.70, compared with the national index of 97.10.

364. Distributed heterogeneously throughout the national territory, the entities with a greater percentage of indigenous population in Mexico are Oaxaca (18.74 per cent), Chiapas (14.01 per cent), Veracruz (10.77 per cent), Yucatán (9.95 per cent), Puebla (9.62 per cent), Hidalgo (5.98 per cent), Guerrero (5.85 per cent) and Mexico State (5.66 per cent).

365. According to the data published by the Advisory Board of the National Solidarity Programme, in 1987 approximately 41.3 million people - 50.9 per cent of the total national population - were living in conditions of poverty or extreme poverty. Of those engaged in agricultural and livestock-raising activities, 80 per cent came from poor households, one half of them in circumstances of extreme poverty.

366. In this context of rural poverty, the indigenous population, migrant workers, smallholders in seasonal zones and inhabitants of desert areas constitute the social groups that are surviving in the worst conditions, and within those groups it is the women and children who are most affected.

367. In 1995, 11.0 per cent of the female employed population was engaged in agriculture. That same year, 31.4 per cent of the male employed population was engaged in that sector.

368. With the crisis of the 1980s, the participation of both sexes in industry declined, but the number of women registered as employed in agriculture increased. Between 1979 and 1995, the percentage of women employed in industry declined from 22.5 to 14.6 per cent, while the percentage registered as employed in agriculture increased from 5.9 to 11.0 per cent.

369. In Mexico, women are acquiring ever greater importance in agrarian units. Women hold title to 3.2 million hectares, or 15.7 per cent of the total area certified up to 1996 at the national level under the Programme for the Certification of Ejidos (PROCEDE), which will be described below. In 1970, in all the ejidos (communal land) in Mexico, there were 31,459 ejidatarias (women holders of shares), or 1.3 per cent of the total number of ejidatarios (holders of shares). By 1996, this figure had increased 343 per cent, taking into account only the area certified.

370. Women are present in the Mexican countryside in various ways: in some states women have smallholdings, in others they belong to organs of an ejido, and in other entities they are granted land through the system of women's industrial-agricultural units (UAIM).

371. Some 80 per cent of women with land have less than 10 hectares and only a small number (2.8 per cent) have more than 25 hectares. On a national average, ejidatarias have plots of 7.9 hectares, which is 1.1 hectares less than those held by their male counterparts. In each ejido, approximately 32 plots are held by women and 123 by men.

372. In order to describe the situation of rural women in Mexico, it is important to take into account the diversity of ethnic origins and cultures which come together in the national territory and the inequality of regional development as a result of which the situation and characteristics of rural women present distinct regional special features.

373. The proportion of rural men and women 15 years of age and over who can neither read nor write is 18.5 and 27 per cent respectively, compared with 3.7 and 6.4 per cent for men and women in urban areas with 15,000 or more inhabitants.

374. Women who live in rural localities have a lower life expectancy at birth than urban women (72.8 and 76.8 years respectively). In 1995, at the national level, the average life expectancy for the inhabitants of Mexico was estimated at 72.9 years. The same average for women that year was estimated at 76.1 years.

375. With regard to rural fertility, it is important to mention that it has been linked to population policies implemented through the National Family Planning Programme, which has at present reached almost all women in the country, thus producing a decline in the total rural fertility rate. In 1995, however, states such as Chiapas, Puebla and Oaxaca had a fertility rate of 3.30 live children per woman, in other words one child more than in the federal entities of the Federal District, Nuevo León and Baja California Sur, where the rate was fewer than 2.30 children per woman.

376. In 1987, the proportion of rural women using contraceptive methods was low compared with the national average; that year the percentage was 61.5 among urban couples and 32.5 among those living in rural areas. Although in 1995 contraceptive use rose to 52.7 per cent, 32 per cent of rural women have never used any method of birth control, while in the cities the figure was 15 per cent. It is also estimated that in various states (such as Puebla, Oaxaca and Guerrero), women who are married or in a relationship and who live in rural localities have levels of contraceptive use of less than 40 per cent.

377. With regard to the health of rural women, it should be mentioned that in 1987 there were six deaths per 1,000 in rural areas. Although there are no current data on rural female mortality, at the national level the rate of female mortality was 4.4 per thousand in 1990. In 1994, this indicator declined to 3.8 per thousand. It should be pointed out that, according to data compiled by the Ministry of Health, 64.8 per cent of maternal deaths in 1991 occurred in rural areas, to a large extent owing to the fact that only 30 per cent of rural women giving birth received attention in health care centres.

378. A woman is head of the household in 8.7 per cent of family households in rural areas, while the figure rises to 14.3 per cent in urban areas. Of the non-family households, 43 per cent in rural areas and 47 per cent in urban areas are headed by a woman.

379. Article 27 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, amended by a Decree of 29 July 1992, establishes the various forms in which land and waters are held and the conditions for promoting comprehensive rural development.

380. On 27 February 1992, in keeping with the amendment to article 27 of the Constitution, the New Agrarian Act entered into force. This Act opens up options for the development of the historical constitutional forms of ownership of land - the ejido, the community and the smallholding - to give constitutional approval to the ejido and the community and legal security to the three forms of land-holding.

381. The New Agrarian Act recognizes the equality of men and women in all aspects.

1. It establishes that the internal regulations of an ejido (which must be drawn up by the men and women holding shares therein) shall govern the economic and social organization of the ejido.

2. It recognizes that a woman may obtain credit and has the right to use and have the benefit of the plot of land.

3. A woman has the right to designate successors so that the plot of land can continue as her patrimony.

5. A woman has the right to be elected as a member of the administrative board of the ejido or of the supervisory council or of any special commission, and to be assistant secretary.

6. A woman has the right to form part of and/or to be elected to the council of the locality which administers social and urban services such as schools, markets, hospitals and housing.

7. A woman has the right to pledge the use of the plot of land, as a guarantee of payment, only to banks or persons who carry out commercial transactions (this guarantee does not jeopardize the ownership of the plot of land, only its use for a given period of time).

8. A woman has the right to hold title to various plots of land provided that they do not total an area of more than 5 per cent of the land of an ejido or the equivalent of a smallholding.

9. A woman has the right to form, with other men and women holding shares in an ejido, unions and associations for the purpose of improving the use of their plots of land, for the marketing or processing of their products, for the provision of services, or for any other purpose they deem useful.

10. A woman has the right to use the water in her plot of land by making the appropriate payment, and to use the waters on the ejido.

12. A woman has the right to receive an urban lot free of charge, for which the National Land Registry will send her a title deed which must be entered in the Public Ownership Registry.

13. A woman has the right to have a certificate of smallholding rights sent to her.

14. A woman has the right to receive advice, representation and defence of her rights from the Agrarian Law Office.

15. A woman may acquire rights in an ejido by buying them, using the preferential right if the seller is her husband, father or an ascendant relative.

382. The Agrarian Act of 1992 also recognizes the position of a woman resident of a village with an ejido, such as an adult Mexican woman who has resided for one year or more on land belonging to a population unit, stipulating that she should be recognized as such by the Assembly of the ejido or by the Agrarian Tribunal.

1. The woman resident may become a shareholder in the ejido through being assigned a plot of land.

2. She has the right to be a member of the residents' boards to manage services for the benefit of the community.

3. She has the right to be a member of the Commission of the Community Boards to manage and represent the interests of the community.

