ÿWPCh Ê夼äÆ¿‹Ð­Ú=›Ë«ÂqhÐÎr1RáÜ1K)òË~&¤¦¨«º&æÆGD pl]uÞúpsÙ_"§5ÂAg‰¸Àf®Yà9•¿eæÝõø)°>22öâ‹ŒMùêÊ_˜þ—Ÿíã~)Ÿu¯VXׄ'¨Ü8zGÕ\ÄN´ñJ-|‘D’$W©ºÚÓÒ?6ÌíÀß‘ø‡ÞPo(C wCe²ŸÌý•zŽtmò_Ÿð]ËšTgâúF7ƒX@ª‹“-Ä Ðê«ÛÀ ¶þ Ë>)ëg <%<‘_Š®t‘o§ÒGÕ¦ÀÂE—*Á·ZìA QÔÌ%ô´sŽÝ!ÈT7KZ^ÚÀÍñïúêªòPßé7çM-£ÛÛ•V8²®¢…«‰3 /Íf–²*W£Ã°#bþº.:lJÙÛîÕÜÓÐrO;»¥ Ä,u›I"AýÎœ@XØ)¼ŽDdÁó+Z–ð(¯ö üiЙuÃrÏùÄ\äß-€Û€ö %qéØ+ìÑfñÙ~ù’ÙpQÎÑ~mnl¹‚©âÉj@rÍ]ŒÏà@B¢Ò 5Ôä/ f‹Æ† ·U댣5m¡|¬\u»]xQ)^ËâÅØ*M ?%3è²Gájï].#É„UNM %› 0:¡ 1uÛ 72PN‚ü„ 0V€ ^ Ö w4â 4 * 9 m; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; 0DR R R R R R R R R R R R 0*c– – 0wù 0Šp 0 ú 0´š 0ÇN 0Û 0ïð 1‰ß˜Dell Photo Printer 720PX,..,PX0(ÈhH  Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(ûœ$¡¡ÔUKUS.,Ô3#37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)i) òÝ ƒ =Î'ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ  ÓÔ‡¼„»XXÔò òEQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATION€„Ð ° ÐTEMPORARY€SPECIAL€MEASURES€(AFFIRMATIVE€ACTION)ó óÔ#†X °X»¼„I#Ô(.3=Î$§§Ý ƒûœ!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÝ  ݼ³6— DEDDDDUU o¤6P¦3|xÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ(F$ïïà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àà0p(#(#àÔ2#ÔÙ ÙÚ  ÚÚ  ÚÙ Ù)Ô3  Ôà0Èp(#p(#àÙ Ù(;3£$´´Ô2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  à(Oé;$µµà0  àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0` (#(#à(b·¤$¶¶à0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#à(xir$··à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0¸ (#¸ (#à(ŒÜ$¸¸à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0h(#(#à(ŸF$¹¹à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0Àh(#h(#à(³Àô$ººà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0À(#À(#à(ǵ{$»»à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0p(#(#à$&'()*+,xñ–Gaeimquy}Bullet ListBullets ListÝ ƒûœ!ÝÔUKUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ  ÓÖ€ÿÿÖÑ8€ °XXdìdÈ8Ñò òòòII.€GENERAL€COMMENTS€AND€RECOMMENDATIONSóóó óÐ   ÐÌÌÓ€ -$&'()*+,(ñ–x3ÓÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£bÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€VIII€€(Thirty„eighth€session,€1990):€Concerning€theÐ d Ä ÐInterpretation€and€Application€of€Article€1,€Paragraphs€1€and€4,€of€the€Convention,€A/45/18Ð P ° Ð(1990)€79.݃$3£bÝŒÐ< œ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  àThe€Committee€on€the€Elimination€of€Racial€Discrimination,Ðt(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòHaving€consideredóó€reports€from€States€parties€concerning€information€about€the€ways€inÐ ìL  Ðwhich€individuals€are€identified€as€being€members€of€a€particular€racial€or€ethnic€groups€orÐ Ø8  Ðgroups,ÐÄ$ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIs€of€the€opinionóó€that€such€identification€shall,€if€no€justification€exists€to€the€contrary,€beÐ œü  Ðbased€upon€self„identification€by€the€individual€concerned.ññòòññЈè (#(# ÐÌÌññóóññÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XIV€(Forty„second€session,€1993):€On€Article€1,€ParagraphÐ L¬ Ð1,€of€the€Convention,€A/48/18€(1993)€114€at€para.€2.݃$3£¼ÝŒÐ8˜(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  àð8ðÐp(#(# Ðà0  à2.€€The€Committee€observes€that€a€differentiation€of€treatment€will€not€constituteÐ ü\ Ðdiscrimination€if€the€criteria€for€such€differentiation,€judged€against€the€objectives€andÐ èH Ðpurposes€of€the€Convention,€are€legitimate€or€fall€within€the€scope€of€article€1,€paragraph€4,Ð Ô4 Ðof€the€Convention.