ARTICLE 6
Suppression of the Exploitation of Women
State Parties shall take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to
suppress all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of prostitution of
women.
1. General
There are no official numbers regarding the extent of prostitution and the
traffic of women in Israel, but there is a general consensus that it is
becoming more prevalent. A reporter who has done work in this area estimates
that over 10,00 women in Tel Aviv alone engage in prostitution.
2. The Legal Framework
In addition to Israel's ratification of CEDAW in 1991, Israel has also
ratified the 1949 Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and
the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, and the 1989 Convention on the
Rights of the Child. In principle, the current Israeli legal framework for
dealing with prostitution is based upon the abolitionist approach, as is the
Convention's approach. However, the current legal arrangement and its method
of enforcement suffer from inconsistencies and lack of protocol for dealing
with the reality of prostitution. Prostitution in itself is not, and has
never been, a crime under Israeli law, and the woman who engages in
prostitution is not considered a criminal. Instead, the legal system engages
in selective prohibition, by criminalizing exploitive conducts that surround
prostitution, so that both the exploitive and practical aspects of
prostitution are criminalized. Thus, engaging in prostitution as a client or
sponsor is a criminal act, while prostitution itself is not.
"Procurement," defined as living off the profits or taking all or some profits
from a woman who engages in prostitution, and solicitation of a woman to
engage in prostitution, are crimes according to sections 199-201 of the Penal
Law-1977, punishable by 5 years in prison, and up to 7 years under aggravating
circumstances. Such aggravated circumstances include the following: when the
woman is a minor under 18 years old; when the woman is the perpetrator's
daughter, wife, or when he is her custodian, teacher, or otherwise in charge
of her; when the perpetrator accused of soliciting was armed during the act.
Case law, however, had interpreted solicitation to mean proven engagement in
prostitution, thus making it much more difficult to prosecute for
solicitation. Under section 202 of the Penal Law, soliciting a woman to leave
her home with the intention of engaging her in prostitution is punishable by 5
years imprisonment, and if the woman is a minor - by up to seven years.
Soliciting a woman to leave the country for the same purpose is also
punishable by seven years. Section 207 imposes mandatory imprisonment on
perpetrators convicted under sections 199-202, with no possibility of a
suspended sentence. This is a highly unusual provision in the context of the
Israeli criminal law and indicates the gravity which the legislator had
attributed to these crimes.
Thus, these laws present potentially broad means to intervene for the purpose
of lessening the exploitation, degradation and dangers facing women who engage
in prostitution. However, these sections are rarely enforced. Instead, the
prostitutes themselves are often arrested, not for engaging in prostitution -
since that is not a criminal offense, but for related practices such as the
enticement of others to engage in indecent acts in public places, a felony
punishable by three months in prison, according to section 209(a). Usually
prostitutes are released after several hours, but sometimes they are charged
under section 209(a), which was never intended to serve as a regulation of
prostitution, or under section 216(a)(5) which prohibits "strolling." Another
criminal offense directly applicable to women who engage in prostitution, is
section 215(c) which states that being in a place for the purpose of engaging
in prostitution, in circumstances which pose disturbance to neighbors or
obstruction of traffic is punishable by up to one year in prison. Other
crimes which may also be applicable to women prostitutes are sections 204-205
of the Penal Law, according to which the maintenance and management of a place
for purposes of prostitution, including a motor vehicle or a vessel, are also
criminal crimes, punishable by up to 5 years in prison. Similarly, lending a
place for the purpose of prostitution is punishable by up to 6 months in
prison. It should be noted that case law has interpreted these provisions to
include situations in which women engage in prostitution in their homes, not
just in brothels, or "massage institutes." These laws, again, are rarely
enforced against women, as illustrated by the data supplied by the police in
the following table.
Table 1 - Convictions in Prostitution Related Crimes
1994 1995
Offence Men Women Total Men Women Total
Procurement
number 30 18 48 42 11 53
percent 62.5 37.5 100 79.2 20.7 100
Solicitation to Engage in Prostitution
number 3 1 4 15 2 17
percent 75 25 100 88.2 11.7 100
Solicitation to Prostitute
number 8 3 11 12 5 17
percent 72.7 27.2 100 70.5 29.4 100
Keeping a House of Prostitution
number 49 147 196 106 232 338
percent 25 75 100 31.3 68.6 100
Solicitation of Minors
number 42 42 44 2 46
percent 100 100 95.6 4.3 100
Source: Israel Police
Notwithstanding the relatively large number of convictions, the overall level
of enforcement remains rather low. In internal instructions issued by the
State Attorney in January 1994, the police are instructed to commence
investigations under each of the following circumstances: when minors are
involved in prostitution; when those who engage in prostitution have been
manipulated into it; when there is severe abuse of women who engage in
prostitution by their procurer, including blackmail and violence; when
additional criminal activity such as drug-abuse is taking place. When one of
these circumstances occurs in relation to the prostitution-related offences
described above, the State-Attorney Office shall consider pressing charges.
As to the specific legislation aimed at the prevention of traffic in women,
the only specific expression is in section 202(2) mentioned above, regarding
the solicitation of a woman to leave "the country," i.e. Israel, in order to
engage in prostitution in another country. There is no parallel provision
related to bringing women from another country into Israel for that purpose.
The legal framework theoretically offers means to criminally charge the
clientele of the sex-industry under at least one section, namely section 210
of the Penal Law-1977, which states that approaching a minor under 16 or an
adult woman with indecent insinuations is punishable by up to three months in
prison. This section however, has never been enforced against clients of
prostitutes.
3. Evaluation of the Actual Situation
In the last few years, the problem of prostitution has grown in Israel,
particularly among foreign women. It is difficult to obtain official
statements regarding the exact extent of the phenomenon, but most of this
traffic in women comes from the former USSR; some of these women enter Israel
as tourists, though many of them are given false identities which facilitates
their immigration to Israel. According to authorities at the Neve Tirza
women's prison, there has been a steady increase in the numbers of foreign
women involved in sex-work who are arrested for illegal stay in Israel and who
are detained before being deported to their home-countries; in over 95% of the
cases, these home countries were in the former USSR.
The average time these women spend in prison is 50 days, but detention may
vary depending on the time needed to verify their identities and prepare the
necessary documentation for their deportation. The women themselves are
supposed to pay for their expenses, but when their resources are inadequate,
the Ministry of Interior finances their deportation from a special budget.
On the governmental level, a special Service for Girls in Distress in the
Ministry of Labor and Social-Services is in charge of prevention and
rehabilitation programs for girls in these situations, as will be detailed
below.
On the non-governmental level, there is only one organization which deals
exclusively with the problem of prostitution, namely Shani - Israeli
Abolitionist Center Against Contemporary Slavery, which is the Israeli branch
established in 1995 of the International Abolitionist Federation. Several of
the more general women's organizations in Israel have also recently become
involved in this area.
NGOs who work in this area observe that there is no organized "sex tourism"
into Israel, although it is not uncommon for some hotels to supply their
guests with information about "sex services." Outgoing "sex tourism" prompted
various NGOs to advance legislation to prohibit Israeli citizens from engaging
in commercial sexual-relations with minors outside the state of Israel.
4. Involvement of Minors in Prostitution
The issue of minors' involvement in prostitution is dealt with under the
general provisions of ther Penal Law-1977, in the sections constituting
aggravated circumstances, as described above. In addition, there is a special
prohibition, punishable by three years in prison, against permitting a minor
(defined as a person between 2-17 years old) who is under one's supervision to
live in or frequent a place of prostitution. Similarly, permitting a minor
under 18 who is under one's supervision to engage in enticement under section
209(a), is also punishable by three years in prison. As part of the growing
awareness of this problem, there are several related bills in progress, aimed
at preventing minors from involvement in prostitution.
There are few NGO's who are devoted to work in the area of child-prostitution,
of these the most prominent are Elem, which deals solely with minors, and
Shani - mentioned above. Recently, as a result of the rising awareness of
this problem on the international level as well as in Israel, other NGOs who
deal with children's rights have joined in efforts to combat
child-prostitution.
The head of the Elem organization testified in the Knesset Education Committee
about the methods that are used to identify vulnerable girls in nightclubs and
force them into prostitution. Once again, no statistical data has been
obtained to indicate the extent of this phenomenon. According to Elem, there
are not enough social services which target this vulnerable population,
particularly school dropouts, which could help prevent them from being drawn
into prostitution.
Another major problem, according to those NGOs who deal with minors, is the
growing market for child-pornography, which although not produced in Israel,
is imported and sold freely in response to ever growing demand. The use of
child pornography is explicitly dealt with under the section 214 of the Penal
Code, which prohibits the publication and presentation of obscene materials.
One significant aspect of the spread of prostitution is the profusion of sex
service advertisements in daily newspapers. The expansion of this phenomenon
led to a private bill, proposed in 1995, which would restrict these
advertisements. Fearing restrictions on freedom of commercial expression,
media and public representatives established an ad-hoc public committee which
offered guidelines to publishers regarding these concerns. These guidelines
were accepted by all the parties, including representatives of the written
media. The significant consequences of this initiative were: 1) The cessation
of advertisements which specifically mentioned or alluded to the age (under
18) of the women whose sex-services were being advertised. 2) The moderation
of the overall tone of these ads and the pictures which accompany them.
5. Social Attitudes Towards Prostitutes
The overall attitude of courts toward prostitution can be characteized as
negative; it is described as immoral and corrupt. The judicial attitude
toward women who engage in prostitution is more complex, and varies according
to the specific circumstances of each case. In some cases, sympathetic
expressions toward these women can be found, in recognition of the harsh
circumstances they face and the need to protect them from abuse and
exploitation through appropriate legislation (State v. Prosper). More often,
however, prostitutes are portrayed as untrustworthy witnesses and as deficient
mothers.
5.1 The Connection between Prostitution and Women's Criminality (Mainly
Drugs)
There is a significant correlation between prostitution and drug abuse.
According to the Neve Tirza prison's officials' evaluation, of the 200
prisoners currently in Neve-Tirza, 70% are drug-addicts (mainly to heroine,
which is the most common drug in Israel) and 10% are in a process of getting
treated. Of the 80% with drug addictions, over 60% were involved in
prostitution in order to finance their addiction.
6. Rehabilitation Programs for Women and Girls in Distress
When examining rehabilitation programs for women who engage in prostitution an
important distinction should be made between those who are drug-addicts and
those who are not. As mentioned above, some 80% of the women prisoners are
drug addicts, and as the table below shows, there is a rise in the number of
women drug abusers and other drug-related crimes.
Table 2 - Convictions in Drug-Abuse Offences
1994 1995
Offence Men Women Total Men Women Total
Use of Dangerous Substances
number 3595 516 4111 5112 668 5780
percent 87.4 12.5 100 88.4 11.5 100
Trade in, Importing, or Exporting Drugs
number 1675 157 1832 1600 144 1744
percent 91.4 8.5 100 91.7 8.2 100
Cultivating, Making, and Distribution of Drugs
number 128 30 158 191 26 217
percent 81 18.9 100 88 1.9 100
Posession of Drugs Not for Personal Use
number 2395 353 2748 2782 344 3126
percent 87.1 12.8 100 88.9 11 100
Source: Israel Police
A major rehabilitation organization for girls is the Service for Girls in
Distress under the Ministry of Labour and Welfare, which treats adolescent
girls age 13-22 in the Jewish population and up to age 25 in the Arab
population. Of those treated at any given time, 20% are generally Arabs and
20% of are generally recent immigrants. They suffer from problems ranging
from drug addiction to indiscriminatory sexual relations, and unwanted
pregnancies, etc., which in many cases result from physical or sexual abuse in
their families. The Service works to rehabilitate these girls and
re-integrate them into society through therapy, vocational training, and IDF
preparation classes which enables the Jewish girls to be conscripted into the
army. The Service also operates halfway houses for girls age 17-18 who are
capable of functioning independently. The length of stay in these halfway
houses is generally one and a half years, and there are currently 6 such
halfway houses, one of which is solely for Arab girls. In addition, there are
two country-wide shelters, one for Jewish girls and one for Arab girls, which
provide emergency protection and treatment of up to one month. Overall, the
Service treated 5500 girls in 1993, 7744 girls in 1994, 9000 girls in 1995,
and about 10,000 girls in 1996.