4. She has the right to participate in the drawing up of the Regulations of the Community Board.

383. The New Agrarian Act also governs the operation of the system of industrial-agricultural units (UAIM), which is the antecedent of the rural women's organizations and was institutionalized in the 1971 agrarian legislation as an organization of women starting with the ejido. Since 1971, however, the organizational capacity of the UAIMs has not been used to full capacity. At the beginning of the 1990s, 6,300 UAIMs were registered, only 35 per cent of which, according to data compiled by the Ministry of Agrarian Reform, were active.

384. Unlike the Agrarian Act of 1971, the establishment of a UAIM was subject to the discretion of the Assembly of the ejido, as was its expansion, so that it lost its mandatory character of reserving an area equal to the unit of land allotted, in the best land adjacent to the urbanization zone, for the establishment of an agricultural and livestock-raising farm and rural industries operated collectively by the women of the agrarian unit over 16 years of age who were not holders of land in the ejido.

385. Moreover, the Agrarian Act of 1992 contains specific provisions referring to the regime of succession, including provisions relating to women. Article 17 of the Act establishes the capacity of a holder of land in an ejido to designate successors without mentioning as mandatory the right, in the first place, of the spouse (wife) and the common-law wife to be designated successors to the plot of land of the ejido, unlike the Agrarian Act of 1971. Only article 18 of the New Agrarian Act determines an order of preference to be applied to the transfer, as mandatory, but when an ejidatario dies without having designated a successor, it explicitly mentions the wife or common-law wife.

386. In addition to the UAIM, other government programmes have been developed, including the Programme of Action for the Participation of Rural Women in the Attainment of Rural Development, the Programme of Support for Rural Women's Production Projects, and the Programme of Community Development with the Participation of Women. More recently, other attempts have been made in an effort to help to increase the well-being of rural women, such as the Women in Solidarity Programme, the National Solidarity Enterprises Support Fund and the Rural Provisions Programme.

387. In an inter-agency effort led by the Executive Coordination Office of PRONAM, since December 1996, two working meetings have been held on policies and programmes in the public sector to assist rural women in Mexico, in keeping with PRONAM, which establishes priority measures towards that end, many of which include the goals of:

- Guaranteeing the rights of rural and indigenous women to hold title to and to have the use of land and to be given loans, irrespective of their civil status;

- Promoting the participation of women in rural development through training and extension programmes which take into account problems relating to gender.

388. The following participated in both meetings: the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Raising and Rural Development, the Ministry of Agrarian Reform, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as well as the National Population Council, the National Institute for Indigenous Peoples, the National Migration Institute of the Ministry of the Interior, the National Scheme for Comprehensive Family Development (DIF), the Federal Consumers' Law Office, the Mexican Institute of Social Security, the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics, and various institutions in the agrarian sector.

389. The purpose of these meetings was to establish joint commitments incorporating the gender perspective, with a view to linking the activities of each agency targeting rural women, which covered, inter alia, such diverse sectors as education, health, employment, financing, sustainable development, legal advice and the family.

390. Since policies and programmes which directly or indirectly benefit rural women have been mentioned in other chapters of this report, only some of the programmes which specifically target rural women will be mentioned below.

391. The Agrarian Sector Programme, 1995-2000, developed by the Ministry of Agrarian Reform, promotes the organized participation of women in order to involve them in the development and improvement of their community by financing production projects which contribute to the well-being of rural families. In 1997, the Programme hopes to achieve the following goals: to meet 980 requests for financing to benefit organized rural women, and to formulate and evaluate 490 investment profiles for the establishment of projects undertaken by an equal number of organized groups of rural women.

392. The Rural Women's Programme, created in 1991 by the Ministry of Agrarian Reform, promotes the financing and operation of production activities and services to benefit organized rural women throughout the country. It has been offered primarily in disadvantaged regions with an indigenous population.

393. Under the Programme, support is given for the development of projects in response to requests from the women themselves, provided that the projects meet the organizational and basic infrastructure requirements specified. Loans are granted directly to the women concerned for their use and administration. Repayment of loans granted provides a basis for the financing of rural women, so that a continuing policy of evaluation and monitoring is maintained to ensure the proper development of the activities of those benefiting under the programme.

394. During the period 1991-1996, the Programme supported 10,372 projects which benefited directly 28,000 women and indirectly 139,000 people, under a scheme of low interest and repayment to cover reinvestment. Of these projects, 85 per cent were concentrated in 10 types of activities: cattle-raising, tortilla-making, sewing workshops, pig-raising, handicrafts, agriculture, food supplies, goat-raising, bakeries, and sheep-raising, which together accounted for 91 per cent of the financing granted.

395. In indigenous regions, the Programme has financed 528 projects involving more than 12,000 women. In these regions, the activities undertaken in the projects are concentrated in cattle-raising, handicrafts, agricultural production, pig-raising, food supplies, mills processing corn for tortillas, and tortilla-making establishments.

396. Although the Programme's strategy is based on the organization of five different forms of association, during the period 1991-1996 it has been based primarily on two associative bodies: the Women's Industrial-Agricultural Units (UAIM) and the Social Solidarity Societies (SSS), which received 90 per cent of the resources. The majority of women who received support belonged to some rural centre.

Women in Rural Development (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock-raising and Rural Development)

397. With effect from March 1996 - as part of the National Development Plan 1995-2000, which indicated the need to promote the participation of women in the economic, social, political and cultural life of the country, and the National Programme for Women - the programme Women in Rural Development (MDR) was created in the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock-raising and Rural Development (SAGAR) as a policy instrument for women in rural areas. It is composed of two strategic programmes derived from the National "Alliance for Rural Areas" Programme and is organized through the Department for Rural Development:

(a) The training and extension services programme consists basically of the hiring of approximately 1,900 extension services personnel distributed throughout the nation, providing continuing attention to an average of four communities, with a view to encouraging rural development, in general, through training, technical assistance and advice and, in particular, promoting the rural equipment programme. The programme forms the National Rural Extension Services System (SINDER).

(b) The rural equipment programme consists in offering encouragement for agricultural and livestock-raising activities and the transfer of technology. Its purpose is to raise the net income of producers, production and productivity through technology packages, demonstration plots of land, micro-enterprise funds, the promotion of orchards and horticulture and the encouragement of backyard cattle-raising activities, with subsidies of between 20 and 90 per cent of the costs.

1. To generate at all levels of the institutional structure an awareness of the importance of the participation of, and the problems relating to, rural women.

2. To integrate policies to support the participation of women in the courses of action of all the offices of the Department of Rural Development.

3. To establish an institutional structure at the national level which would support the implementation of the programme through the training of personnel so that they might in turn generate training activities and working methodologies for the network of the 1,900 extension services personnel on the topic of women in rural development.

4. To identify and promote, for the benefit of women in each state of the Republic, the institutional packages offered by the Alliance for Rural Areas and those included in the Rural Equipment Programme, which envisage support for the preferential use of women: packages to encourage agriculture and livestock-raising and backyard cattle-raising, hydroponics, greenhouses, orchards and horticulture, and funds for micro-industries.

5. To compile information, through SINDER, on the problems relating to, and the participation of, women in the economic, social and political activities of their communities with a view to integrating specific statistics on the subject. This work will make it possible to formulate projects with better gender projections and support in order to ensure the better integration of women into rural development.