€€In€considering€the€criteria€that€may€have€been€employed,€the€CommitteeÐ À  Ðwill€acknowledge€that€particular€actions€may€have€varied€purposes.€€In€seeking€to€determineÐ ¬  Ðwhether€an€action€has€an€effect€contrary€to€the€Convention,€it€will€look€to€see€whether€thatÐ ˜ø Ðaction€has€an€unjustifiable€disparate€impact€upon€a€group€distinguished€by€race,€colour,Ð „ ä Ðdescent,€or€national€or€ethnic€origin.ññòòññÐp!Ð(#(# ÐÌÌññóóÓ€ -$&'()*+,(ñ–xx-$&'()*+,ÓññÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£' ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXX€(Sixty„fifth€session,€2004):€Discrimination€AgainstÐ 4$” ÐNon„Citizens,€A/59/18€(2004)€93€at€para.€4.݃$3£' T ݌Р%€ (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ðø&X"(#(# Ðà0  à[The€Committee]...[Ô_Ôa]ffirmsÔ_Ô€that:Ðä'D #(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÐ(0!$(#(# Ðà0  à4.€€Under€the€Convention,€differential€treatment€based€on€citizenship€or€immigration€statusÐ ¼)"% Ðwill€constitute€discrimination€if€the€criteria€for€such€differentiation,€judged€in€the€light€of€theÐ ¨*#& Ðobjectives€and€purposes€of€the€Convention,€are€not€applied€pursuant€to€a€legitimate€aim,€andÐ ”+ô#' Ðare€not€proportional€to€the€achievement€of€this€aim.€€Differentiation€within€the€scope€ofÐ   Ðarticle€1,€paragraph€4,€of€the€Convention€relating€to€special€measures€is€not€consideredÐ Œì Ðdiscriminatory;Ðx Ø(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðd Ä(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£÷ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€4€(Thirteenth€session,€1981):€Article€3:€Equality€Between€theÐ ( ˆ ÐSexes,€A/36/40€(1981)€109€at€para.€2.݃$3£÷$ÝŒÐt(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐìL (#(# Ðà0  à2.€€Firstly,€article€3,€as€articles€2€(1)€and€26€in€so€far€as€those€articles€primarily€deal€with€theÐ Ø8  Ðprevention€of€discrimination€on€a€number€of€grounds,€among€which€sex€is€one,€requires€notÐ Ä$  Ðonly€measures€of€protection€but€also€affirmative€action€designed€to€ensure€the€positiveÐ °  Ðenjoyment€of€rights.€€This€cannot€be€done€simply€by€enacting€laws.€€Hence,€more€informationÐ œü  Ðhas€generally€been€required€regarding€the€role€of€women€in€practice€with€a€view€toÐ ˆè  Ðascertaining€what€measures,€in€addition€to€purely€legislative€measures€of€protection,€haveÐ tÔ  Ðbeen€or€are€being€taken€to€give€effect€to€the€precise€and€positive€obligations€under€article€3Ð `À Ðand€to€ascertain€what€progress€is€being€made€or€what€factors€or€difficulties€are€being€met€inÐ L¬ Ðthis€regard.Ð8˜(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£@ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€18€(Thirty„seventh€session,€1989):€Non„Discrimination,€A/45/40Ð ü\ Ðvol.€I€(1990)€173€at€para.€10.݃$3£@mÝŒÐèH(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐÀ (#(# Ðà0  à10.€€The€Committee€also€wishes€to€point€out€that€the€principle€of€equality€sometimes€requiresÐ ¬  ÐStates€parties€to€take€affirmative€action€in€order€to€diminish€or€eliminate€conditions€whichÐ ˜ø Ðcause€or€help€to€perpetuate€discrimination€prohibited€by€the€Covenant.€€For€example,€in€aÐ „ ä ÐState€where€the€general€conditions€of€a€certain€part€of€the€population€prevent€or€impair€theirÐ p!Ð Ðenjoyment€of€human€rights,€the€State€should€take€specific€action€to€correct€those€conditions.€Ð \"¼ ÐSuch€action€may€involve€granting€for€a€time€to€the€part€of€the€population€concerned€certainÐ H#¨ Ðpreferential€treatment€in€specific€matters€as€compared€with€the€rest€of€the€population.