ARTICLE 7
Political and Public Life
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination
against women in the political and public life of the country, and, in
particular, shall ensure to women, on equal terms with men, the right:
a)To vote in all elections and public referenda and to be eligible for
election to all publicly elected bodies;
b) To participate in the formulation of government policy and the
implementation thereof and to hold public office and perform all public
functions at all levels of government;
c) To participate in non-government organizations and associations concerned
with the public and political life of the country.
1. The Right to Vote and Be Elected
There is full equality between men and women regarding the right to vote and
to be elected in Israel. Section 5 of the Basic Law: The Knesset specifically
states that every Israeli citizen aged 18 or older shall be entitled to vote,
and section 6 of the same law states that every Israeli citizen aged 21 or
older is entitled to run for election.
1.1. Voting Patterns
Israeli elections consistently draw turnouts which are among the highest in
the democratic world (on the average 85% of those eligible to vote). There is
no noticeable difference between men and women regarding the participation in
the act of voting. The percentage of men and women voters remains
approximately the same (85%). Women in the Arab-Israeli community show a
higher rate of voting (89.1%) than the men (80.5%).
As to the question of the relevance of gender in casting a ballot, in a
national survey conducted recently, an overwhelming majority of both men and
women (81% and 79%, respectively) replied that the issue did not have any
impact whatsoever on their voting behavior.
2. Women as Members of Political Parties
Women operate within political parties under two categories: in specific
women's sections and as individual members. They are considered to have a dual
role: to recruit support for the party among women constituencies, and to
promote women's representation in the party. The significance of women members
in Israeli political parties was accentuated in the 1992 elections when
primary elections were first held. The introduction of primaries as a means
for selecting parliamentary candidates sharpened politicians' sensitivity to
the public mood. In the primaries, only the registered members of a certain
party may vote in that party's internal elections and can thereby decide who
will be the party's candidates to the Knesset.
2.1. Party Membership and Voting
In a survey conducted recently, 17.0% of the men and 10.9% of the women
respondents reported actual membership in political parties. Moreover, 44.3%
of the women polled stated that they did not support nor were they active in
any political party.
Table 1 - Women Elected to Knesset, by Party
Number of Number of % of Women
Party Men Women in Party
1996
Labor 31 3 9%
Likud 30 2 6%
Meretz 7 2 22%
1992
Labor 40 4 9%
Likud 30 2 6%
Ratz 4 2 33%
This data shows that in left-wing parties (Ratz, Meretz, Labor) women
representation is higher than in right-wing parties (Likud).Today, a small
number of women hold high-ranking positions in political parties in Israel.
These include: Zehava Galon - General Secretary of Meretz (Israel Democratic
Party), Tamar Guzanski - Leader of Chadash (Democratic Party for Peace and
Equality), Limor Livnat (Likud) - Minister of Communications, and until
recently, Shualmit Aloni who founded the Civil Rights Party and served as
Cabinet Minister under the government headed by the late Yitzhak Rabin. None
of the religious parties had any female candidates in viable places on their
party lists.
Women who attain top party positions, do not regard themselves as representing
the female constituency but rather the public at large. Moreover, women
members of parliament take pains to emphasize that their political careers are
geared toward national ends, rather than towards promulgating women's
interests.
2.2. Public Awareness of Women Candidates
The media has a very important role in publicizing election campaigns,
particularly of women. According to a poll conducted two months before the
recent 1996 elections, 94% of the people interviewed said that they received
information about women candidates from the media, while only 11% reported
they received it from the candidates' public activity. In the same poll, 68%
of the people interviewed said they believed there was no discrimination
between men and women by the media. 32% of the women interviewed and 25% of
the men believed there was discrimination against women. The following table
describes the sources by which members of the public gain recognition of the
candidates.
Table 2 - Sources of Recognition
Public Awareness
Source by Men by Women Total
Media 94.8% 93.3% 93.8%
Public Involvement 9.8% 12.0% 10.9%
Personal knowledge 6.7% 7.0% 6.9%
Letters to Voters 1.0% 7.2% 2.5%
Other 1.0% 3.8% 2.0%
Source: The Institute for Special Analysis
This next table illustrates the effectiveness of campaigning by women
candidates.
Table 3 - Public Awareness of Women Candidates
No. of Candidates
Recognized By Men(%) By Women(%) Total
0 13 21.9 17.8
1 .9 5.6 3.4
2 4.5 5.6 5.1
3 9.4 7.8 8.5
4 8.1 14.5 11.6
5 17.5 13.4 15.4
6 to 10 33.2 23.8 28
11 and up 13.5 7.4 10.1
Source: The Institute for Spatial Analysis
2.3. Securing Places for Women
In the 1996 elections, 69 women ran for elections within the parties
(primaries). The Labor party secured 6 places for women on its list (out of
44) and the Likud party secured 3 places for women (out of 42). Meretz, the
Citizen Rights Party, secured 3 places on its list (out of 14).
After the votes were counted only 3 women were elected from the Labor party
and only 2 women from the Likud party. From Meretz only 2 women were elected
out of 9 Knesset members (constituting 22%). These results are primarily
because the large parties diminished in their strength.
3. Women's Representation in the Knesset
Chart 1 -Women MKs Throughout the Years
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
In the 1996 elections only 9 women out of 120 were elected to the Knesset.
This figure represents a decline in the number of women in the Knesset.
3.1 Women as Knesset Members
Many of the powerful seats and positions in the Knesset have never been
assigned to women. For example, there has never been a woman Knesset Speaker,
though in many Knessets women have served as deputy speakers. On the two most
powerful Knesset committees, the Foreign and Security Affairs Committee and
the Finance Committee, few women have been assigned. As in other countries,
there are many women on committees which are responsible for matters
associated with traditional women's interests, such as education, welfare, and
social services. In addition, women Member of Knesset have been active in
promoting bills and petitions which have dealt with family, welfare, social
and economic matters.
In the present Knesset (1996 elections) the nine women in the Knesset serve
on one or more of the following Knesset committees: 1 woman on the
Constitution, Law and Justice Committee, 3 women on the Labor Committee, 3
women on the Education and Culture Committee, 3 women on the Immigration
Committee, 2 women on the Interior Committee.
4. Women in Government
Since the emergence of the State of Israel, only one woman, Golda Meir, has
served as prime minister. Having served in the Knesset since 1949, Golda Meir
was elected prime minister in 1969 and held the prime minister's office until
1974.
Since the establishment of the State of Israel, six women have served as
cabinet ministers. In the current government only 1 of 18 ministers is a woman
(Limor Livnat, Minister of Communications). In addition, the heads of 2
government offices, the Environment Protection Department and the Justice
Department, are women.
5. Women in Local Authorities
Data indicates women's representation in local authorities has been extremely
limited. Nevertheless, there has been a significant increase in women's
representation since the first local elections were held in 1950:
Chart 2 - Women Elected to Local Councils
During the State's existence, only six women have served as heads of local
councils, none of them in a city with a population over 10,000. Currently,
there is only one woman head of a local council, and seven women serve as
deputy mayors.
6. Women in the Civil Service
6.1 Ranks of Women in the Civil Service
Although women made up 59.4% of all civil-servants in December 1995, their
rate among the senior staff (namely the three top ranks) of the four main
classifications (which compose the main resource for managers in the civil
service) was only 10.5%. Women's underrepresentation in the top positions is
correlated by their overrepresentation in the lowest ranks (rank 8 and below),
where they made up 64.2% of all workers in December 1995. Recent data
submitted by the Civil Commission to the Knesset Committee on the Advancement
of Women show that significant progress was made from December 1994 to
December 1996: the number of women among the senior staff has more than
tripled in those two years (from 25 to 85) so that women now make up 14% of
the senior staff. However, this apparent progress is misleading, since
between 1993 and 1994 a sharp decline in the rate of women in top positions
took place, as a result of the new payment-agreements that were signed. This
analysis is supported by an examination of the changes in the rate of women
among the lowest ranks, relative to their total rate in those four main
classifications: from December 1994 to December 1996 the total rate of women
increased from 53.5% to 54.3%, and their rate among the lowest ranks increased
from 63.7% to 64.3%. In other words, women continue to be overrepresented in
the lowest ranks of the Service.
6.2 Tenders in the Civil Service
The increase of women's participation in internal job-tenders in the civil
service, both as candidates and as appointees, is quite constant: in four
years the percentage of women candidates has more than doubled, from 23.2% in
1993 to 51.9% in 1996, and the percentage of women who were appointed has
likewise more than doubled, from 26.1% in 1993 to 55.7% in 1996. The
situation in public tenders is far less positive: from a slight increase in
the percentage of women candidates and appointees (from 33.6% in 1994 to
35.2% in 1995 among the candidates, and from 36% in 1994 to 36.7% in 1995 of
those appointed), there was a sharp decline among women candidates, and an
even sharper one of those appointed: only 30.3% among the candidates were
women, and only 28.9% of those appointed were women. The decline in the
actual number of women who presented their candidacy went from 3000 in 1994 to
1670 in 1996. Furthermore, while women are consistently appointed at a higher
rate relative to the rate of women who presented their candidacy (with an
exception in 1994 internal tenders), this has shifted in the 1996 public
tenders. The Commission tries to explain this general decline by the overall
cutbacks that were imposed on the Civil Service during 1996.
In 1996, an additional regression appears in the gender-composition of the
tender committees. As explained under Article 2 above, one of the changes in
the Civil Service Code following the 1993 Ben-Israel committee recommendations
was reinforcement of the requisite representation of both sexes in tender
committees. Although there was indeed a slow decline between 1993 to 1995 in
the number of committees composed of men only, both in internal and public
tenders (e.g. from 5.4% to 1.6% of all committees in internal tenders, and
from 33.5% to 28.6% of all committees in public tenders), there was an
unexplained increase in their percentage in 1996 (3.9% in internal tenders and
30.6% in public tenders).
A final piece of information concerning tenders will conclude this examination
on a somewhat pessimistic note: upon examination of data that analyses the
rates of candidacy and appointment in public tenders in five leading
classifications (which together made up 80% of all public tenders) along the
line of specific ranks, it appears that during 1995-96, very few women
presented their candidacy to the top three positions, and no women were
appointed to them, except in the lawyers classification. Furthermore, there
is a consistent decrease in both the rates of women candidates and the rates
of women appointed as their rank increases.
Notwithstanding this analysis, an inner report of the Civil Service Commission
from July 1995 analyzes the data gathered from all tender committees and
concludes that at present, women stand a higher chance of being appointed in
tender committees than men. The report raises the question of why so few
women present their candidacy to these tenders. This is clearly one area in
which more analytical energy needs to be invested.
7. Women in Public Institutions
7.1 In the General Labor Union (Histadrut)
The General Labor Union is a powerful organization which acts an an umbrella
for many workers' unions in Israel.
Table 4 - Women in the Histadrut
Total Men Women %of Women
Executive Committee:
Members 188 158 30 16%
Deputies 194 155 39 20%
Histadrut Council:
Members 508 392 116 23%
Deputies 257 181 76 30%
Histadrut Convention (Delegates) 1154 946 208 18%
Executive Committee of the Holding Co 22 20 2 9%
Secretaries of the Labor Councils 65 63 2 3%
7.1.1. Resolution Securing Equal Representation for WomenIn January 1995 an
important resolution was passed in the Histadrut Convention. This resolution
added a provision to the articles of association of the Histadrut which
demands that in every Labor Union there shall be at least 30% women. In
addition, the same shall apply to all Workers' Committees.