6. To establish inter-agency agreements to develop a comprehensive effort for the benefit of rural women.

1. On 6 March 1996, a National Consultant Technical Group was formed, comprising specialists on the subject belonging to social organizations, research centres and academic institutions, institutions in the sector and other bodies such as the Coordinating Office for Women's Affairs of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the National Population Council and UNIFEM, and some non-governmental organizations, for the dissemination, analysis and validation of MDR.

4. The integration of the topic "Women in Rural Development and Gender" into two of the seven modules of the training programme for SINDER extension service personnel.

5. The preparation of cooperation agreements with other institutions, such as the Ministry of Agrarian Reform (Rural Women's Programme), the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics, the Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries, and FAO, amongst others.

400. Statistical survey in cooperation with the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics. During a first stage (March 1997), the survey consisted in the application of a questionnaire to all families of five selected population units to identify and quantify the participation and contribution of rural women in all production, social and political activities of the community. This survey will make it possible to identify variables to develop, in the second stage, a national survey during the second half of 1997.

Programme for the Certification of Ejidos (Programme for the Certification of Ejidos)

401. The Programme for the Certification of Ejidos (PROCEDE) arose from the constitutional reforms and the new agrarian legislation. Its fundamental purpose is to provide certainty and legal security in land tenure. With PROCEDE, the individual rights of women holding shares in an ejido are protected, stability and permanence is established in the ejido, and better conditions are generated for participation in agrarian units and in producers associations. In this way, women can freely dispose of their land relying on the right of women landowners and residents who have the use of cultivable land or who live in the human settlement zone, subject to the approval of the Assembly of the ejido.

402. By August 1996, PROCEDE has made the following progress: of 27,410 ejidos in the country, 11,216 had been certified; this represented an advance of 40.9 per cent.

403. Some 1.2 million people, in possession of over 20 million hectares, have benefited from this Programme. Of the total number of people certified, 251,000 were women; this represents 20.9 per cent of the population benefiting from the Programme, of whom 55.5 per cent were holders of shares in an ejido, 7.5 per cent were land owners and 37 per cent were residents in a village.

404. That year, on the national level, the rights of 139,000 women holders of shares in ejidos were certified; this represented 17.5 per cent of the total number of holders of shares in ejidos.

405. The main purpose of the Women in Solidarity Programme, established in 1989, was to meet the specific needs of the female population living in conditions of poverty, fully integrating the women into the national modernization process and taking into account the broad national mosaic of life styles, traditions, culture and regional geographical characteristics.

406. Up to 1994, Women in Solidarity, provided financial support for production projects based on regional special interests (handicrafts, agriculture, fish-farming, among others), secondary projects and services projects which would help to change the quality of life of the family and the community. These projects were based on self-diagnosis by women to demonstrate their viability and to show that they could be carried out with the participation of the women themselves by self-management.

1. From 1989 to 1994 the Women in Solidarity Programme promoted the carrying out of 3,580 activities with women in the rural sector, directly benefiting 158,514 women.

2. Of the 3,580 activities carried out during this period, those most in demand, in order of importance, were the following:

407. Although this programme disappeared at the national level in 1994, it remains in some states in the Republic and provides an important precedent for continued support for groups of rural women, although with many budgetary constraints.

408. The Programme for Women of the Ministry of Social Development promotes the execution of production, social and services projects with a view to improving the levels of well-being of the female population in rural areas and in poor urban districts. It has contributed to the well-being of 103,713 women by generating 367 production projects, 407 provision projects and 1,569 social well-being projects, in both rural and urban areas in the country.

409. Through the Agricultural Day Labourers' Programme of the Ministry of Social Development, support is given to comprehensive projects dealing with housing and environmental sanitation, food and provisions, health and social security, education, culture and recreation, employment, training and productivity, and the teaching of justice, with a view to improving the living and employment conditions of the agricultural day labourer migrant population, particularly women. Of the activities carried out under the Programme, mention should be made of the promotion of 10,429 projects benefiting 156,000 women employed in agriculture.

Tropical Forest Programme of Action (Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries)

410. The Tropical Forest Programme of Action, which comes under the Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries, organizes viable projects to ensure the efficient use of natural resources. Of these, mention should be made of the so-called "Decision-making process and forms of participation of women in irrigation zones", carried out in El Carrizo Sinaloa, and the interdisciplinary project on "Technological restructuring for the sustainable production of family market gardens of the population in irrigation zones". Among other elements, the projects involve processes of innovation and the transfer of technology; the building of consensus between women and the various partners involved; the introduction of new technology to increase productivity and improve the quality of production; a diagnosis for the marketing of surpluses and the creation of a new water culture and production culture. With regard to the tropical forest zones, the programme proposes strategies to improve the quality of life of communities and to achieve the full integration of women into the development of the rural communities of these areas; to that end, a relevant element of the programme is training to encourage the organization of women's groups in their own communities, with a view to developing projects linked to the conservation and management of natural resources.

Drinking Water and Sanitation in Rural Areas Programme (National Water Commission)

411. Through the Drinking Water and Sanitation in Rural Areas Programme, the National Water Commission involves communities, especially women, in the planning, execution, operation, management and maintenance of drinking water supply systems; in this way, the community takes over the systems, thereby guaranteeing their proper functioning over the long term. In coordination with the Ministry of Health, the Commission also promotes the prevention and control of infectious diseases transmitted by water. In this connection, work is being carried out to chlorinate, disinfect and clean up water supply sources and storage tanks; to disinfect water in schools, terminals, hospitals and markets; and to provide training in the use and management of resources.

412. The World Food Programme consists in supplying food rations free of charge to groups which obtain financing through the World Food Programme of the United Nations, which operates a fund for indigenous and extremely deprived regions.

413. Moreover, the Agrarian Law Office and the Ministry of Agrarian Reform encourage the participation of women in organs representing ejidos and communities in the country; in this connection, women are represented in 3,093 of the total number of such organs.

414. In constitutional terms, women have no legal limitation whatsoever, since the law views them as having the same rights and obligations as men. In keeping with the constitutional precept, the Civil Codes of the states expressly recognize that principle in establishing the legal equality of men and women. However, the legal capacity of individuals also includes the capacity to exercise it, which in the case of Mexican women is reduced by some articles of the Civil Codes of the states, which differ from one entity to another.

415. In effect, some aspects of the secondary legislation limit the capacity of Mexican women to exercise their legal capacity, as in the case of the exercise of the right to enter into a second marriage which, according to article 158 of the Civil Code of the Federal District, may only be exercised 300 days after the dissolution of the first marriage; there is no such rule in the case of men. This is a limitation for women; however, its aim is to protect the family against possible paternity conflicts which could arise if a marriage was celebrated immediately following the dissolution of an earlier marriage. Another case is the recognition of children born out of wedlock, which is mandatory only for women.

416. Faced with these limitations to the equality of women, the National Programme for Women, as a mechanism of the Government of the Republic whose principal aim is to achieve equality of opportunity between men and women, has made it a priority to "revise the federal secondary legislation and local legislation to ensure conformity with the constitutional principle of the legal equality of men and women".

417. In addition to this effort, as mentioned in the first section of this report, a study has been made by the National Human Rights Commission; this is an extensive study consisting of 33 volumes, in the process of being published, which notes in detail the deficiencies of some of the legislation analysed from the perspective of gender, without overlooking the legal interest in protecting the family which gave rise to this legislation.

418. It is important, nevertheless, to clarify that in general the secondary legislation fulfils the purposes of ensuring not only the legal capacity of women but also that of men.