€Ð 4$” ÐHowever,€as€long€as€such€action€is€needed€to€correct€discrimination€in€fact,€it€is€a€case€ofÐ  %€  Ðlegitimate€differentiation€under€the€Covenant.Ð &l!(#(# ÐÌññÌÌÌÌññÐ ”+ô#' ÐÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£ÎÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€25€(Fifty„seventh€session,€1996):€Article€25:€The€Right€toÐ   ÐParticipate€in€Public€Affairs,€Voting€Rights€and€the€Right€of€Equal€Access€to€Public€Service,Ð Œì ÐA/51/40€vol.€I€(1996)€98€at€para.€23.݃$3£ÎûÝŒÐx Ø(#(# ÐŒÝ  Ýññ€ññÌà0  à...ÐP °(#(# Ðà0  à23.€€Subparagraph€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€of€article€25€deals€with€the€right€and€the€opportunity€of€citizens€to€haveÐ < œ Ðaccess€on€general€terms€of€equality€to€public€service€positions.€€To€ensure€access€on€generalÐ ( ˆ Ðterms€of€equality,€the€criteria€and€processes€for€appointment,€promotion,€suspension€andÐ t Ðdismissal€must€be€objective€and€reasonable.€€Affirmative€measures€may€be€taken€inÐ ` Ðappropriate€cases€to€ensure€that€there€is€equal€access€to€public€service€for€all€citizens.€€BasingÐ ìL  Ðaccess€to€public€service€on€equal€opportunity€and€general€principles€of€merit,€and€providingÐ Ø8  Ðsecured€tenure,€ensures€that€persons€holding€public€service€positions€are€free€from€politicalÐ Ä$  Ðinterference€or€pressures.€€It€is€of€particular€importance€to€ensure€that€persons€do€not€sufferÐ °  Ðdiscrimination€in€the€exercise€of€their€rights€under€article€25,€subparagraph€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô),€on€any€of€theÐ œü  Ðgrounds€set€out€in€article€2,€paragraph€1.€Ðˆè (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£o!ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICESCRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€13€(Twenty„first€session,€1999):€Article€13:€The€Right€toÐ L¬ ÐEducation,€E/2000/22€(1999)€111€at€para.€32.€Ýƒ$3£o!œ!ÝŒÐ8˜(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ðp(#(# Ðà0  à32.€€The€adoption€of€temporary€special€measures€intended€to€bring€about€òòde€factoóó€equalityÐ ü\ Ðfor€men€and€women,€and€disadvantaged€groups,€is€not€a€violation€of€the€right€to€non„Ð èH Ðdiscrimination€with€regard€to€education,€so€long€as€such€measures€do€not€lead€to€theÐ Ô4 Ðmaintenance€of€unequal€or€separate€standards€for€different€groups,€and€provided€they€are€notÐ À  Ðcontinued€after€the€objectives€for€which€they€were€taken€have€been€achieved.€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£7%ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€5€(Seventh€session,€1988):€Temporary€Special€Measures,€Ð p!Ð ÐA/43/38€(1988)€109.݃$3£7%d%ÝŒÐ\"¼(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  àThe€Committee€on€the€Elimination€of€Discrimination€against€Women,Ð4$”(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòTaking€noteóó€that€the€reports,€the€introductory€remarks€and€the€replies€by€States€parties€revealÐ  &l! Ðthat€while€significant€progress€has€been€achieved€in€regard€to€repealing€or€modifyingÐ ø&X" Ðdiscriminatory€laws,€there€is€still€a€need€for€action€to€be€taken€to€implement€fully€theÐ ä'D # ÐConvention€by€introducing€measures€to€promote€de€facto€equality€between€men€and€women,ÐÐ(0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòRecallingóó€article€4.1€of€the€Convention,Ш*#&(#(# ÐÐ ”+ô#' Ðà0  àòòRecommendsóó€that€States€parties€make€more€use€of€temporary€special€measures€such€asÐ   Ðpositive€action,€preferential€treatment€or€quota€systems€to€advance€women's€integration€intoÐ Œì Ðeducation,€the€economy,€politics€and€employment.