7.2. Workers' Committees and Labor Councils
At present, 10% of all workers' committees are headed by women, and 17% of the
workers' committees membership is comprised of women. There are currently 3
women secretaries of Labor Councils, 2 women deputy-secretaries of Labor
Councils, and 20 women secretaries of Labor Unions. Women hold managerial
positions in many Labor Councils: there are presently 4 community welfare
managers, 1 educational manager, 13 treasurers, 18 community managers, 3
absorption committee heads, 3 youth committee heads, 4 consumer committee
heads, 10 cultural committee heads, 8 senior citizens committee heads, 19
accountants and one spokeswoman. Altogether, there are 530 women out of 1028
overall serving in labor councils, constituting 51% of those serving in labor
councils.
8. The Judiciary
The percentage of women in the judiciary is extraordinarily high compared to
other areas of public life. In all the different courts (Supreme Court,
District Courts, Magistrate Courts, Labor Courts) there are 146 women judges
and 229 men judges. In other words, women constitute 40% of the judiciary in
Israel.
Table 5 - Judges, by Courts
Female Male Total %of Women
JUDGES
Supreme Court 3 11 14 21%
District Courts 23 67 90 26%
Magistrates Courts 87 121 209 42%
Traffic Courts 14 15 29 48%
National Labor Court 1 3 4 25%
Regional Labor Courts 18 12 30 60%
REGISTRARS
Local Courts 28 22 50 56%
Regional Labor Courts 9 2 11 82%
Source: Central Courts Administration
Chart 3 - Percentage of Woman and Men Judges in Various Courts
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Women's relatively large representation in the judiciary is also evidenced in
the public sector of the legal profession. The present State Attorney is a
woman. Her predecessor was the first woman to serve in this role and was
later appointed to the Supreme Court. Four out of the five District Attorneys
are women. In the District Attorneys offices, there are 207 women lawyers
compared to 126 men, and 237 women public service attorneys compared to 115
men.
9. Representation in Religious Bodies
9.1 Rabbinical Courts
The Religious Judges Law - 1955 and the Druse Courts Law - 1962 have been
interpreted by Jewish, Muslim and Druse religious leaders to mean that only
men can serve as judges in these courts. Consequently, Israel has expressed
its reservation with regard to Article 7(b) of the Convention concerning the
appointment of women to serve as judges of religious courts.
9.2 Municipal Religious Councils
In recent years, changes have taken place in the representation of women in
religious bodies. Following two landmark Supreme Court decisions in 1988,
women were granted the right to participate in the committee for selection of
chief rabbis and the right to participate in municipal religious councils. In
Poraz v. Tel Aviv Mayor, the Supreme Court allowed women to participate in the
committee for the selection of the Tel Aviv chief rabbi, emphasizing that
exclusion of women from serving on political committees which deal with
religious matters constitutes discrimination and is therefore void. In
Shakdiel v. Minister of Religious Affairs, the Supreme Court granted Leah
Shakdiel the right to be elected to the religious council of the city Yeruham
in southern Israel.
Despite this landmark decision, which opened the doors to women who wished to
serve on municipal religious councils, the number of women on municipal
religious councils remains small. Out of 139 religious councils, only 12
councils include a woman. Almost a decade after the Supreme Court decision,
women still have great difficulties in getting elected to municipal religious
councils.
10. Government Corporations
As explained in Article 4 above, an amendment to the Government Companies
Law-1975 was passed in 1993 which requires equal representation of both sexes
in the board of directors of every government corporation. Furthermore, the
amendment demands that in order to promote the goal of equal representation,
the Ministers shall appoint directors from the less-represented sex until such
equality is achieved.
A public committee, headed by a District Court Judge, was established to
oversee the implementation of this amendment. The committee discovered that in
most government corporations there were no female directors. Thus, the
committee's main function has been to "remind" all government agencies of
their duty, in accordance with the amendment, to appoint female directors to
government corporations where openings are available.
This amendment came under judicial review when two government corporations,
Israel Ports and Trains Authority and Israel Refineries, appointed two men to
the board of directors, in each of which there were no women. The Supreme
Court decided that these appointments were invalid because they disregarded
the amendment. Justice Matza, delivering the opinion of the Court, justified
the use of affirmative action in light of the conspicuous inequality of women
representation in government corporations. Justice Matza relied on Basic Law:
Human Dignity and Liberty, claiming that equality is an inherent attribute to
a person's dignity. A more detailed description of the decision is found under
Article 4 above.
According to a research conducted in 1996, this amendment's effects have been
felt in 68% of government corporations. Still there are 18 corporations (16%)
in which there are no women directors. In 12 corporations (11%) the number of
women remains the same as it did in 1993, the year the amendment was passed.
But there has been progress in many corporations: in 48% of those where there
were no women directors in 1993, women have since been appointed as
directors. In 21 corporations (18.9%) where women served as directors in 1993,
there has been a significant increase in their number.
Although the amendment has caused a substantial improvement in women
representation, progress remains to be done since in the majority of
government corporations women still constitute less than 30 % of the
directors.
11. Women's Political Activism
The involvement of women in extra-parliamentary political activity has been
aimed at influencing the decision making process from the grassroots level.
The focus of these groups has been organizing demonstrations, rallies, peace
marches and other activities aimed at influencing public opinion.
In 1977 the peace movement known as Shalom Achsav (Peace Now) was established
with the aim of pressuring the Israeli government to consider constructive
peace proposals. Although many women participated in the activities of this
movement it was not an exclusively a women's movement.
Many women have linked their broader political involvement with feminist
political strategies. In 1982, after the Peace for the Galilee Operation in
Lebanon, some fifty women, and a few men, joined together under the name
"Parents against the Silence," to collect signatures and sign petitions
calling for the withdrawal of Israeli troops from Lebanon. Another group
called "Women against the Invasion of Lebanon" was formed consisting of
feminist activists who demanded the immediate withdrawal of the troops from
Lebanon.
After the Lebanon War ended, this group continued to operate under the name
"Women against the Occupation." They protested the conditions under which
Palestinian women were held in Israeli prisons.
After the Palestinian uprising (intifada) broke out in December 1987, a
women's peace movement was formed which protested the military policy in the
occupied territories. The group, called Women in Black, gathered every Friday
afternoon wearing black at a central square in Jerusalem to mourn the victims
of violence and called for the end of the occupation. Later this form of
demonstration spread to 33 other locations in Israel. The Women in Black
became an embodiment of peaceful protest which was widely imitated around the
world.
Another peace group which was formed in Haifa was called Women for Women. This
organization also demanded the end of the occupation and for the recognition
of a national right to self-determination for the Palestinian inhabitants of
the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
The Women's Organization for Political Prisoners (WOFPP) was founded in 1988
and focused on the fate of individual Palestinian women who had been
imprisoned. The WOFPP continually brought human rights violations in military
jails to the attention of the Israeli public.
All of the women's peace groups and activities have been guided by a desire to
establish and institutionalize a Palestinian-Israeli dialogue. For this
purpose, many joint conferences and demonstrations were held, and meetings
between Israeli and Palestinian women were based on the assumption that
concerned women could eliminate prejudices in personal conversations. The
women's peace movement also managed to attract the attention of the Israeli
population at large by organizing large-scale events and conferences which
were open to the public. Thus, the peace initiative of the government headed
by the late Yitzhak Rabin in 1993 can be partly attributed to the efforts and
continued protest of the women's peace groups.
The efforts of Israeli women to join and influence the peace process continued
after the Oslo Accords were signed in September 1993, when the Jerusalem Link
was founded. The Jerusalem Link comprises a coordinating committee of two
women's centers, independent of each other, one Jewish in West Jerusalem,
"Bat Shalom" (Hebrew for Daughter of Peace), and the other Arab in East
Jerusalem, "Jerusalem Center for Women". They organize joint demonstration
against human rights violations in Israeli jails and organize drives to
collect signatures. Both organizations are concerned with promoting feminist
ideas both in the Israeli and Palestinian public.
Another women's group called Association of Women for Peace was formed since
the signing of the Oslo Accords. The association holds meetings of Israeli
and Palestinian women, and its goal is to strengthen the peace process and to
facilitate the implementation of the Interim Agreement between Israel and the
Palestinian Authority.
Since the Oslo Accords, a right-wing women's group was formed in protest
against Israeli concessions in the peace process. This group, called Women in
Green, derives its name from its rival Women in Black. They participate in
demonstrations which oppose the withdrawal of Israeli forces from the occupied
territories, and protest the Israeli willingness to give up territory in
exchange for peace.
12. Women in the Security Forces: Military and Police
12.1. The Legal Framework
The Defense Service Law-1986, which replaced the 1949 version of the law,
mandates service in the military for both men and women, while differentiating
between the sexes regarding their conditions of service. Article 1 of the law
states that the law applies to men between the ages of 18 and 54, and to women
between the ages of 18 and 38. Gender-based differentiation is also made as
regards the length of mandatory service in the Army, the extent of reserve
duty obligations, voluntary service, and exemptions. According to the above
law, women are exempt from mandatory service if they are married, pregnant, or
mothers. In the very first years of the State, Prime Miniser Ben-Gurion made
a political arrangement with the leaders of the ultra-orthodox community in
Israel, whereby young men would be allowed to postpone or cancel their service
in the army in order to study in religious academies. While this arrangement
continues to be utilized today, its application is restricted to a narrow
segment of the population. The National Service Law, 1953 provides what may
be seen as a parallel arrangement for young women who, for religious or
conscientious reasons, are reluctant to serve in the Army. According to the
National Service Law, 1953, a woman may substitute military service with two
years of national service. This provision, however, is not strictly enforced.
As will be shown below, the percentage of women who do make use of the various
exemptions is significantly higher than that of men.
The Defense Service Law itself does not differentiate between the duties that
may be assigned to men and those which may be assigned to women. In practice,
however, IDF policy has generally been to discourage and forbid women soldiers
from serving in combat positions.
12.1.1. The Miller Case
Until 1956, a number of women served in the Air-Force as pilots of carrier
planes. Later, the decision was made that training women as fighter pilots
only to employ them as pilots of carrier planes was not cost-effective,
especially given their relatively short terms of service. Since then, and
until 1995, there was only one instance of a woman being accepted as a pilot
trainee.
In 1995, the Supreme Court decided in the landmark Alice Miller case that the
IDF could not claim logistical and budgetary constraints as justifications for
excluding women from serving as pilots in the Air-Force. Relying on the
Defence Service Law, 1986, the Army argued that the shorter mandatory service
required of women, together with their more limited reserve-duty obligations
and exemptions for pregnancy and childbirth, interfered with the ability of
the Army to make efficient use of the resources and funds invested in the
training of each individual pilot. In three separate majority opinions, the
Court rejected this line of reasoning, holding instead that the principle of
equality required the Army to overcome such obstacles and accommodate the
natural biological needs of women, just as it would the natural needs of men.
As Justice Matza stated: "Even if the assumption were that the average total
contribution of the female pilot--from the point of view of length and
continuity of service-- were less than that of the male pilot, this is a
difference resulting from the very fact that she is a woman. This difference
may not be held against her, and it can be dealt with logistically." Justice
Matza, finding for Miller, suggested the Army conduct a trial period during
which it would admit a limited number of female pilots and determine whether,
in fact, such admission presented insurmountable obstacles.
The Army has since taken steps to implement the Alice Miller decision. Two
classes of women candidates have begun the pilot training course, and
guidelines have been established to adapt army policy regarding women's
service to the potential reality of women combat pilots. The guidelines
include provisions requiring women pilot candidates to volunteer to serve
additional time and perform reserve duty, logistical arrangements regarding
sleeping arrangements, and instructions regarding the event of pregnancy.