419. Thus, on the capacity to inherit, article 1313 of the Civil Code for the Federal District states:

"All the inhabitants of the Federal District, of whatever age, have the capacity to inherit and may not be deprived of that capacity absolutely; in the case of certain persons and certain property, however, they may lose that capacity for one of the following reasons:

III. Presumption of influence contrary to the liberty of the testator or the truth or integrity of the will;

420. With regard to the property ownership system, article 723 of the Civil Code of the Federal District states:

"The establishment of the family patrimony does not make the ownership of the property assigned to it and which it comprises pass to members of the beneficiary family."

"The spouse of a person who has established a family patrimony and those whom he has an obligation to feed shall have the right to live in the house and make use of the fruits of the plot of land forming part of the patrimony. This right is not transmissible, but the provisions of article 740 must be taken into account."

"Once the family patrimony has been established, the family has an obligation to live in the house and cultivate the plot of land. The first municipal authority of the locality in which it is established may, for just cause, authorize its rental or lease for sharecropping for a period of up to one year."

"The beneficiaries of property assigned to a family patrimony shall be represented in relations with third parties in all matters relating to the patrimony by the person who established the patrimony or, failing that, by a person designated by the majority.

"The representative shall also be responsible for the administration of the property."

425. It will be seen from the foregoing that, under the property ownership system, a woman has the same right to administer property when she is designated a representative thereof.

426. With regard to the joint ownership of property by husband and wife, article 194 of the Civil Code of the Federal District states:

"The ownership of communal property rests with both spouses as long as the marriage endures. The administration of the property shall remain with whichever of the spouses has been designated in the marriage articles, a stipulation which may be freely modified without any need for a statement of cause; in the event of a disagreement, the family judge shall resolve the matter."

"Married people, both men and women, engaged in commerce may mortgage their immovable property to cover their commercial obligations and may appear in court without the consent of the other spouse when the regime is that of the separation of property.

"Under the regime of the joint ownership of property by husband and wife, neither a man nor a woman engaged in commerce may mortgage or pledge either property jointly owned or his or her own property the fruits or products of which form part of the jointly owned property, without the consent of the other spouse."

428. Family relations are governed by civil law. Article 148 of the Civil Code of the Federal District establishes, among other considerations, the age required to enter into marriage:

"A man must be 16 years of age and a woman 14. The Head of the Department of the Federal District, or persons delegated by him, as the case may be, may grant a dispensation for serious and just cause."

429. The state Codes establish 14 years of age for women and 16 for men, 16 for both, or 18 for both, and in all cases require a corresponding dispensation.

430. With regard to the custody of children, a distinction is made in the cases of divorce by mutual consent and a judicial divorce. In the former case, the custody of the children is agreed between the two spouses and is almost always awarded to the mother. In the case of a judicial divorce, the custody of the children is determined by the judge.

431. As for the property of the spouses, cases of separate property or property in joint ownership are determined by the regulations, without any distinction being made between the man and the woman.

432. With regard to the custody of children when the divorce is by mutual consent, article 273 of the Civil Code of the Federal District states:

"The spouses referred to in the last paragraph of the previous article shall be required to present to the court an agreement covering the following points:

I.The designation of the person to whom the children of the marriage are to be entrusted both during the proceedings and after the divorce has been granted; ..."

433. On the question of who should be granted custody of the children in the case of a judicial divorce, article 282 of the Civil Code of the Federal District states:

"When an application for divorce is received, or earlier in the case of an emergency, the following provisions shall apply temporarily, only for the duration of the proceedings:

"VI.The children shall be placed in the care of the person designated by agreement between the spouses, who may be one of the latter. In the absence of such agreement, the spouse applying for the divorce shall propose the person to whom the children shall be entrusted provisionally. Subject to the procedure established in the relevant code, the judge shall resolve the matter.

"Except where the normal development of the children is endangered, minors under six years of age shall remain in the care of the mother."

434. According to civil legislation, both women and men have the full capacity to inherit, without any limitation on the grounds of sex.

435. On the question of the regime of joint ownership of property by husband and wife, article 194 of the Civil Code of the Federal District states:

"The ownership of communal property rests with both spouses as long as the marriage endures. The administration of the property shall remain with whichever of the spouses has been designated in the marriage articles, a stipulation which may be freely modified, without any need for a statement of cause, and in the event of a disagreement, the family judge shall resolve the matter."

"Under the regime of joint ownership of property by husband and wife, neither a man nor a woman engaged in commerce may mortgage or pledge either property jointly owned or his or her own property the fruits or products of which form part of the jointly owned property, without the consent of the other spouse."

437. The only difference between men and women determined by law relates to the age required to enter into marriage, as indicated at the beginning of this section.

438. Conhabitation is an institution certain aspects of which are protected, such as the effects which it may have on the children of a couple in a consensual relationship.

439. Reference is therefore made to the provisions relating to succession, and specifically to article 1635 of the Civil Code of the Federal District, which refers to succession in the case of those in consensual relationships and defines them as follows:

"A man and a woman who have lived as if they were spouses during the five years immediately preceding the death of one of them or when they have had children together, provided that both were unmarried during the period of cohabitation."

440. From this it appears that cohabitation is a de facto situation which produces legal effects, unlike marriage which is a legal institution.

441. Cohabitation is regulated in certain ways, inter alia in the following pieces of legislation:

TOTAL AGE GROUP POPULATION MALE FEMALE SEX RATIO
UNITED MEXICAN STATES	91158290	44900499	46257791	97,10
0-4 YEARS	10724100	5449356	5274744	103,30
5-9 YEARS	10867563	5515644	5351919	103,10
10-14 YEARS	10670048	5404261	5265787	102,60
15-19 YEARS	10142071	5022243	5119828	98,10
20-24 YEARS	9397424	4538686	4858738	93,40
25-29 YEARS	7613090	3652995	3960095	92,20
30-34 YEARS	6564605	3152462	3412143	92,40
35-39 YEARS	5820178	2804296	3015882	93,00
40-44 YEARS	4434317	2173041	2261276	96,10
45-49 YEARS	3612452	1763505	1848947	95,40
50-54 YEARS	2896049	1418508	1477541	96,00
55-59 YEARS	2231897	1083293	1148604	94,30
60-64 YEARS	1941953	929650	1012303	91,80
65-69 YEARS	1425809	674004	751805	89,70
70-74 YEARS	1079803	521069	558734	93,30
75-79 YEARS	666196	317553	348643	91,10
80-85 YEARS	434120	193923	240197	80,70
85-89 YEARS	252802	112158	140644	79,70
90-94 YEARS	105150	44789	60361	74,20
95-99 YEARS	49764	20716	29048	71,30
100 YEARS AND OVER	14046	5137	8909	57,70
NOT SPECIFIED	214853	103210	111643	92,40