Ðx Ø(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚$3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£s*ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€23€(Sixteenth€session,€1997):€Women€in€Public€Life,Ð < œ ÐA/52/38/Rev.1€part€II€(1997)€61€at€para.€15.݃$3£s* *ÝŒÐ( ˆ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð`(#(# Ðà0  à15.€€While€removal€of€òòde€jureóó€barriers€is€necessary,€it€is€not€sufficient.€€Failure€to€achieve€fullÐ ìL  Ðand€equal€participation€of€women€can€be€unintentional€and€the€result€of€outmoded€practicesÐ Ø8  Ðand€procedures€which€inadvertently€promote€men.€€Under€article€4,€the€ConventionÐ Ä$  Ðencourages€the€use€of€temporary€special€measures€in€order€to€give€full€effect€to€articles€7€andÐ °  Ð8.€€Where€countries€have€developed€effective€temporary€strategies€in€an€attempt€to€achieveÐ œü  Ðequality€of€participation,€a€wide€range€of€measures€has€been€implemented,€includingÐ ˆè  Ðrecruiting,€financially€assisting€and€training€women€candidates,€amending€electoralÐ tÔ  Ðprocedures,€developing€campaigns€directed€at€equal€participation,€setting€numerical€goals€andÐ `À Ðquotas€and€targeting€women€for€appointment€to€public€positions€such€as€the€judiciary€or€otherÐ L¬ Ðprofessional€groups€that€play€an€essential€part€in€the€everyday€life€of€all€societies.€€The€formalÐ 8˜ Ðremoval€of€barriers€and€the€introduction€of€temporary€special€measures€to€encourage€theÐ $„ Ðequal€participation€of€both€men€and€women€in€the€public€life€of€their€societies€are€essentialÐ p Ðprerequisites€to€true€equality€in€political€life.€€In€order,€however,€to€overcome€centuries€ofÐ ü\ Ðmale€domination€of€the€public€sphere,€women€also€require€the€encouragement€and€supportÐ èH Ðof€all€sectors€of€society€to€achieve€full€and€effective€participation,€encouragement€which€mustÐ Ô4 Ðbe€led€by€States€parties€to€the€Convention,€as€well€as€by€political€parties€and€public€officials.€Ð À  ÐStates€parties€have€an€obligation€to€ensure€that€temporary€special€measures€are€clearlyÐ ¬  Ðdesigned€to€support€the€principle€of€equality€and€therefore€comply€with€constitutionalÐ ˜ø Ðprinciples€which€guarantee€equality€to€all€citizens.€Ð„ ä(#(# ÐÌÌññÓ€ -$&'()*+,(ñ–xx -$&'()*+,ÓññÝ"‚$3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£Ô4ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€25€(Thirtieth€session,€2004):€Article€4,€Paragraph€1:Ð H#¨ ÐTemporary€Special€Measures,€A/59/38€part€I€(2004)€78€at€paras.€1„39.݃$3£Ô45ÝŒÐ4$”(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  àòòI.€€IntroductionóóÐ &l!(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1.€€The€Committee€on€the€Elimination€of€Discrimination€against€Women€decided€at€itsÐ ä'D # Ðtwentieth€session€(1999),€pursuant€to€article€21€of€the€Convention,€to€elaborate€a€generalÐ Ð(0!$ Ðrecommendation€on€article€4,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€AllÐ ¼)"% ÐForms€of€Discrimination€against€Women.€This€new€general€recommendation€would€build,òòÐ ¨*#& Ðinter€aliaóó,€on€earlier€general€recommendations,€including€general€recommendation€No.€5Ð ”+ô#' Ð(seventh€session,€1988),€on€temporary€special€measures,€No.€8€(seventh€session,€1988),€onÐ   Ðthe€implementation€of€article€8€of€the€Convention,€and€No.€23€(sixteenth€session,€1997),€onÐ Œì Ðwomen€in€public€life,€as€well€as€on€reports€of€States€parties€to€the€Convention€and€on€theÐ x Ø ÐCommitteeððs€concluding€comments€on€those€reports.Ðd Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.