They similarly provide that despite the general policy according to which the
Commanding Officer (CO) of the Women's Corps has exclusive jurisdiction over
women serving in the IDF (discussed below), women pilot candidates are to be
subject to the jurisdiction of their course commanders. Perhaps most
importantly (in light of the army's general policy regarding women in combat),
the guidelines provide instructions whereby women pilots will perform combat
duties or duties in hostile territory according to the decision of the CO of
the Air Force, under the advisement of the Chief of Staff.
12.2. Women and Men in the Military--Some Data
Approximately 42% of all conscripted soldiers in 1996 were women. While
approximately 68% of draftable women were conscripted in 1996 (the remaining
32% receiving exemptions of one form or another), 83.3% of draftable men were
enlisted.
12.2.1. Women and Men Officers
The graph below compares the 1995 proportion of women officers during
mandatory service to the total number of officers, as distributed among the
various corps.
Chart 4 - Percent of Women Officers in Service (Mandatory and Career), by
Corps
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Thus, the greater the combat component, the smaller the proportion of
women officers. The graph below presents the same breakdown, this time for
women career officers. It may be noted that in no corps do women constitute
significantly more than half of the total career officers:
Chart 5 - Percent of Women Officers in Career Service, by Corps
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Because women do not serve in combat positions, they are excluded from the
upper echelons of the military hierarchy and confront a classic "glass
ceiling" in their efforts to advance professionally. As can be seen from the
table below, there were only nine women at the rank of Colonel in 1985 and
still only 11 in 1995, two of which served in Chen (the women's corps). In
contrast, there was a significant increase in the proportion of women officers
up to the rank of lieutenant colonel resulting from pressure from women
wishing to move up the hierarchy and supported by the CO of Chen, as well as
from the military's increased recognition of women's competence. It should
also be noted that in 1995 women constituted two thirds of the second
lieutenants, the lowest officer rank. The higher proportion of women junior
officers among those in compulsory military service is explained by the
profile characteristics of the women conscripted and the type of jobs women
do. Women are recruited at what in military terms is defined as a
significantly higher "quality-score" floor than men, and men with a high
quality-score profile are more likely to be assigned to combat than to officer
roles (Izraeli, 1997). Consequently, proportionately more women than men
qualify to be officers and more are used in jobs of officer rank--mainly in
the Personnel Corps. Furthermore, the proportion of women among Second
Lieutenants has increased significantly in the last decade, as jobs done by
women or to which women were transferred, primarily in the Personnel Corps,
were upgraded from Non-Commissioned Officer to junior officer, resulting in an
increase in the total number of officer roles at the lowest ranks:
Table 6 - Proportion of Women Among Officers, and Distribution of Officers by
Gender and Rank
1985 1995 1995
Rank % Women % Women Women Men
Major General 0 0
Brigadier 0 0
Brigadier General 0 0.8
Colonel 1.5 2.2 2 1.8
Lieutenant Colonel 4.6 10.3 2.5 10.4
Major 13.6 21.2 14.1 25.7
Captain 12.1 22.5 12.4 20.9
First Lieutenant 15.3 37.3 32.7 26.8
Second Lieutenant 66.6 35.5 8.7
Civilians Employed by Military 18.4 2.6 5.5
Total 32.8 100% 100%
Source: IDF Spokesman
The following table shows the differences between men and women regarding the
amount of time each serves in their rank before being promoted. At all
levels, women must invest significantly more time before they are promoted to
higher ranks. The graph differentiates between the General and Personnel
Corps on the one hand, in which there is a relatively high participation of
women, and "the rest" of the IDF, including combat related fields on the
other, where women's presence is far less marked:
Table 7 - Average Seniority (in months) Before Promotion- Women as Compared to
Men
General Army + Personnel Rest of IDF*
Advancement Women Officers Men Officers Women Men
Officers Officers
Lt. Colonel-Colonel 135.2 79.9 78.1
Major-Lt. Colonel 90.1 75.4 101.4 69.7
Captain-Major 49.6 48.5 50.4 48.6
First Lt.-Captain 40 31.9 37.9 31.4
* Including Male Combat Positions
Source: IDF Spokesman
To round out the picture, the following table delineates the average age at
which women receive their promotions, as compared to their male counterparts.
Table 8 - Average Age of Receiving Promotions
General Army + Personnel Rest of IDF*
Advancement Women Officers Men Officers Women Men
Officers Officers
Lt. Colonel-Colonel 48 40.1 39.4
Major-Lt. Colonel 35.4 35.9 37.3 35.3
Captain-Major 28.5 30.4 29.1 30.1
First Lt.-Captain 23.7 24.2 24.6 24.9
* Including Male Combat Positions
In 1995, a total of 3 officers were granted the title of Colonel.
One of them received her title at an advanced age.
Source: IDF Spokesman
The charts below compare the relative chances of men and women to be promoted
at various levels of rank, in 1983, 1988, and 1995.
Chart 6 - Relative Chances of Reaching High Ranks
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
12.2.2. Distribution of Men and Women among Jobs in the Military
In recent years, more jobs have opened up to women in the army. In 1976,
according to the abovementioned Commission on the Status of Women (1978), 210
out of 709 jobs were open to women, but women actually served in about half of
those. Approximately 70% were in clerical positions. In 1988 women served in
234 of the approximately 500 jobs open to them. In 1996 they served in 282 of
the 447 jobs open to them, while 178 were classified as combat positions and
were closed to women. We can thus see that many more opportunities are open
to women today than in the past.
The scope of this change, however, is significantly limited by the exclusion
of women from combat roles. While the Defense Services Law, 1986 no longer
differentiates between men and women as regards the jobs which they are
permitted to perform in the army, IDF policy continues to exclude women from
combat positions. A differentiation should be made between positions which
actually involve combat--which are closed to women--and non-combat positions
in combat fields, which are open to women. Thus, for example, women may serve
as instructors for jobs that are in fact combat jobs, but they are not allowed
to perform those duties in the field. A third category involves jobs
performed in combat areas. Combat areas are in principle also closed to
women, unless specific approval has been granted. No women today, for
example, serve in Lebanon, regardless of the actual content of the duty they
perform. Women do perform non-combat functions in the West Bank and Gaza. In
addition to the actual combat positions which are closed to women, various
positions, while not actually involving combat, have traditionally been viewed
as requiring previous combat experience and have thus been closed de facto to
women as well. These include Chief Educational Officer, CO of Intelligence,
CO of Personnel, Military Spokesperson, Chief Medical Officer, Chief Mental
Health Officer, Chief Military Prosecutor, and President of the Appeals Court.
The exclusion of women from these high-ranking positions has been criticized
as withholding from women what could be an alternative route to leadership.
The use of women instructors for combat units was introduced in the early
1980's and has become relatively accepted. Between 1983 and 1993, women's
representation among instructors grew by over 400%. Serving as an instructor
for men-only units is therefore among the most prestigious jobs open to women.
It should be pointed out, however, that the actual number of women instructors
relative to male instructors remains low. The following table presents the
breakdown of jobs held by women in the army, as compared with men:
Table 9 - Distribution of Conscripts by Gender and Job Category (1995)
Job Category Women Men
Quality 32.6 13
Maintenance/Administration 39.1 18
Officers 6.4 4.6
Combat Instructors 4.6 19.8
Technical 1.7 18.1
Drivers 1.9 8.8
Not Yet Classified 13.7 17.5
Source: IDF Spokesman
A look at the composition of mixed courses for various jobs in the army shows
the extent to which certain jobs are still considered "feminine," while other,
relatively prestigious non-combat jobs, have become gender-neutral. Over 90%
of participants in personnel and education-related NCO courses are women. On
the other hand, courses for computer operators, air photo decoders, field
security personnel, and flight supervisors have basically equal
representations of both men and women:
Table 10 - Breakdown of Courses
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
In certain areas, such as the technical branches, women's participation
remains low despite the willingness of the army to accept women into such
positions. This is mainly due to the fact that few women who are enlisted in
the army have the pre-army training necessary to effectively fill these
positions, and their short service makes it cost-ineffective for the army to
specifically train them for these positions. As the technological services
are among the most essential in the IDF, the lack of women's participation in
this area of the army, together with their exclusion from combat and their
exemption from reserve duty, mean that women are effectively absent from three
of the most significant branches of the army. The army has recently become
involved in various projects in conjunction with civilian industrial bodies,
designed to encourage women to enter technological fields.
One project, which has not yet been implemented, aims to encourage 9th grade
girls to enter technological areas of study in high school, the assumption
being that they would then continue working in these fields both in the army
and after. Another program aims to encourage women finishing high school to
postpone their army service while obtaining a degree in one of the
technological fields, and then serve in the army in a position connected to
what they have studied. This is part of a general program, called the Atudah,
which enables men and women to postpone their army service while completing
their studies beforehand. Women who join the Atudah program have a higher
chance of actually performing their army service in their specialized area of
study than do men, since men's ability to do so is subject to the army's need
for combat soldiers.
12.3 Interaction Between the Military and Civilian Life
Various researchers have referred to the paradoxical effect of the military on
Israeli women's status (Izraeli 1997). On the one hand, Israel prides itself
on being the only nation in the world where women, like men, are conscripted
for mandatory service in the military. Given the importance of the army in
Israeli society, this represents a mark of gender equality. However, military
service for most women is quite different than it is for men. While a certain
amount of progress has been made in the last decade regarding the improvement
of women's status within the army, and while more and more jobs have been
opening up to them, women continue to be excluded from combat positions. Thus
women remain excluded from the upper echelons of the military leadership.
In order to understand the impact of this dynamic upon the status of Israeli
women, it is necessary to understand the social and political significance of
the army in Israel. As a country preoccupied with security concerns, Israel
has been forced to invest a tremendous amount in the military, both
financially and socially. The army is therefore one of the most important
public institutions. Sociologists have pointed out the role that has been
assigned to the army as a major source for the formation and recruitment of
the political, and to a certain extent, economic elite (Izraeli, 1997; Yishai,
1997). It is an important channel for political recruitment and a recruitment
pool for civilian managers in business and industry. It also serves as an
educational and socializing agency and provides a source of personal identity
as well as of national pride and identification.
As sociologists assert, the role of women within the army, therefore, has
tremendous consequences for their status outside the army. The fact that no
woman possesses rank over Brigadier General and that only men are found at the
top echelons of the IDF, essentially means that it is only men who define and
detemine issues of national security. (Izraeli, 1997). As prestigious combat
positions are virtually the only avenue to the most senior positions in the
professional army, and the symbolic rewards and glory associated with them,
women's exclusion from combat units means their exclusion from the top ranks
of the army.
A recent study by Professor Izraeli shows that in some cases, the link between
military and civilian success has even been institutionalized. For example,
El-Al, Israel's national airline, recruits its pilots exclusively from the
military. While this policy is currently being challenged in the Labor Court
on the basis of the Equal Employment Opportunies Law-1988 (see Article 2), and
while women are currently being trained as IDF pilots, this restriction has
meant that women can never be hired as El-Al pilots.
12.4 The Chen--Women' Corps
Today, all women enter the army through the "Women's Corps" (called in Hebrew
by the acronym Chen). The Women's Corps was created during the War of
Independence and was based on a compromise between two competing models--the
"Palmach" model, in which men and women served in mixed units, and the English
model, in which women served separately in an auxiliary unit. There is no
"Men's Corps" in the army, and all other corps are identified by their
respective functions. Chen has formal responsibility for all women soldiers
with regard to military training (including officer training), job
assignments, discipline and judicial matters, as well as welfare and
well-being, including protection from sexual harassment. Since 1983, Chen has
had a Women's Corps Social Worker, whose job it is to assist women soldiers in
handling their unique problems, including how to proceed if pregnant, how to
manage various sexual issues, and how to deal with problems of sexual
harassment.