TOTAL POPULATION*
FEDERAL ENTITY TOTAL MALE FEMALE
UNITED MEXICAN STATES	91158290	44900499	46257791
01 AGUASCALIENTES	862720	422324	440396
02 BAJA CALIFORNIA	2112140	1064591	1047549
03 BAJA CALIFORNIA SUR	375494	191013	184481
04 CAMPECHE	642516	322991	319525
05 COAHUILA	2173775	1080594	1093181
06 COLIMA	488028	242787	245241
07 CHIAPAS	3584786	1790580	1794206
08 CHIHUAHUA	2793537	1391914	1401623
09 FEDERAL DISTRICT	8489007	4075902	4413105
10 DURANGO	1431748	709268	722480
11 GUANAJUATO	4406568	2139104	2267464
12 GUERRERO	2916567	1433417	1483150
13 HIDALGO	2112473	1042566	1069907
14 JAL1SCO	5991176	2923921	3067255
15 MEXICO	11707964	5776054	5931910
16 MICHOACAN	3870604	1884105	1986499
17 MORELOS	1442662	706081	736581
18 NAYARIT	896702	448629	448073
19 NUEVO LEON	3550114	1773793	1776321
20 OAXACA	3228895	1582410	1646485
21 PUEBLA	4624365	2253476	2370889
22 QUERETARO	1250476	615484	634992
23 QUINTANA ROO	703536	361459	342077
24 SAN LUIS POTOSI	2200763	1087500	1113263
25 SINALOA	2425675	1216415	1209260
26 SONORA	2085536	1048933	1036603
27 TABASCO	1748769	872243	876526
28 TAMAULIPAS	2527328	1254700	1272628
29 TLAXCALA	883924	435390	448534
30 VERACRUZ	6737324	3323880	3413444
31 YUCATAN	1556622	773435	783187
32 ZACATECAS	1336496	655540	680956

* AN ESTIMATED 90,855 PEOPLE, CORRESPSONDING TO 28,634 "DWELLINGS WITH NO INFORMATION AS TO OCCUPANTS", HAVE BEEN

NO. 100- 500- 1000- 2000- 2500- 5000- 10000- 15000- 20000- 50000- 100000- 500000- 1000000

OF 1-49 50-99 499 999 1999 2499 4999 9999 14999 19999 49999 99999 499999 999999 AND OVER

FEDERAL ENTITY LOC. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB. INHAB.

NATIONAL 201138 136043 15262 33426 8537 4277 766 1457 665 224 108 204 61 80 21 7

TOTAL POPULATION BY FEDERAL ENTITY AND SIZE OF LOCALITY BY SEX AND SEX RATIO ANNEX 4

NATIONAL 5483555 325933 1310920 920688 1005265 586735 461461 256991 100858 514704

ANNEX 1 - ARTICLE 11

TOTAL POPULATION, ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE, INACTIVE AND WORKING, BY SEX

(THOUSANDS) AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH RATE

	1988	1991	1993	1995	91/88	93/88	93/91	95/88	95/91	95/93

TOTAL POPULATION	78.442	83.265	83.613	90.164	1,8	2,0	2,0	2,0	2,0	2,0
MALE	38.670	40.712	42.560	44.258	1,6	1,9	2,2	1,9	2,1	2,0
FEMALE	39.772	42.553	44.054	45.905	2,0	2,1	1,7	2,0	1,9	2,1

ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE POPULATION	28.852	31.229	33.652	35.558	2,4	3,1	3,8	3,0	3,3	2,8
(EAP)
MALE	19.817	21.630	23.243	24.127	2,7	3,2	3,7	2,8	2,8	1,9
FEMALE	9.035	9.599	10.408	11.431	1,8	2,9	4,1	3,3	4,5	4,8

ECONOMICALLY INACTIVE POPULATION	25.391	27.088	27.348	28.424	2,0	1,5	0,5	1,6	1,2	1,9
(EIP)
MALE	6.484	6.195	6.222	6.713	(1,4)	(0,8)	0,2	0,5	2,0	3,9
FEMALE	18.907	20.893	21.127	21.711	3,0	2,2	0,6	2,0	1,0	1,4

WORKING POPULATION	28.128	30.534	32.833	33.881	2,5	3,1	3,7	2,6	2,6	1,6
MALE	19.423	21.257	22.748	23.027	2,7	3,2	3,4	2,4	2,0	0,6
FEMALE	8.705	9.277	10.085	10.854	1,9	3,0	4,3	3,1	4,0	3,7

SOURCE: STPS/CGPEET, COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENE, 1988, 1991, 1993 AND l995. STPS-INEGI.

ANNEX 2A - ARTICLE 11

POPULATION AGED 12 YEARS AND OVER BY SEX AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ACCORDING TO ECONOMIC ACTIVITY STATUS
1988 1991 1993 1995
SEX AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION EAP EIP EAP EIP EAP EIP EAP EIP

TOTAL	28.851.847	25.390.939	31.229.048	27.088.201	33.651.812	27.348.382	35.558.484	28.423.612
NO EDUCATION	4.568.687	3.998.487	3.614.390	4.019.668	3.873.023	4.196.262	3.849.508	3.937.579
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	7.090.711	6.817.962	7.382.154	7.175.248	7.638.045	7.333.087	7.424.788	6.999.805
COMPLETED PRIMARY	5.934.695	5.471.466	6.619.375	6.017.396	7.398.347	6.071.632	7.253.372	5.972.860
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	6.656.734	6.563.292	8.213.595	7.088.324	8.927.406	6.826.461	7.233.482	6.329.093
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	4.581.826	2.523.586	5.396.420	2.778.758	5.805.279	2.910.027	9.437.568	4.845.966
NOT SPECIFIED	19.194	16.146	3.144	8.807	9.712	10.913	10.612	22.070
TRAINING COURSES	---	---	---	---	---	---	349.154	316.239

MALE	19.816.978	6.484.016	21.630.013	6.195.271	23.243.466	6.221.516	24.127.000	6.713.071
NO EDUCATION	2.845.827	572.671	2.532.287	556.104	2.705.659	590.026	2.496.030	656.111
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	5.310.513	1.694.415	5.539.760	1.477.721	5.810.653	1.494.891	5.476.080	1.575.392
COMPLETED PRIMARY	4.101.850	1.026.602	4.503.642	1.092.860	5.056.757	1.053.165	5.104.716	1.151.507
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	4.136.312	2.055.851	5.184.175	1.949.114	5.631.945	1.942.348	5.339.231	1.958.636
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	3.411.119	1.134.477	3.867.249	1.113.821	4.028.740	1.141.086	5.602.543	1.352.529
NOT SPECIFIED	11.357	0	2.900	5.651	9.712	0	6.237	6.740
TRAINING COURSES	---	---	---	---	---	---	102.163	12.156

FEMALE	9.034.869	18.906.923	9.599.035	20.892.930	10.408.346	21.126.866	11.431.484	21.710.541
NO EDUCATION	1.722.860	3.425.816	1.082.103	3.463.564	1.167.364	3.606.236	1.353.478	3.281.468
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	1.780.198	5.123.547	1.842.394	5.697.527	1.827.392	5.838.196	1.948.708	5.424.413
COMPLETED PRIMARY	1.832.845	4.444.864	2.115.733	4.924.536	2.341.590	5.018.467	2.148.656	4.821.353
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	2.520.422	4.507.441	3.029.420	5.139.210	3.295.461	4.884.113	1.894.251	4.370.457
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	1.170.707	1.389.109	1.529.171	1.664.937	1.776.539	1.768.941	3.835.025	3.493.437
NOT SPECIFIED	7.837	16.146	214	3.156	0	10.913	4.375	15.330
TRAINING COURSES	---	---	---	---	---	---	246.991	304.083
SOURCE: STPS/CGPEET, COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENE, 1988, 1991, 1993 AND 1995. STPS-INEGI.