€€With€the€present€general€recommendation,€the€Committee€aims€to€clarify€the€nature€andÐ < œ Ðmeaning€of€article€4,€paragraph€1,€in€order€to€facilitate€and€ensure€its€full€utilization€by€StatesÐ ( ˆ Ðparties€in€the€implementation€of€the€Convention.€The€Committee€encourages€States€partiesÐ t Ðto€translate€this€general€recommendation€into€national€and€local€languages€and€to€disseminateÐ ` Ðit€widely€to€the€legislative,€executive€and€judicial€branches€of€government,€including€theirÐ ìL  Ðadministrative€structures,€as€well€as€civil€society,€including€the€media,€academia,€and€humanÐ Ø8  Ðrights€and€womenððs€associations€and€institutions.€ÐÄ$ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòII.€€Background:€the€object€and€purpose€of€the€ConventionóóÐœü (#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô3.€€The€Convention€is€a€dynamic€instrument.€Since€the€adoption€of€the€Convention€in€1979,Ð tÔ  Ðthe€Committee,€as€well€as€other€actors€at€the€national€and€international€levels,€haveÐ `À Ðcontributed€through€progressive€thinking€to€the€clarification€and€understanding€of€theÐ L¬ Ðsubstantive€content€of€the€Conventionððs€articles€and€the€specific€nature€of€discriminationÐ 8˜ Ðagainst€women€and€the€instruments€for€Ô_ÔcombatingÔ_Ô€such€discrimination.Ð$„(#(# ÐÌà0  à4.€€The€scope€and€meaning€of€article€4,€paragraph€1,€must€be€determined€in€the€context€of€theÐ ü\ Ðoverall€object€and€purpose€of€the€Convention,€which€is€to€eliminate€all€forms€ofÐ èH Ðdiscrimination€against€women€with€a€view€to€achieving€womenððs€òòde€jure€óóand€òòde€factoÐ Ô4 Ðóóequality€with€men€in€the€enjoyment€of€their€human€rights€and€fundamental€freedoms.€StatesÐ À  Ðparties€to€the€Convention€are€under€a€legal€obligation€to€respect,€protect,€promote€and€fulfilÐ ¬  Ðthis€right€to€non„discrimination€for€women€and€to€ensure€the€development€and€advancementÐ ˜ø Ðof€women€in€order€to€improve€their€position€to€one€of€òòde€jure€óóas€well€as€òòde€facto€óóequalityÐ „ ä Ðwith€men.Ðp!Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à5.€€The€Convention€goes€beyond€the€concept€of€discrimination€used€in€many€national€andÐ H#¨ Ðinternational€legal€standards€and€norms.€While€such€standards€and€norms€prohibitÐ 4$” Ðdiscrimination€on€the€grounds€of€sex€and€protect€both€men€and€women€from€treatment€basedÐ  %€  Ðon€arbitrary,€unfair€and/or€unjustifiable€distinctions,€the€Convention€focuses€onÐ  &l! Ðdiscrimination€against€women,€emphasizing€that€women€have€suffered,€and€continue€toÐ ø&X" Ðsuffer,€from€various€forms€of€discrimination€because€they€are€women.Ðä'D #(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.€€A€joint€reading€of€articles€1€to€5€and€24,€which€form€the€general€interpretative€frameworkÐ ¼)"% Ðfor€all€of€the€substantive€articles€of€the€Convention,€indicates€that€three€obligations€areÐ ¨*#& Ðcentral€to€States€partiesðð€efforts€to€eliminate€discrimination€against€women.€These€obligationsÐ ”+ô#' Ðshould€be€implemented€in€an€integrated€fashion€and€extend€beyond€a€purely€formal€legalÐ   Ðobligation€of€equal€treatment€of€women€with€men.€ÐŒì(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.€€Firstly,€States€partiesðð€obligation€is€to€ensure€that€there€is€no€direct€or€indirect€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòaóó/Ð d Ä ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôdiscrimination€against€women€in€their€laws€and€that€women€are€protected€againstÐ P ° Ðdiscrimination€„€committed€by€public€authorities,€the€judiciary,€organizations,€enterprises€orÐ < œ Ðprivate€individuals€„€in€the€public€as€well€as€the€private€spheres€by€competent€tribunals€asÐ ( ˆ Ðwell€as€sanctions€and€other€remedies.