Until 1987, the rank of the CO of Chen was that of Colonel. Only after
intensive public pressure from women's organizations and women members of the
Knesset, was the rank raised to that of Brigadier General, one rank below the
CO of Personnel. Since the highest ranking woman in the IDF is a Brigadier
General, and since there is only one woman of that rank, no woman is of high
enough rank to participate in the meetings of the General Staff on a regular
basis. The CO of Chen reports to the Chief of Personnel and may advise the
Chief of Staff on matters of specific relevance to women. Until very
recently, the CO of Chen was rarely consulted on matters of general relevance
to women. For example, she was not party to the relevant decisions to cut
women's military service from 24 to 22 and then 21 months.
Until the mid 1970s, the gender regime of the military, like most other
aspects of the IDF, was not open to public critique. A number of social and
political developments in the 1970s paved the way for a greater awareness of
women's problems in and regarding the army, and in 1978 the report of the
Prime Minister's Commission on the Status of Women challenged the prevailing
myth of gender equality. The most direct frontal attack on the gender
practices of the military, however, came from hearings conducted in the
Knesset standing Committee on the Status of Women (1992-1996) and from the
1995 Alice Miller case (mentioned above).
12.5 Sexual Harassment in the Army
While the army has begun to recognize and deal with the problem of sexual
harassment, its handling of the issue has been criticized by women's groups
for focusing on treatment and guidance for the victims or potential victims,
rather than on educating the men soldiers and commanders to behave properly.
In the IDF, as in the civilian sector, it is lives of the women complainants
which are disrupted by their coming forward, rather than those of the sexual
harassers; the preferred solution in fact being to transfer the complainant
to another base rather than to suspend the man.
All women soldiers who are conscripted into the army are provided with
information about sexual harassment and about the options available to those
who experience it. They are encouraged to view harassment as the fault of the
perpetrator and to come forward and report the incidents. Confidentiality is
ensured, and the soldier's right to choose which one of the available services
she turns to is emphasized (i.e. Women's Corps Social Worker, Military Police,
Women's Corps CO, immediate commander, etc.). Various services, such as a
hotline for sexual harassment complaints and a program in which victims of
sexual harassment are provided with the counseling of a Chen officer, have
recently been implemented. A comprehensive proposal for dealing with the
phenomenon of sexual harassment in the army has recently been discussed, and
the likelihood of its implementation is high. This proposal provides a broad
definition of sexual harassment, emphasizing that it may be verbal or
physical, and that it may involve explicit or implicit exploitation of
authoritative position. It also obligates various officials to report to the
military police all instances of physical harassment which come to their
attention. Investigation by the police is then conditional upon the victim's
consent and the Women's Corps Social Worker's assessment.
In 1994 the Chen Corps issued an internal report discussing the phenomenon of
sexual harassment within the military, and found that most incidents of sexual
harassment and indecent acts resulted only in absurdly low fines to be paid by
the perpetrator. Recently, efforts have been made within Chen to ensure that
punishments for sexual harassment reflect the severity of the damage caused to
women soldiers who experience it, and in some cases sentences of 8 years
imprisonment have been imposed. Similarly, the Personnel Division of the IDF
recently decided to increase the severity of the punishments imposed and to
ensure that any career soldier convicted of sexual harassment be discharged.
12.6 Women in the Police
According to statistics of the Police Force of Israel, as of December 1995,
women constituted approximately 18% of the Police (3583 women, as opposed to
16,490 men). While in 1995 women constituted approximately 25% of the
applicants and only 12% of those who were eventually accepted, in the first
part of 1996 (until May), women constituted 20% of the applicants and 20% of
those who were accepted.
While the police force has no official policy regarding the areas within which
women may serve, various positions either require army combat experience as a
precondition for acceptance or indicate army combat experience as a preferred
criterion. Given the policy of the IDF regarding women in combat, discussed
above, this precondition effectively bars or hinders women from being able to
serve in such positions.
In 1996 a petition was filed to the Supreme Court by several women applicants
who felt that they had been discriminated against in their attempts to gain
acceptance to the police force, and especially to what are considered "combat
positions" within the force. In response to the petition, the Police decided
to establish a committee to investigate the issue of women in the police
force, and to reevaluate the policies according to which acceptance into its
various branches is determined. The petition has not yet been decided by the
Court.
ARTICLE 8
International Representation and Participation
State Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure to women, on equal
terms with men and, without any discrimination, the opportunity to represent
their Governments at the international level and to participate in the work of
international organizations.
1. General
Women in Israel represent the Government on an international level, however
the current numbers of women serving in this capacity are not yet equal to
that of men. The present level of women's participation in the foreign service
can be seen as a reflection women's overall position in the Israeli labor
market, particularly in the civil service.
2. Details on Women's Representation
The following table shows the number of men and women in the foreign service.
Table 1 - Representation in the Foreign Service
Home Office Abroad
Men Women %Women Men Women %Women
Diplomatic Status Diplomatic Status
Senior Ranks Senior Ranks
Ambassador 56 1 2% Ambassador 14 1 7%
Minister 30 2 6% Minister 45 - 0%
Minister Counselor 13 19 59% Minister Counselor 54 6 10%
Junior Ranks Junior Ranks
Counselor 45 29 39% Advisor 41 16 28%
First Secretary 29 40 58% First Secretary 36 14 28%
Second Secretary 8 16 67% Second Secretary 51 14 22%
Administrative Status
Deputy Director General 13 - 0%
Sub-Department Heads 9 3 25%
Division Heads 58 14 19%
Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs
In 1996, 55 men and 21 women were recuited to the foreign service which
indicates some improvement in women's representation.
Chart 1 -Percentage of Women New Recruits- Through the Years
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Table 2 - Number of New Recruits Through the Years
Year Total Men Women
1972 4 3 1
1973 9 9 -
1975 6 5 1
1976 13 10 3
1977 10 10 -
1978 10 8 2
1979 6 5 1
1981 13 11 2
1982 12 11 1
1983 16 11 5
1984 7 6 1
1985 9 9 -
1986 21 18 3
1987 9 8 1
1988 13 11 2
1989 11 10 1
1990 15 12 3
1991 20 16 4
1992 18 15 3
1993 22 14 8
1994 45 31 14
1995 52 34 18
Source: Foreign Ministry
While there is no formal affirmative action policy in the foreign service, two
years ago a decision to correct the discrimination in the numbers of women as
heads of missions (which currently stands at 91 men and 9 women) was made, and
a commitment to reach at least 50% female representation within ten years was
taken. Of the 9 women heads of missions, 4 are political appointments (as are
7 of the 91 men).
3. Women Representatives to International Organizations
Israel has representatives in three of the Human Rights conventions of the UN:
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women -
Dr. Carmel Shalev; Convention on the Rights of the Child - Deputy Attorney
General Yehudit Karp; and Convention on Political and Civil Rights - Prof.
David Kretchmer. The first two are women.
Among the representatives to the Peace Talks with the Palestinians, the
percentage of women varies. For the most part, there are no women in high
level positions, although at the middle working levels they are fairly
represented. This is partly a result of the fact that the talks are run mainly
by representatives of the army or by former army officials.
ARTICLE 9 Nationality
State Parties shall grant women equal rights with men to acquire, change, or
retain their nationality. They shall ensure in particular that neither
marriage to an alien nor change of nationality by the husband during marriage
shall automatically change the nationality of the wife, render her stateless
or force upon her the nationality of the husband.
States Parties shall grant women equal rights with men in respect to the
nationality of their children.
1. Citizenship
The Nationality Law-1952 states that Israeli nationality is acquired in one of
the following ways: through The Law Of Return-1950; residence in Israel; birth
or naturalization. Israeli citizenship laws do not differentiate between men
and women. Both genders have equal rights in regard to acquiring, changing or
retaining their nationality. Neither the change of nationality by one member
of a couple nor marriage to a non-citizen has any effect on one's
citizenship. According to the laws relating to citizenship acquired by birth,
both the father's and mother's citizenship carry equal weight.
According to The Law of Return, Jews and their relatives may acquire
citizenship upon arrival in Israel. The law defines a Jew as either someone
born to a Jewish mother, or a convert, and excludes Jews who have converted to
another religion. The familial relationship required to determine Jewishness
under The Law of Return is quite lenient and reaches back three generations.
Its leniency is reflected in the fact that even one married to a grandchild of
a Jew is entitled to acquire Israeli citizenship through The Law of Return.
In addition, other sections of The Nationality Law illustrate the identical
rights available to both men and women. Section 7 states that the spouse of
an Israeli national who has applied for citizenship through the naturalization
process and who meets all the necessary requirements may obtain citizenship
through naturalization even if he/she does not meet the necessary
requirements. Furthermore, Section 8 of the law states that naturalization
also confers Israeli citizenship on the minor children of the naturalized
person who were residents of Israel or the occupied territories at the time of
his/her naturalization. However, if the minor was a citizen of another
country, and both parents were entitled to custody, but only one went through
the naturalization process, the child will not obtain citizenship if one
parent declares that he/she is against his/her child becoming an Israeli
citizen. In any case, these provisions do not differentiate between the
parents at all on the basis of gender.
A 1980 amendment to The Nationality Law illustrates the effort that Israeli
legislators put forth to avoid discriminating against women. In section 4 of
the 1952 version of the law. It states that where one is born after ones
father's death, it shall be sufficient that the father was an Israeli citizen
at the time of his death in order for him/her to acquire Israeli citizenship.
Following the amendments this section speaks of the situation where one is
born after the death of either parent. Although practically this amendment
seems superfluous, it represents a legislative attempt to create total gender
equality within Israeli citizenship laws.
According to The Passport Law 1952, any Israeli citizen is entitled to a
passport upon request. Furthermore, in section 3 it states that a minister
may allow a child under the age of seventeen to obtain a joint passport with
either one of the minor's parents. There is no distinction between the
parents in either acquiring an independent passport for a child or in
acquiring a joint passport. Under regular circumstances the passport is
obtained upon the request of one parent. However, when parents are divorced
or due to other exceptional circumstances, the agreement of both parents are
necessary. In addition, since there are no restrictions on women's rights to
travel, Israeli lawmakers felt it unnecessary to protect these specific rights
in the law. Once again, the Israeli law in this area provides for equal and
identical rights for both men and women.
2. Residency
According to section 2 of the Entry into Israel Law -1952, entrance and
residential visas are issued based on the discretion of the Minister of
Interior. The visas are issued according to the policy set by the Ministry of
Interior. According to the existing policy, visas are given to spouses of
permanent residents of Israel on the basis of family unity, subject to
security and other limitations, and are distributed equally to both female and
male spouses.
Regulation 12 of the Regulations on Entry into Israel states that the status
of a child born in Israel but who is not a citizen is determined according to
his or her parents' status. If the parents have different status, the child
receives the status of the father or a guardian, unless the mother objects in
writing. In such a situation, the child will receive the status of the parent
as decided by the Minister of Interior. Due to the inequality in this
regulation, the current practice, is to skip the first stage and decide the
status of the child based on the parents' request. A child will be registered
as a permanent resident upon the request of the parents, after proving that
the central components of the family's life are in Israel.
ARTICLE 10 Education
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination
against women in order to ensure to them equal rights with men in the field of
education and in particular to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and
women:
a) The same conditions for career and vocational guidance, for access to
studies and for the achievement of diplomas n educational establishments of
all categories in rural as well as in urban areas; this equality shall be
ensured in pre-school, general, technical, professional and higher technical
education, as well as in all types of vocational training;
b) Access to the same curricula, the same examinations, teaching staff with
qualifications of the same standard and school premises and equipment of the
same quality;
c) The elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women
at all levels and in all forms of education by encouraging coeducation and
other types of education which will help to achieve this aim and, in
particular, by the revision of textbooks and school programmes and the
adaptation of teaching methods;
d) The same opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study
grants;
e) The same opportunities for access to programmes of continuing education,
including adult and functional literacy programmes, particularly those aimed
at reducing, at the earliest possible time, any gap in education existing
between men and women;
f) The reduction of female student drop-out rates and the organisation of
programmes for girls and women who have left school prematurely;
g) The same opportunities to participate actively in sports and physical
education;
h) Access to specific educational information to help to ensure the health
and well-being of families, including information and advice on family
planning.