ANNEX 2B - ARTICLE 11

POPULATION AGED 12 YEARS AND OVER BY SEX AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION
ACCORDING TO ECONOMIC ACTIVITY STATUS
PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN
1988 1991 1993 1995
SEX AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION	EAP	EIP	EAP	EIP	EAP	EIP	EAP	EIP

TOTAL	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
NO EDUCATION	15.8	15.7	11.6	14.8	11.5	15.3	10.8	13.9
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	24.6	26.9	23.6	26.5	22.7	26.8	20.9	24.6
COMPLETED PRIMARY	20.6	21.5	21.2	22.2	22.0	22.2	20.4	21.0
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	23.1	25.8	26.3	26.2	26.5	25.0	20.3	22.3
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	15.9	9.9	17.3	10.3	17.3	10.6	26.5	17.0
NOT SPECIFIED	0.1	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.1
TRAINING COURSES	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	1.0	1.1

MALE	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
NO EDUCATION	14.4	8.8	11.7	9.0	11.6	9.5	10.3	9.8
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	26.8	26.1	25.6	23.9	25.0	24.0	22.7	23.5
COMPLETED PRIMARY	20.7	15.8	20.8	17.6	21.8	16.9	21.2	17.2
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	20.9	31.7	24.0	31.5	24.2	31.2	22.1	29.2
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	17.2	17.5	17.9	18.0	17.3	18.3	23.2	20.1
NOT SPECIFIED	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.1
TRAINING COURSES	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.4	0.2

FEMALE	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
NO EDUCATION	19.1	18.1	11.3	16.6	11.2	17.1	11.8	15.1
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	19.7	27.1	19.2	27.3	17.6	27.6	17.0	25.0
COMPLETED PRIMARY	20.3	23.5	22.0	23.6	22.5	23.8	18.8	22.2
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	27.9	23.8	31.6	24.6	31.7	23.1	16.6	20.1
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	13.0	7.3	15.9	8.0	17.1	8.4	33.5	16.1
NOT SPECIFIED	0.1	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.1	0.0	0.1
TRAINING COURSES	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	2.2	1.4

ANNEX 2C - ARTICLE 11
POPULATION AGED 12 YEARS AND OVER BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION ACCORDING TO SEX

LEVEL OF EDUCATION	TOTAL	MALE	FEMALE

1988	54.242.786	26.300.994	27.941.792

NO EDUCATION	8.567.174	3.418.498	5.148.676
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	13.908.673	7.004.928	6.903.745
COMPLETED PRIMARY	11.406.161	5.128.452	6.277.709
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	13.220.026	6.192.163	7.027.863
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	7.105.412	4.545.596	2.599.816
NOT SPECIFIED	35.340	11.357	23.983

1991	58.317.249	27.825.284	30.491.965

NO EDUCATION	7.634.058	3.088.391	4.545.667
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	14.557.402	7.017.481	7.539.921
COMPLETED PRIMARY	12.636.771	5.596.502	7.040.269
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	15.301.919	7.133.289	8.168.630
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	8.175.178	4.981.070	3.194.108
NOT SPECIFIED	11.921	8.551	3.370

1993	61.000.194	29.464.982	31.535.212

NO EDUCATION	8.069.285	3.295.685	4.773.600
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	14.971.132	7.305.544	7.665.588
COMPLETED PRIMARY	13.469.979	6.109.922	7.360.057
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	15.753.867	7.574.293	8.179.574
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	8.715.306	5.169.826	3.545.480
NOT SPECIFIED	20.625	9.712	10.913

1995	63.982.096	30.840.071	33.142.025

NO EDUCATION	7.787.087	3.152.141	4.634.946
DID NOT COMPLETE PRIMARY	14.424.593	7.051.472	7.373.121
COMPLETED PRIMARY	13.226.232	6.256.223	6.970.009
COMPLETED/DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY	13.562.575	7.297.867	6.264.708
HIGHER INTERMEDIATE AND HIGHER	14.283.534	6.955.072	7.328.462
TRAINING COURSES	665.393	114.319	551.074
NOT SPECIFIED	32.682	12.977	19.705
SOURCE: STPS/CGPEET, COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENE, 1988, 1993 AND 1995. STPS-INEGI.

ANNEX 3 - ARTICLE 11
TOTAL WORKING POPULATION BY BRANCH OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
ACCORDING TO SEX

WORKING POPULATION
BRANCH OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY	TOTAL	MALE	FEMALE

1988	28.127.929	-	-
AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES	6.615.630	-	-
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY AND ELECTRICITY	5.938.083	-	-
CONSTRUCTION	1.527.759	-	-
COMMERCE	4.344.900	-	-
COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT	1.061.721	-	-
SERVICES	7.129.687	-	-
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEFENCE	1.232.478	-	-
WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES	191.925	-	-
NOT SPECIFIED	85.746	-	-

1991	30.534.083	21.256.913	9.277.170
AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES	8.189.759	7.185.919	1.003.840
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY AND ELECTRICITY	5.174.807	3.499.368	1.725.439
CONSTRUCTION	1.871.577	1.822.078	49.499
COMMERCE	4.843.336	2.654.137	2.189.199
COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT	1.141.444	1.041.317	100.127
SERVICES	7.832.862	4.051.034	3.781.828
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEFENCE	1.294.884	901.244	393.640
WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES	162.788	134.780	28.008
NOT SPECIFIED	22.626	17.036	5.590

1993	32.832.680	22.748.037	10.084.643
AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES	8.842.774	7.721.264	1.121.510
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY AND ELECTRICITY	5.347.724	3.623.643	1.724.081
CONSTRUCTION	1.879.231	1.815.829	63.402
COMMERCE	5.617.187	3.053.285	2.563.902
COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT	1.362.350	1.243.303	119.047
SERVICES	8.277.349	4.223.609	4.053.740
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEFENCE	1.282.655	862.587	420.068
WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES	206.930	191.100	15.830
NOT SPECIFIED	16.480	13.417	3.063

1995	33.881.068	23.026.756	10.854.312
AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES	8.378.344	7.172.037	1.206.307
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY AND ELECTRICITY	5.394.922	3.817.205	1.577.717
CONSTRUCTION	1.818.929	1.768.775	50.154
COMMERCE	6.251.997	3.182.162	3.069.835
COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT	1.461.417	1.336.431	124.986
SERVICES	9.133.929	4.706.232	4.427.697
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEFENCE	1.282.455	905.259	377.196
WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES	125.561	110.278	15.283
NOT SPECIFIED	33.514	28.377	5.137