€Secondly,€States€partiesðð€obligation€is€to€improve€theÐ t Ðòòde€factoóó€position€of€women€through€concrete€and€effective€policies€and€programmes.€Thirdly,Ð ` ÐStates€partiesðð€obligation€is€to€address€prevailing€gender€relations€òòbóó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€and€the€persistence€ofÐ ìL  Ðgender„based€stereotypes€that€affect€women€not€only€through€individual€acts€by€individualsÐ Ø8  Ðbut€also€in€law,€and€legal€and€societal€structures€and€institutions.ÐÄ$ (#(# ÐÌà0  à8.€€In€the€Committeeððs€view,€a€purely€formal€legal€or€programmatic€approach€is€not€sufficientÐ œü  Ðto€achieve€womenððs€òòde€facto€óóequality€with€men,€which€the€Committee€interprets€asÐ ˆè  Ðsubstantive€equality.€In€addition,€the€Convention€requires€that€women€be€given€an€equal€startÐ tÔ  Ðand€that€they€be€empowered€by€an€enabling€environment€to€achieve€equality€of€results.€It€isÐ `À Ðnot€enough€to€guarantee€women€treatment€that€is€identical€to€that€of€men.€Rather,€biologicalÐ L¬ Ðas€well€as€socially€and€culturally€constructed€differences€between€women€and€men€must€beÐ 8˜ Ðtaken€into€account.€Under€certain€circumstances,€non„identical€treatment€of€women€and€menÐ $„ Ðwill€be€required€in€order€to€address€such€differences.€Pursuit€of€the€goal€of€substantiveÐ p Ðequality€also€calls€for€an€effective€strategy€aimed€at€overcoming€Ô_ÔunderrepresentationÔ_Ô€ofÐ ü\ Ðwomen€and€a€redistribution€of€resources€and€power€between€men€and€women.€ÐèH(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.€€Equality€of€results€is€the€logical€corollary€of€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality.€These€resultsÐ À  Ðmay€be€quantitative€and/or€qualitative€in€nature;€that€is,€women€enjoying€their€rights€inÐ ¬  Ðvarious€fields€in€fairly€equal€numbers€with€men,€enjoying€the€same€income€levels,€equalityÐ ˜ø Ðin€decision„making€and€political€influence,€and€women€enjoying€freedom€from€violence.Є ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€The€position€of€women€will€not€be€improved€as€long€as€the€underlying€causes€ofÐ \"¼ Ðdiscrimination€against€women,€and€of€their€inequality,€are€not€effectively€addressed.€TheÐ H#¨ Ðlives€of€women€and€men€must€be€considered€in€a€contextual€way,€and€measures€adoptedÐ 4$” Ðtowards€a€real€transformation€of€opportunities,€institutions€and€systems€so€that€they€are€noÐ  %€  Ðlonger€grounded€in€historically€determined€male€paradigms€of€power€and€life€patterns.Ð &l!(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.€€Womenððs€biologically€determined€permanent€needs€and€experiences€should€beÐ ä'D # Ðdistinguished€from€other€needs€that€may€be€the€result€of€past€and€present€discriminationÐ Ð(0!$ Ðagainst€women€by€individual€actors,€the€dominant€gender€ideology,€or€by€manifestations€ofÐ ¼)"% Ðsuch€discrimination€in€social€and€cultural€structures€and€institutions.€As€steps€are€being€takenÐ ¨*#& Ðto€eliminate€discrimination€against€women,€womenððs€needs€may€change€or€disappear,€orÐ ”+ô#' Ðbecome€the€needs€of€both€women€and€men.€Thus,€continuous€monitoring€of€laws,Ð   Ðprogrammes€and€practices€directed€at€the€achievement€of€womenððs€òòde€facto€óóor€substantiveÐ Œì Ðequality€is€needed€so€as€to€avoid€a€perpetuation€of€non„identical€treatment€that€may€no€longerÐ x Ø Ðbe€warranted.Ðd Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à12.