1.General and Legal Introduction
The Israeli educational system consists of kindergartens; elementary schools;
secondary schools (vocational and general), which are sometimes divided into
upper school and middle schools, teacher-training institutions, post
-secondary schools for continued and vocational studies, colleges and
universities. The school year is approximately ten months long, and the study
week in elementary schools is between 30-35 hours. In addition to formal
studies, there is an extensive range of extracurricular activities. The
educational policy reflects the needs of Israeli society, including the
absorption of immigrant students, the advancement of disadvantaged population
groups and social and academic integration. The school system consists of two
streams: State and State Religious. The State Religious system is autonomous
with respect to pedagogic considerations and curriculum. The ratio of
enrollment of Jewish students in the two streams is about 3/4 in the State
system, to 1/4 in the State-Religious system. There are also independent
"recognized" schools outside the State school system, most of which provide an
ultra-orthodox Jewish religious education or Christian religious education.
The independent "recognized" schools operate as non-profit organizations,
financed by the government. The teachers who teach in those schools are not
employed by the government, but rather by the schools themselves. The
structure of the institutions and content of the studies in the non-Jewish
sectors are analogous to those in the Jewish sector, with necessary
differences that reflect the different languages and cultures of these
populations. This Article will focus mainly on the Jewish schools within the
State school system, which compose the majority of schools in Israel.
The Israeli education system is financed primarily by the central government
and local education authorities. National expenditure on education has
remained steady at 8.5% in recent years, but it is estimated that an increase
in the prioritization of education will lead to an increase in the portion of
the GNP allocated to education. According to the Long School Day Law-1990,
which was passed under the initiative of the Knesset Committee on Education
and Culture, and with the support of the Ministry of Education and of the
social lobby in the Knesset, the duration of the school day shall soon be
extended to eight hours. Although this law formally applies throughout the
country, due to budgetary restraints, it has so far been implemented only in
peripheral areas.
Through examining the legal basis of education within Israel, it is evident
that the law provides equal opportunities for both men and women. According
to The Compulsory Education Law -1949, compulsory education is required for
all children between the ages of 5 and 15. Education is provided free of
charge through the age of 17, and for 18 year olds who have not yet completed
the eleventh grade. In 1991 this law was amended and section 3B currently
includes a prohibition against discrimination in acceptance, placement, and
advancement of students. The State Education Law-1953, provides for a six day
school week and determines the content and procedure of State education. It
further states that State education is to be based on building society on the
foundations of freedom, equality, tolerance, mutual assistance and love of
mankind. It should be noted that this law applies only to State schools, and
excludes independent "recognized" schools. The Minister of Education,
however, is authorized, under the The School Inspection Law-1968 to apply
those educational goals to the independent "recognized" schools as well. The
Special Education Law-1988, mandates special education for individuals between
the ages of 3 and 21 whose capacity for adaptive behavior is limited and who
are in need of special education. The Council For Higher Education Law-1958
defines the tasks of the Council For Higher Education, which is responsible
for accrediting and authorizing institutions of higher education that award
degrees.
2. Illiteracy Rates and Educational Levels
An illiterate person is defined by the Ministry of Education as a person who
has had less than four years of schooling. The table below illustrates that
although the total illiteracy rate is higher among women, there has been much
improvement in this area.
Table 1 - Population with 0-4 Years of Education
JEWS
Sex and Age Thousands Years of Schooling
(percents)
WOMEN 0 1 to 4
Total 1,681.30 4.3 2.1
15-17 111.4 0.1 0.3
18-24 260.8 0.5 0.2
25-34 302.5 1 0.4
35-44 311.4 1.5 0.4
45-54 232.6 2.5 1.4
55-64 178.8 11.3 5.5
65+ 283.8 13.3 6.7
MEN
Total 1,588.00 1.7 1.8
15-17 118 0.2
18-24 271.2 0.4 0.4
25-34 307.9 0.7 0.5
35-44 302.2 0.8 0.4
45-54 219.8 1.5 0.8
55-64 156.6 3.6 4.4
65+ 212.2 6.3 7.3
ARABS and OTHERS
WOMEN 0 1 to 4
Total 318.2 13.6 6.6
15-17 34.1 2 0.7
18-24 74.1 2.9 1.5
25-34 83.9 3.6 3.2
35-44 54.3 8.7 9.5
45-54 32.2 31.6 18.9
55-64 20.8 47 19.6
65+ 18.8 67.1 8.2
MEN
Total 315.7 4.1 5
15-17 35.7 1.6 1.3
18-24 76.4 0.9 1.1
25-34 83.9 1.1 1.4
35-44 53.2 3.1 3.4
45-54 32.1 5.1 10.7
55-64 19.5 13 23
65+ 14.9 34.6 24.5
Source: CBS, SAI 1996.
It is important to note that although the median years of schooling among Arab
women is the lowest (9.7 years, as compared to 10.6 among Arab men, 12.2 among
Jewish women and 12.3 among Jewish men), there is a steady increase in the
educational level within the general Arab population, and when specific age
groups are examined, within the group of Arab women.
Chart 1 -Median Number of Years of Study of over 15 year olds
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Another indication of levels of education can be seen in the following table.
The table illustrates that there is a somewhat low percentage of graduates of
higher education. However, it difficult to gather an adequate understanding
of the current percentages, since this table includes past, generations, when
the education system was not as advanced.
Table 2 - Population Aged 15 and Over, and Last Educational Institute
Attended, (percents)
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
3. High Schools in Israel
3.1. Basic Description of the School System and the Opportunities Available
to Students in High Schools
In order to understand the relevance of much of the statistics and research
conducted, it is essential to have a basic knowledge of the Israeli education
system, especially the somewhat complicated divisions within the
post-elementary (secondary) schools. The first six years of schooling, from
the age of 6 to 12, are conducted in elementary (primary) schools. The next
three years (13-15) are spent in intermediate schools, and from the ages of 16
to 18, education takes place in high-schools. The Israeli secondary-education
system is made up of both technological/vocational and general high-schools.
Most of the students that take their matriculation exams study in the general
schools. The students within these high-schools select, with the help of
advisors, a certain track within which to matriculate. This is accomplished by
choosing to study specific subjects on enhanced levels. Towards the end of the
intermediate school, the tracking process begins. Researchers describe the
process as beginning in eighth or ninth grade, when the students are placed
with the direction of an advisor, in either the technological or general
track. As of 1985, 43.6% of girls studied in the general track, while only
27.7% of boys studied in the general track. Students are able to study most
subjects on a variety of levels, however, not every combination of subject and
level is possible or available; in addition, in certain subjects, such as
mathematics and English, a minimum required level of studies may be imposed by
the school. Both boys and girls are able to learn the same subjects
throughout elementary school and high-school. However, it is apparent that
there are differences between the sexes regarding courses of study.
3.2 General and Technological / Vocational Tracking
Table 3 - Students in Technological Secondary and Post Secondary Education
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
The table above depicts machinery or electronics as almost exclusively male
subjects. It further shows building and architecture as subjects studied
equally by men and women. Statistics reveal, as expected, that fashion and
nursing/paramedics are clearly female dominated fields. Surprisingly, the
majority of biotechnical engineers and technicians are women.
Table 4 - Matriculation Examinees and Percent Entitled to Certificates (Hebrew
Education), 1993/94
Boys Girls
EXAMINEES
Total 23,187 27,866
General 14,651 21,333
Technological/Vocational 8,536 6,533
ENTITLED TO CERTIFICATES
Total 14,130 17,887
General 9,771 15,307
Technological/Vocational 4,359 2,580
PERCENT OF EXAMINEES ENTITLED
Total 61 64
General 67 72
Technological/Vocational 51 40
Source: CBS Education and Culture, Selected Data
3.3. Matriculation Levels
In 10th grade, a gap in the math level between girls and boys becomes
evident. Statistics show that in 1985 there was more than a 2:1 ratio of boys
to girls in the five point math matriculation level. By 1992 there were no
drastic changes in these results, but the ratio was reduced to slightly less
than 2:1 (Amit 1993). It is essential to note that researchers show that the
achievements of the girls before the division into levels, which is done in
the 10th grade, are equal to or greater than the boy's achievements, and the
gap is created only following the segregation into levels. Thus, girls tend to
choose a matriculation level below their true abilities (Rom 1993).
Researchers believe that the differences and gaps in the professions, levels,
and achievements of the sexes are a direct result of the tracking system
(Amit, Movshovitz- Hadar 1989). The tracking may limit one's access to
certain areas in higher education and therefore effect the profession one will
chose. Thus, many researchers contend that the tracking system only helps to
amplify the inequality.
Table 5 - Matriculation Examinees, and Percent Entitled to Certificate, by
Subject
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
It is evident in the above table that approximately 2/3 of all matriculation
examinees are girls, and that a higher percentage of girls have passed their
matriculation exams. The table also illustrates that a higher percentage of
male examinees took the matriculation exam with two or more scientific
subjects, while a higher percentage of female examinees took the exam with two
or more humanities subjects.
3.4. Education Rates, Attendance Rates and Drop-Out Rates
Among the non-Jewish population, there has been a drastic decrease in the
educational gap between the sexes. While in 1949, girls made up only 18.6% of
the students in elementary schools, by 1979 they made up 46.9% of the
students. However, in comparison to the Jews, non-Jewish education is still
low. In 1995, the median educational rate among the Jewish population aged 15
and over was 12.2 years, as opposed to 10.2 years among the non-Jewish
population. Jewish men's median educational rate was 12.3, a little higher
than the Jewish women's rate of 12.2. Arab men's median educational rate was
10.6, quite a bit higher than the Arab women's rate of 9.7. However, among
Arab youth the gap between the education level of boys and girls is
diminishing. Statistics show that among Arab girls ages 15-17 the median
educational rate in 1995 was even higher than that of Arab boys of the same
age group, 10.6 years among the girls compared to 10.5 among the boys. The
median rate among the 18-24 years old in the Arab sector was the same for men
and women (11.6), and only among the older population group is the gap between
men and women visible. Approximately 95% of the non-Jewish communities in
Israel finish at least 8 years of education. The gap between the sexes that
existed in Arab education has been bridged, and surprisingly enough Arab girls
currently have a higher attendance rate (see table below).
As of the school year 1994/95, the attendance rates of 14-17 year olds in
Jewish education revealed that 92.6% of boys and 99.6% of girls were
continuing their education. Such post-elementary school attendance rates have
increased dramatically within the past years, yet the gap between the sexes
has remained steady. As of 1994/95, the attendance rates of 14-17 year olds
in Arab education revealed that 65.7% of boys and 69.2% of girls were
continuing their education. This trend of continuing education is apparent
through decreasing dropout rates. In Jewish education, there has been a
decrease in the dropout rates from 20.4% in 1971/72 to 5.5% in 1991/92. In
Arab education, drop-out rates have fallen from 25.3% in 1971/72 to 14% in
1991/92. There is, however, a problem with determining the dropout rate since
there are no official statistics taken by the Ministry. It should be noted
that the statistical data here is based on the amount of students that
register for school, not the actual attendance rate.