OCCUPATIONAL GROUP 1/	WORKING POPULATION	MALE	FEMALE
1991	30.534.083	21.256.913	9.277.170
PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL	841.848	630.210	211.638
TECHNICIANS AND SPECIALIST PERSONNEL	702.742	323.053	379.689
WORKERS IN EDUCATION	1.082.905	451.802	631.103
WORKERS IN THE ARTS AND ENTERTAINMENT	330.761	286.178	44.583
PUBLIC OFFICIALS AND ADMINISTRATORS	612.151	518.350	93.801
CLERICAL WORKERS	2.585.025	1.124.097	1.460.928
SHOP WORKERS	3.430.192	1.717.026	1.713.166
TRAVELLING SALES WORKERS	723.443	427.947	295.496
SERVICE EMPLOYEES	2.134.533	1.094.932	1.039.601
DOMESTIC WORKERS	1.216.898	106.346	1.110.552
TRANSPORT OPERATORS	1.150.284	1.144.792	5.492
ARMED FORCES, SECURITY AND SURVEILLANCE	461.699	453.229	8.470
AGRICULTURE WORKERS	8.101.223	7.133.158	968.065
SUPERVISORS AND OVERSEERS IN INDUSTRY	1.863.289	1.731.281	132.008
CRAFT AND MANUAL WORKERS	4.266.260	3.266.879	999.381
WORKERS ASSISTANTS	956.432	782.590	173.842
NOT SPECIFIED	74.398	65.043	9.355
1993	32.832.680	22.748.037	10.084.643
PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL	777.280	556.466	220.814
TECHNICIANS AND SPECIALIST PERSONNEL	1.000.765	581.924	418.841
WORKERS IN EDUCATION	1.002.143	386.949	615.194
WORKERS IN THE ARTS AND ENTERTAINMENT	202.992	157.124	45.868
PUBLIC OFFICIALS AND ADMINISTRATORS	599.436	481.839	117.597
CLERICAL WORKERS	2.654.091	1.237.136	1.416.955
SHOP WORKERS	4.069.989	2.035.533	2.034.456
TRAVELLING SALES WORKERS	376.174	229.895	146.279
SERVICE EMPLOYEES	4.318.049	1.936.209	2.381.840
DOMESTIC WORKERS	763.742	377.369	386.973
TRANSPORT OPERATORS	1.288.202	1.286.382	1.820
ARMED FORCES, SECURITY AND SURVEILLANCE	473.067	453.129	19.938
AGRICULTURE WORKERS	8.781.628	7.653.587	1.128.041
SUPERVISORS AND OVERSEERS IN INDUSTRY	1.426.926	1.407.941	18.985
CRAFT AND MANUAL WORKERS	2.229.627	1.682.733	546.894
WORKERS ASSISTANTS	2.845.631	2.261.404	584.227
NOT SPECIFIED	22.938	22.417	521 ANNEX 4 - ARTICLE 11 (CONTINUED) TOTAL WORKING POPULATION BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUP ACCORDING TO SEX
OCCUPATIONAL GROUP 1/	WORKING POPULATION	MALE	FEMALE
1995	33.881.068	23.026.756	10.854.312
PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL	767.514	551.596	215.918
TECHNICIANS AND SPECIALIST PERSONNEL	1.048.877	580.710	468.167
WORKERS IN EDUCATION	1.118.731	423.229	695.502
WORKERS IN THE ARTS AND ENTERTAINMENT	209.939	168.484	41.455
PUBLIC OFFICIALS AND ADMINISTRATORS	662.194	530.824	131.370
CLERICAL WORKERS	2.629.266	1.176.474	1.452.792
SHOP WORKERS	4.629.188	2.113.083	2.516.105
TRAVELLING SALES WORKERS	1.228.420	728.470	499.950
SERVICE EMPLOYEES	2.102.588	1.249.659	852.929
DOMESTIC WORKERS	1.404.793	141.056	1.263.737
TRANSPORT OPERATORS	1.462.670	1.461.883	787
ARMED FORCES, SECURITY AND SURVEILLANCE	577.521	552.458	25.063
AGRICULTURE WORKERS	8.218.248	7.046.932	1.171.316
SUPERVISORS AND OVERSEERS IN INDUSTRY	527.081	385.909	141.172
CRAFT AND MANUAL WORKERS	5.494.021	4.368.037	1.125.984
WORKERS ASSISTANTS	1.766.118	1.517.770	248.348
NOT SPECIFIED	33.899	30.182	3.717
1/ THE OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS LISTED AS PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL, TECHNICIANS, SPECIALIST PERSONNEL AND WORKERS IN EDUCATION ARE CODIFIED FROM THE STANDPOINT OF OCCUPATIONAL TASKS AND FUNCTIONS RATHER THAN THE LEVEL OF EDUCATION.
SOURCE: STPS/CGPEET, COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENECE 1991 AND 1993; and ENE 1995.

ANNEX 5 - ARTICLE 11
WORKING POPULATION, EXCLUDING THOSE ABOUT TO START A JOB BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS ACCORDING TO SEX
		WORKING POPULATION
SEX AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS	TOTAL	MALE	FEMALE
1991	30.269.862	20.084.704	9.185.158
EMPLOYERS	2.391.856	2.185.248	206.608
SELF-EMPLOYED WORKERS	7.187.814	5.452.577	1.735.237
SALARIED EMPLOYEE OR WAGE-EARNER	15.208.476	9.920.955	5.287.521
WORKERS ON PIECEWORK	1.486.891	131.758	355.133
UNPAID WORKERS	3.920.665	2.328.479	1.592.186
OTHER WORKERS	65.160	59.213	5.947
NOT SPECIFIED	9.000	6.474	2.526
1993	32.584.838	22.585.491	9.999.347
EMPLOYERS	1.344.958	1.193.741	151.217
SELF-EMPLOYED WORKERS	8.731.460	6.496.423	2.235.037
SALARIED EMPLOYEE OR WAGE-EARNER	15.997.406	10.558.249	5.439.157
WORKERS ON PIECEWORK	1.953.866	1.538.837	415.029
UNPAID WORKERS	4.516.561	2.762.787	1.753.774
OTHER WORKERS	36.755	31.622	5.133
NOT SPECIFIED	3.832	3.832	0
1995	33.578.414	22.820.011	10.758.403
EMPLOYERS	1.456.147	1.304.015	152.132
SELF-EMPLOYED WORKERS	8.534.197	6.127.297	2.406.900
SALARIED EMPLOYEE OR WAGE-EARNER	17.079.065	11.229.978	5.849.087
WORKERS ON PIECEWORK	2.117.651	1.721.800	395.851
UNPAID WORKERS 1/	4.362.343	2.413.886	1.948.457
OTHER WORKERS	29.011	23.035	5.976
NOT SPECIFIED	0	0	0

SOURCE: STPS/CGPEET, COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENE, 1991, 1993 AND 1995. STPS-INEGI.


ANNEX 6 - ARTICLE 11
WORKING POPULATION, EXCLUDING THOSE ABOUT TO START A JOB
BY TYPE OF SOCIAL BENEFITS ACCORDING TO SEX

LEVEL OF EDUCATION	TOTAL	MALE	FEMALE
1991	30.269.862	21.084.704	9.185.158
NO BENEFITS	18.530.101	13.558.804	4.971.297
WITH BENEFITS	11.739.761	7.525.900	4.213.861
ONLY SOCIAL SECURITY	1.151.444	918.763	232.681
(IMSS, ISSSTE, OTHER)
SOCIAL SECURITY AND OTHER BENEFITS	9.394.454	5.932.877	3.461.577
NO SOCIAL SECURITY BUT WITH OTHER BENEFITS	1.103.486	597.449	506.037
NOT SPECIFIED	90.377	76.811	13.566
1993	32.584.838	22.585.492	9.999.347
NO BENEFITS	20.908.139	14.979.076	5.929.064
WITH BENEFITS	11.676.699	7.606.416	4.070.283
ONLY SOCIAL SECURITY	1.334.062	1.085.482	248.580
(IMSS, ISSSTE, OTHER)
SOCIAL SECURITY AND OTHER BENEFITS	9.323.420	5.934.341	3.389.079
NO SOCIAL SECURITY BUT WITH OTHER BENEFITS	948.075	534.866	413.209
NOT SPECIFIED	71.142	51.727	19.415
1995	33.578.414	22.820.011	10.758.403
NO BENEFITS	22.042.368	15.422.816	6.619.552
WITH BENEFITS	11.536.046	7.397.195	4.138.851
ONLY SOCIAL SECURITY	893.612	678.771	214.841
(IMSS, ISSSTE, OTHER)
SOCIAL SECURITY AND OTHER BENEFITS	9.674.336	6.126.180	3.548.156
NO SOCIAL SECURITY BUT WITH OTHER BENEFITS	854.586	502.473	352.113
NOT SPECIFIED	113.512	89.771	23.741

SOURCE: STPS/CGPEET, COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENE, 1998, 1991, 1993 AND 1995. STPS-INEGI.

ANNEX 7 - ARTICLE 11
WORKING POPULATION 1/ BY SEX AND INCOME LEVEL
SEX AND INCOME LEVEL	1991	1993 2/	1995
TOTAL	30.269.862	32.584.838	33.578.414
LESS THAN 1 TIMES MW	5.514.562	6.186.938	6.401.483
FROM 1 TO 2 TIMES MW	10.826.471	9.281.366	10.402.555
FROM 2 TO 3 TIMES MW	4.854.692	5.149.523	4.843.162
FROM 3 TO 5 TIMES MW	2.593.222	3.589.234	3.184.132
FROM 5 TO 1O TIMES MW	1,217.598	1.607.171	1.678.211
MORE THAN 10 TIMES MW	465.588	644.053	694.954
NO EARNED INCOME	3.707.226	4.517.847	5.122.752
NOT SPECIFIED	1.090.503	1.608.706	1.252.165
MALE	21.084.704	22.585.491	22.820.011
LESS THAN 1 TIMES MW	3.599.253	3.995.499	3.859.321
FROM 1 TO 2 TIMES MW	7.547.040	6.418.927	7.154.146
FROM 2 TO 3 TIMES MW	3.449.703	3.792.047	3.544.861
FROM 3 TO 5 TIMES MW	2.000.335	2.645.323	2.315.043
FROM 5 TO 10 TIMES MW	1.026.276	1.211.450	1.255.460
MORE THAN 10 TIMES MW	412.992	555.858	608.277
NO EARNED INCOME	2.170.367	2.764.073	3.126.828
NOT SPECIFIED	878.738	1.202.314	956.075
FEMALE	9.185.158	9.999.347	10.758.403
LESS THAN 1 TIMES MW	1.915.309	2.191.439	2.542.162
FROM 1 TO 2 TIMES MW	3.279.431	2.862.439	3.248.409
FROM 2 TO 3 TIMES MW	1.404.989	1.357.476	1.298.301
FROM 3 TO 5 TIMES MW	592.887	943.911	869.089
FROM 5 TO 10 TIMES MW	191.322	395.721	422.751
MORE THAN 10 TIMES MW	52.596	88.195	86.677
NO EARNED INCOME	1.536.859	1.753.774	1.995.924
NOT SPECIFIED	211.765	406.392	295.090

2/ INCLUDING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCERS. IN THIS CASE, EQUIVALENT OF DISPOSABLE INCOME. FOR EXPENDITURE DURING MONTH OF INTERVIEW.

SOURCE: STPS/CGPEE. COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENE, 1991, 1993 AND 1995. STPS-INEGI.

YEAR	WORKING POPULATION	DID NOT WORK DURING THE WEEK IN QUESTION	LESS THAN 15 HOURS	15 TO 34 HOURS	35 TO 48 HOURS	49 HOURS AND OVER	NOT SPECIFIED
1991	30.269.862	1.215.798	1.739.557	5.958.289	14.993.568	6.184.106	178.544
MALE	21.084.704	845.029	814.568	3.472.711	10.867.055	4.925.918	159.423
FEMALE	9.185.158	370.769	924.989	2.485.578	4.126.513	1.258.188	19.121
1993	32.584.838	1.667.550	2.326.695	6.387.798	14.340.811	7.627.983	234.001
MALE	22.585.491	1.103.865	1.116.827	3.844.418	10.224.773	6.083.164	212.444
FEMALE	9.999.347	563.685	1.209.868	2.543.380	4.116.038	1.544.819	21.557
1995	33.578.414	1.159.222	2.585.487	6.341.144	14.656.682	8.761.845	74.034
MALE	22.820.011	825.937	1.120.500	3.467.049	10.422.002	6.917.360	67.163
FEMALE	10.758.403	333.285	1.464.987	2.874.095	4.234.680	1.844.485	6.871

SOURCE: STPS/CGPEET, COMPILED WITH INFORMATION FROM ENE,1991,1993 AND 1995. STPS-CGPEET.

Diplomatic branch	+19
Consular branch	+16
Administrative branch	-70
Total number of women in the Mexican foreign service	-35

WOMEN	1987-1992	1992-1997	1987-1997
Diplomatic-Consular branch(es)	+35	+49	+84
Administrative branch	-70	+ 9	-61
Total	-35	+58	+23

MEN	1987-1992	1992-1997	1987-1997
Diplomatic-Consular branch(es)	+86	+51	+137
Administrative branch	-58	-13	-71
Total	+28	+38	+66

Mexican foreign service	1987		1992		1997
Mexican foreign service	Men	Women	Men	Women	Men	Women
Diplomatic-consular branch(es)	82.04%	17.96%	80.12%	19.88%	76.43%	23.56%
Admin-istrative branch	38.02%	61.98%	36.22%	63.78%	33.98%	66.02%
Total	58.60%	41.40%	61.26%	38.74%	59.66%	40.34%

	1987	1992	1997
Diplomatic-consular branch(es)	20.28%	29.27%	35.36%
Administrative branch	79.72%	70.73%	64.64%

Mexican Foreign Service	1987 1992
Mexican Foreign Service	Men	Women	Men	Women
Diplomatic branch	347	75	457	94
Consular branch	119	27	95	43
Administrative branch	246	401	188	331
Total by gender	712	503	740	468
Gender difference	209		272
Total Mexican foreign service	1215		1208

Mexican foreign service	January 1997
Mexican foreign service	Men	Women
Diplomatic-consular branch	603	186
Administrative branch	175	340
Total by gender	778	526
Gender difference	252
Total Mexican foreign service	1304

	1990	1992	1995
Illiteracy
Female	15.01%	13.64%	12.66%
Male	9.63%	8.46%	8.42%

	NATIONAL LIFE EXPECTANCY
1990		1994
MEN	WOMEN	MEN	WOMEN
66.5	73.08	69.4	75.8

YEAR		MORTALITY
	TOTAL		FEMALE
	NUMBER	RATE	NUMBER	RATE
1988	61,803	23.6	26,450	20.5
1989	67,315	25.7	29,070	22.5
1990	65,497	23.9	28,399	20.9
1991	57,091	20.7	24,650	18.0
1992	52,502	18.8	22,692	16.4
1993	49,631	17.5	21,577	15.3
1994	49,305	17.0	21,192	19.2

Sector	1979	1995
Agriculture	36.3	31.4
Industry	28.4	16.7
Services - Commerce	34.3	24.6
Total	99.0	100.0

	POPULATION	SPEAKING AN INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE				NOT SPEAKING
	AGED 5 YEARS		SPEAKING	NOT SPEAKING		AN INDIGENOUS	NOT
FEDERAL ENTITY AND SEX	AND OVER	TOTAL	SPANISH	SPANISH	NOT SPECIFIED	LANGUAGE	SPECIFIED