Table 6 - Attendance Rates of 14-17 Year Olds, by Type of School and Religion
Rates per 1000 in respective group of population
Girls Boys Total
Hebrew Education
1969/70 707 631 668
1979/80 865 729 795
1989/90 957 855 905
1993/94 981 909 944
1994/95 Total 996 926 959
Primary Education 23 28 25
Post-Primary Education
Intermediate Schools 177 180 178
Secondary Schools- Total 796 718 756
General 459 336 396
Technological/Vocational 337 382 360
Arab Education
1993/94 675 652 664
1994/95 Total 692 657 673
Primary Education 19 22 20
Post-Primary Education
Intermediate Schools 153 163 158
Secondary Schools- Total 520 472 495
General 404 341 372
Technological/Vocational 116 131 123
Source: CBS, SAI 1996
4. Talented and Gifted Children
The Minister of Education and Culture created a special Department to deal
specifically with gifted children. The Ministry's express goal is to provide
educational opportunities for gifted children which are suited to their
special talents and skills, while adhering to the values of democracy and
equality inherent in Israeli society. Some of the Department's activities
include: testing gifted children throughout the country, establishing unique
enrichment programs, and providing for in-service training and seminars for
teachers of the gifted. The Ministry of Education's data, depicts a 2:1 ratio
of boys to girls in the programs for gifted children. This ratio, calculated
in both 1992 and 1996, has remained constant. The Ministry claims that this
2:1 ratio, also exists throughout the world and in professional literature.
5. Classroom Interaction and Teacher- Student Relationships
Classroom dynamics are important factors in the assessment of gender
differences in the education system. Researchers state that teachers relate
differently towards boys and girls, often unconsciously, and are more
attentive to male students. This can be partly attributed to the fact that
behavioral problems are more common among boys. Yet the message conveyed to
girls is "to continue being cute and quiet," while the message to boys is "to
try harder and improve" (Avrahami-Ainat 1989). In addition, these low
expectations from girls lead to self fulfilling prophesies.
6. Activities and Educational Programs Adopted by the Ministry of
Education
in Order to Prevent Discrimination
6.1. Gender Stereotypes Within School Books
Research conducted on messages conveyed in school-books, from 1989-1992
examined books from various subjects and intended for different age groups.
The study revealed that women are depicted as being emotionally unstable,
overly concerned with their appearance, weak, lacking personality, ignorant,
jealous, disloyal, dependent, overly inquisitive, and as failing to contribute
to society. These characteristics create negative stereotypes of women. In
addition, men are mentioned in school books three times as often as women.
In 1993, in an attempt to combat sexist stereotypes, the Ministry of
Education, Culture and Sport issued a new list of criteria for school books.
Among these criteria are: 1) since Hebrew is a gender-specific language,
grammar forms should be used in order to avoid being exclusive; 2)
effort should be made to combat occupational stereotypes in textbooks and to
prevent new stereotypes from being created; 3) it is important to stress that
the choice of professions is open to everyone based on their individual
strengths, abilities and talents, without discrimination on the basis of
gender; 4) books must include equal use of descriptive character traits, so
that a specific characteristic is not used exclusively for either men or
women; 5) the activities and achievements of women should be described along
side those of men; and 6) equality must be conveyed through the writing style;
for example by not always referring to teachers in the feminine form.
Some critics of the education system point out that although the Ministry of
Education has created a list of "rules" for improving the current situation,
it must continue to act. These critics believe it is essential that: 1) the
Ministry of Education carefully examines all the books they publish and
concern itself with the content of privately published school books; 2) it is
necessary to educate teachers about the existing sexist messages in school
books, and to equip them with tools to deal with social messages that contrast
with the goals of education and of an enlightened society; and 3) women's
involvement in the Ministry of Education, especially at the higher levels may
help the next generation create a society in which there is more equality
between the sexes.
6.2. Other Instructions and Intervention Programs of the Ministry of
Education Which Aim to Prevent Discrimination
In addition to these concentrated efforts on the specific problem of
stereotypical images in school books, the Ministry has acted in a variety of
ways in order to eliminate and prevent gender discrimination. One such form of
action is through issuing internal instructions and guidelines, such as those
issued in 1986, in which the Ministry instructed nursery teachers to contain
themselves from pressuring boys to act masculine or girls to act feminine.
There are also stipulations set out by the Ministry of Education in 1987, that
currently guide girls to learn in technological schools, where in the past
these schools were only for boys. This is partly implemented through
cooperation with private educational initiatives, such as the Na'aleh Project.
Na'aleh, an intervention program carried out in some upper and middle
schools, allows for female students, parents, and school staff to work
together and make careful decisions about studying sciences, such as math,
physics, chemistry, and computers. These decisions include helping students
decide which level matriculation exam is appropriate for them, and helping
students choose a future profession. The program aims to increase the number
of female students studying the sciences on a high level and to influence
girls to study math on the five point (highest) matriculation level.
As a result of a report written following a one day seminar on equality within
the education system, which was organized and written by the Israel Women's
Network in 1993, the Minister of education created a budget of resources and
declared in the Knesset in 1995 a policy for the advancement of equal
opportunity between the sexes in education. As part of the new policy, the
Minister appointed a Supervisor on Equality between the Sexes within the
Ministry of Education. A steering committee of the Israel Women's Network
that consists of experts from different areas of education works together with
the Supervisor to offer advice and provide support. One of the Supervisor's
main activities so far has been the publication of a reader titled "A Gender
Found Its Equality", which includes many articles, reform programs, and
research findings on the issue of gender equality in education (Segen 1995).
Other activities of the Ministry under the initiative of the Supervisor
include: 1) building a training program for teachers; 2) establishing seminars
to create awareness of the problem; 3) teaching children's magazines to be
careful of hidden messages they might convey; 4) checking school books and
curriculums; sending reports from time to time to the general administrator;
5) creating a connection with women's organizations in Israel; 6) establishing
seminars for different audiences (teachers, advisors, administrators); and 7)
coordinating activities with the educational television, academic institutions
and local councils interested in the advancement of women.
The Ministry's plans for the future include, an experimental project known as
"Equality 2000." Initiated by the Israel Women's Network, this project is a
three year long intervention program which will be carried out within 5
different middle schools. While the execution of the program will be
undertaken by the Ministry, the Network's steering Committee will also be
involved. The project will involve 10-15 teachers within each school, who
will be specifically trained to deal with issues of gender-equality.
"Equality 2000" contains elements of both a research project and an active
intervention program; it is meant to bring about change in the attitudes and
behavior of teachers, advisors, administrators, students and parents regarding
gender equality.
In addition, a number of books have been published recently by Israeli
academic women, regarding gender equality in education. For example Her and
Him in Class by Avrahami-Ainat, published in 1989, provides the teacher with
important information, and suggests curriculums and activities aimed at
creating equality.
6.3. Young Leadership Programs in Schools
The position of girls in programs that cultivate young leadership seems to be
at least equal, if not better to that of boys. In every school there are
elections for a student council. Generally, representatives are chosen from
each class. The Ministry's statistics depict a slightly higher number of girls
chosen from eighth grade and above. Every school sends representatives to
the local council. This council is composed of representatives from schools,
community centers, youth groups, and different organizations. The national
council which is made up of 40 representatives from all sectors of society:
religious, secular, Druze, Arab, Bedouin; is currently headed by a girl,
although the majority of the representatives are currently boys. In addition,
three out of the four committees within the national council are currently
headed by girls.
7. Sex Education and Education on Family Life
In 1987 the Ministry of Education stated that a program on sex education and
education on family life is mandatory from first to twelfth grade. In
elementary school children are taught the meaning of being a girl or boy and
their respective roles in the family. In middle and high-schools the Ministry
tries to convey awareness, understanding and knowledge of the meaning of
force, being taken advantage of, and violence, as forbidden forms of
relationships within family and outside of it. The basic view of the
educational system is that sex education should not just include education on
the physical aspects of sex, but rather it should also include information on
the emotional and social aspects. The program concentrates on the following
topics: physical development, body image, sexual identity,
femininity/masculinity and equality between the sexes, family, reproduction,
interpersonal and couple's relationships, and sexual health.
8. The State Religious Education
When discussing the values that the Israeli educational system wishes to
promote among its students, the differentiation between the various streams
within the State educational system should be noted. Specifically, it should
be understood that the State-Religious education (SRE) stream is free to
establish values and norms that guide its operation. According to estimates,
21% of Jewish students belong to the SRE stream, or approximately 235,000
children, 50% of whom are girls. Most SRE schools are segregated, with
separate classes, often in separate schools for boys and girls. The
Administrator of the SRE estimates that, in the elementary level, 35% of the
classes are separate, and in the high-school level, 90% of the classes are
separate. The Administrator claims that the budget allocated to girls'
schools is the same as the budget allocated to boys' schools.
9. Teachers
9.1. Teaching- as a Feminine Profession
The teaching profession in Israel is composed primarily of women. As of
1992-93, more than 75% of all the teachers in Israel were women. Among Arabs
however, the gap between the sexes within the teaching profession is
considerably smaller. Furthermore as the level of the educational institution
increases the female majority of teachers decreases. This is illustrated
through the following 1993 statistics. in 1993, women made up 90.4% of
teachers in Hebrew elementary schools and 53% of teachers within Arab
elementary schools. In post- elementary schools women made up 70.2% of
teachers in Hebrew schools and 29% in Arab schools. These post-elementary
schools can be divided into middle school and upper school. Within middle
schools 76% of the teachers in Hebrew education and 32% of the teachers in
Arab education are women. In high schools, 62% of teachers in Hebrew
education and 26% in Arab education are women. The percentage of women
teachers has been steadily increasing throughout the past years.
Chart 2 -Increase of Women Teachers in Elementary Schools
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Chart 3 -Increase of Women Teachers in Secondary Schools
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Source: Dr. Hertzog, CBS
Table 7 - Number of Teachers, by Years
Source: CBS, SAI 1996
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Table 8 - Number of Teachers, by Type of School
Source: CBS, Ministry of Education, Culture, and Survey of Teaching Staff,
1992/3
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Table 9 - Teachers by Subject
Jewish Arab
Primary School
Subject Total %Women Total %Women
History 318 84.5 284 23.4
Bible 1,454 74.4
Talmud 1,429 39.5
Hebrew Language 608 36.1
Hebrew Literature 919 96.9 154 32.7
English 2,116 95.4 548 53.8
Arabic 1,453 50.2
General Teaching 16,545 94.6 1,699 69.1
Nature 1,872 92.3 524 34.8
Mathematics 3,273 89.5 1,130 47.3
Computers 569 84.4 92 39.8
Shop/Arts/Crafts 1,569 93.2 188 86.5
Physical Education 1,828 67 309 13.8
Jewish Arab
Middle School
Subject Total %Women Total %Women
History 1,072 75.8 118 25.6
Bible 1,599 74
Talmud 1,221 42.5
Islamic Culture 165 26.7
Hebrew Literature 1,466 93.5 187 25.7
English 1,746 89.3 315 45.5
Biology 1,054 86.4 131 45.8
Chemistry 159 77.3 71 31
Mathematics 1,963 76.1 391 25.6
Physics 529 63.4 84 32.1
Computers 290 67.1 63 30.2
Electronics 59 15.3 5
Accounting 28 76
Jewish Arab
High School
Subject Total %Women Total %Women
History 1,490 64.9 140 10.9
Bible 2,203 68.5
Talmud 874 28.3
Islamic Culture 72 15.3
Hebrew Literature 1,811 87.8 141 90.3
English 2,174 84.9 281 48.9
Biology 1,071 78.8 164 27.4
Chemistry 667 79.9 128 19.7
Mathematics 2,200 65.8 310 20.8
Physics 840 40.3 135 10.8
Computers 379 67.6 72 16.9
Electronics 72 18.3 7 0
Accounting 86 87.2
Source: CBS
9.2. Teacher's Salaries
Inequality exists in the salary levels of men and women working within the
educational system. Statistics reflect this relative inequality among the
teaching staff. Recent data supplied by the Treasury Ministry regarding
teachers' salaries who are employed by the Ministry of Education for full-time
work reveals that overall, women earn on average 87% of men's salaries.
The table below which details the number of teachers in each salary level,
further illustrates the differences in the salaries of men and women within
the educational system.
Table 10- Salary Levels
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
9.3. Administrative Positions.
The number of men working in educational institutions increases with the level
of the position. Relative to men, there are many more women who have
acquired Master and Doctorate degrees, yet who still work in
non-administrative positions within the educational system (Hertzog).
Table 11- Teaching and Administrative Positions
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
The number of men teaching in religious educational institutions is greater
than that in secular institutions. In institutions that are more
gender-segregated or that are independent (Arab or religious) men hold more
teaching positions. Furthermore, men hold a large number of administrative
positions within these schools.
Table 12- Teaching and Administrative Positions in Arab Schools
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
The number of women currently studying to be teachers illustrates the fact
that this trend is unlikely to change in the near future.
Table 13- Teacher Training Colleges
1969/70 1979/80 1984/85 1989/90 1994/95 1995/96
Hebrew Education
Total Students 4,994 11,285 12,482 12,333 18,380 20,003
%Men 13.9 10.3 15.7 16.6 16.3 15.9
%Women 86.1 89.7 84.3 83.4 83.7 84.1
Hebrew Education
Total Students 370 485 423 576 1,193 1,598
%Men 46.9 45.2 49.9 22.9 16.2 12.9
%Women 53.1 54.8 50.1 77.1 83.8 87.1
Source: CBS, SAI 1996
10. Physical Education and Sports
The Sports Law-1988 provides for equality within sports and physical
education. Section 10B of this law requires that the regulations of a sports
union or association include statements concerning the equal opportunity of
women to sports and physical education.
In Israel, girls make up 21% of all those involved in competitive sports. In
countries throughout Western Europe 35%-40% of competitive athletes are women.
Within athletic institutions and organizations in Israel, there are almost no
women in senior positions, despite the fact that many female students
graduate from physical education colleges. Only 5% of the administrators of
sports unions are women, and between 10%-15% of coaches are women. In regard
to competitive sports, women's teams receive a coverage of 5% relative to
men's competitions.
In 1993, the Dekel Committee which was established by the Ministry of
Education, Culture and Sport as the committee for the advancement and
development of physical education and sport in both formal and informal
education within Israel, presented its recommendations. The committee
requested the establishment of a sub-committee for the special purpose of
examining and improving the situation of women's sports. The sub-committee
suggested that a special unit for the advancement of physical education and
sport for girls and women should be established. The special unit for the
advancement of women in sport, recommended by the sub-committee, was
established in 1994 in accordance with the new policies of Deputy Minister of
Education Culture and Sport. The purpose of the unit includes increasing the
number of women involved in different branches of competitive sports, the
number of women coaches, and the amount of women as decision making
administrators. Furthermore this unit intends to initiate a program to widen
the knowledge and research on girls and women in sport. The unit decided that
there was no need for formal legislation and that the legislative situation
for equality in sports was sufficient as a result of the Sports Law-1988 and
the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against
Women.
In addition, the sub-committee decided to adopt policies of affirmative action
in order to increase the amount of female participation in competitive sports.
This sub-committee has also created a list of instructions which it plans to
enforce within the education system. For example, a school will only be
allowed to participate in sports competitions on the condition that 40% of the
students involved are girls. Furthermore, if a school does not have a minimum
participation of 30% girls on their selected sports team, they will not
receive financial aid or be allowed to participate in competitions. It is also
recommended that school administrators develop programs that make teachers,
parents and students, aware of the importance of the involvement of girls in
sports and the importance of equal opportunities in physical education and
sport. Administrators can accomplish this goal by creating programs
encouraging girls' involvement in sports such as training seminars, special
sports days and events, and meetings with outstanding female athletes.
Recommendations to elementary schools and middle schools include requiring
sport classes to consist of at least 40% girls. Recommendations for high
schools include the equal distribution of resources such as convenient times
for competitions, uniforms and equipment. There should also be a program
parallel to that of the boys which prepare girls to be physically fit for the
army.
The sub-committee stresses: 1) the importance of programs in teachers'
training colleges that create awareness of the need for equality in sports
and physical education; 2) the inclusion of programs for the advancement of
female graduates of such teaching training colleges to administrative
positions in the physical education system; 3) the encouragement of these
graduates to belong to Israeli and international unions that promote the
advancement of physical education and sports for women; 4) the involvement
in supervising post-high school programs, such as rewarding exceptional
female athletes with scholarships; and 5) the belief that they must involve
the media to help change popular attitudes towards women in sport..
Until 1996 the following activities had been executed in order to improve the
situation of women in sports. The Ministry of Education and Sport established
a union of sports among the schools. The union includes a budget that is
favorable towards the women's teams. Within the budgeting of the sports
authority, there is an equal distribution of the total amount of money spent
on sports for men and women, while for competitive sports, 50% more money is
spent on women's teams. These extra funds are part of an affirmative action
policy to improve the current discrimination
Furthermore, in 1995 Israel adopted the 1994 Brighton Declaration, which
states that every effort should be made by State and government machineries to
ensure that institutions and organizations responsible for sport comply with
the equality provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women.
In Israel, in addition to the funding from local municipalities and the
Ministry, much of the funding used to encourage and support sports is acquired
through the lottery. The Committee involved in the division of this money
recommends that there should be no discrimination in the division of funds,
and that women's sports should be equally supported. As a result, changes took
place in the monetary division of the lottery funding within basketball.
Where in 1994 the men's national budget was double that of women's, according
to the new directives the budget would be equal.
Supplementing these developments, there has been some litigation in this area.
In The Basketball Union of Israel v. L.C.N. For the Advancement of Basketball
for Women, there was a discussion on the discriminatory regulations of the
union of basketball in Israel. These regulations state that while the men's
national league is allowed to sign foreign players, the women's league is not.
Furthermore, the men's team is allowed to spend more money than the woman's
team. The District Court invalidated the discriminatory sections of the
regulations because they were against public policy and in contradiction to
section 10 of The Sports Law-1988 (see introduction to physical education).
The Israeli Basketball union appealed to the Supreme court, which accepted
their appeal on formal grounds without dealing directly with the issue. The
internal court within the sports union later accepted the claim of
discrimination.
Recently, one of the leading women's national basketball team, turned to the
High Court of Justice because they were receiving half the amount of funding
as the men's team. The court decided to establish a nation-wide committee
which would create tests and criteria on the issue of a local municipality's
monetary support to sports groups so that there will be equality between male
and female sports teams.
11. Higher Education
11.1. Women as Students
11.1.1. Opportunities
Everyone, regardless of gender, has the same opportunity to study any subject,
or major in whatever they wish, at the level of higher education.
Opportunities are limited to the extent that certain departments have
prerequisites which require students to have taken high level math or science
matriculation exams. As discussed earlier, many girls do not sign up for
these high level classes and as a result are limited in their choice of
subjects in higher education.
11.1.2. Percentages of University Students and Graduates
In 1995, statistics showed that 55% of undergraduate students in Israel are
women. This favorable majority of women within higher education is only
matched by France, in which the female percentage in higher education slightly
exceeds that of Israel. In addition, over 50% of all graduate students in
Israel are women. This percentage exceeds that of all countries except the
United States where the percentages are basically equal to those in Israel.
The percentage of women among university degree recipients is similar to their
share in the total number of students, and women participate equally in the
higher education system overall. In addition, it must be noted that among the
students receiving third degrees, women number less than half. In 1992/93,
women accounted for 56.2% of all undergraduate students, 53.6% of master's
degree students, and 43.8% of doctoral students.
Table 14 - Students in Universities, by Degree and Subject
Source: CBS, SAI 1996
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Table 15- Students in Universities
Source: CBS, SAI 1996
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
The following two tables provide data on the recipients of degrees: The first
provides the numerical progression of women students throughout the years in
absolute numbers.
Table 16- Recipients of Degrees From Universities
Source: Council for Higher Education, Planning and Budgeting Committee
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
The second table shows the breakdown of degrees earned by subject and level.
Here too it is apparent that women concentrate in certain topics, such as
humanities, and are less likely to enter fields such as Business and
Mathematics / Computers.
Table 17- Women Recipients of University Degrees, by Fields of Study 1992/93
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Other statistics show that women make up a large majority of those studying
health care (93%) and studying to be teachers (84%), but are underrepresented
in the technological fields (20%). Their presence in the humanities is high
(71.4%), while only 13.3% of those studying to become engineers and
archaeologists are women. Statistics further demonstrate that there is
approximately equal numbers of men and woman studying medicine (46% women),
law (46% women), and the social sciences (59% women).
11.2. Average Age at Which Students Receive Each Degree
The next two tables show the number of students in university by median age,
and the percentage of students aged 20-29 enrolled in universities. Women
prove to be generally younger than men when receiving their bachelor's
degrees, 26.0 versus 27.6, mainly due to the fact that their mandatory army
service is one year shorter than that of their male counterparts. For master's
degrees, however, the median age for women is virtually identical to that for
men, and for doctoral degrees, the median age for men (35.7) is a year lower
than that for women (36.7).
Table 18- Median Age of Recipients of Degrees, 1989/90
It was not possible at this time to reproduce the chart or table which appears
here in the text, but you may obtain it by contacting the Division for the
Advancement of Women directly.
Although in the past, the percentage of men aged 20-29 enrolled in university
was higher than the percentage of women, by the mid-1980's the numbers were
approximately even, and by 1993, the percentage of women surpassed that of the
men, with more than 10% of that population group enrolled in university.
Table 19- Enrollment in Universities
percents of ages 20-29 in the Jewish population
1964/65 1969/70 1974/75 1984/85 1989/90 1992/93
Total 3.8 6.3 7.2 7.6 8 8.9
Men 5.4 7 8 7.5 7.3 7.8
Women 2.8 5.6 6.3 7.6 8.7 10.1
11.3. Non-University Higher Education
Aside from Government Universities, a number of alternative institutions of
higher education, and institutions which grant diplomas other than bachelor's,
master's and doctorate degrees exist in Israel. The following table shows the
number of men and women students earning their first degrees in such
institutions in 1996, and their breakdown by various fields. Once again, while
women make up more than half of the total students, it is apparent that there
are certain professions preferred by each sex.
Table 20- First Degree Students in Non-University Institutions for Higher
Learning
Year/Subject Total Men Women %Women
1995/96- Total 23,747 8,582 15,165 64%
Teacher Training 10,781 1,364 9,417 87%
Technology Sciences 2,497 1,894 603 24%
Economics and Business
Administration 4,923 3,299 1,624 33%
Arts Design and Architecture 2,201 790 1,411 64%
Law 973 409 564 58%
Communication 1,032 341 691 67%
Social Sciences 1,340 485 855 64%
Source: CBS, SAI 1996
11.4. Minorities in Higher Education
Among non-Jewish communities in Israel, the amount of female students
decreases as the educational level increases. The gap between men and women
who pursue post-secondary degrees, which is relatively small among Jews, is
rather large among other communities. More than three times the number of
men receive higher education.
11/5. Women in the Academic Staff
11.5.1. Percentage of Women Among the Academic Staff
As of 1992/93, women represented approximately 20% of senior academic staff
financed by the Council for Higher Education budget, while in 1978/79 women
represented only 16%. There is clearly an increase in the number of women
across the ranks, but as the rank increases, the percentage of women at a
given rank decreases.
The following table shows the number of women at each academic staff level,
and the percentage they comprise of the total. The graph illustrates that the
highest percentage women have attained is 33.9 in the humanities. And among
those positions attained, the majority are of the lowest rank, that of
Lecturer; while the percentages of women who are "full professor" are the
lowest of all