€€Certain€groups€of€women,€in€addition€to€suffering€from€discrimination€directed€againstÐ < œ Ðthem€as€women,€may€also€suffer€from€multiple€forms€of€discrimination€based€on€additionalÐ ( ˆ Ðgrounds€such€as€race,€ethnic€or€religious€identity,€disability,€age,€class,€caste€or€other€factors.Ð t ÐSuch€discrimination€may€affect€these€groups€of€women€primarily,€or€to€a€different€degree€orÐ ` Ðin€different€ways€than€men.€States€parties€may€need€to€take€specific€temporary€specialÐ ìL  Ðmeasures€to€eliminate€such€multiple€forms€of€discrimination€against€women€and€itsÐ Ø8  Ðcompounded€negative€impact€on€them.ÐÄ$ (#(# ÐÌà0  à13.€€In€addition€to€the€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Discrimination€againstÐ œü  ÐWomen,€other€international€human€rights€instruments€and€policy€documents€adopted€in€theÐ ˆè  ÐUnited€Nations€system€contain€provisions€on€temporary€special€measures€to€support€theÐ tÔ  Ðachievement€of€equality.€Such€measures€are€described€in€different€terminology,€and€theÐ `À Ðmeaning€and€interpretation€given€to€such€measures€also€differs.€It€is€the€Committeeððs€hopeÐ L¬ Ðthat€the€present€general€recommendation€on€article€4,€paragraph€1,€will€contribute€to€aÐ 8˜ Ðclarification€of€terminology.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òòcóó/ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ$„(#(# ÐÌà0  à14.€€The€Convention€targets€discriminatory€dimensions€of€past€and€current€societal€andÐ ü\ Ðcultural€contexts€which€impede€womenððs€enjoyment€of€their€human€rights€and€fundamentalÐ èH Ðfreedoms.€It€aims€at€the€elimination€of€all€forms€of€discrimination€against€women,€includingÐ Ô4 Ðthe€elimination€of€the€causes€and€consequences€of€their€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€inequality.Ð À  ÐTherefore,€the€application€of€temporary€special€measures€in€accordance€with€the€ConventionÐ ¬  Ðis€one€of€the€means€to€realize€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality€for€women,€rather€than€anÐ ˜ø Ðexception€to€the€norms€of€non„discrimination€and€equality.Є ä(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIII.€€The€meaning€and€scope€of€temporary€special€measures€in€the€ConventionóóÐ\"¼(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticle€4,€paragraph€1óóÐ4$”(#(# ÐÌà0  àAdoption€by€States€parties€of€temporary€special€measures€aimed€at€accelerating€òòde€factoÐ  &l! Ðóóequality€between€men€and€women€shall€not€be€considered€discrimination€as€defined€in€theÐ ø&X" Ðpresent€Convention,€but€shall€in€no€way€entail€as€a€consequence€the€maintenance€of€unequalÐ ä'D # Ðor€separate€standards;€these€measures€shall€be€discontinued€when€the€objectives€of€equalityÐ Ð(0!$ Ðof€opportunity€and€treatment€have€been€achievedÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.м)"%(#(# ÐññÌññÐ ”+ô#' Ðà0  àòòArticle€4,€paragraph€2óóР(#(# ÐÌà0  àAdoption€by€States€parties€of€special€measures,€including€those€measures€contained€in€theÐ x Ø Ðpresent€Convention,€aimed€at€protecting€maternity€shall€not€be€considered€discriminatory.Ðd Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòA.€€Relationship€between€paragraphs€1€and€2€of€article€4óóÐ< œ(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô15.€€There€is€a€clear€difference€between€the€purpose€of€the€ð ðspecial€measuresðð€under€articleÐ t Ð4,€paragraph€1,€and€those€of€paragraph€2.€The€purpose€of€article€4,€paragraph€1,€is€toÐ ` Ðaccelerate€the€improvement€of€the€position€of€women€to€achieve€their€òòde€facto€óóor€substantiveÐ ìL  Ðequality€with€men,€and€to€effect€the€structural,€social€and€cultural€changes€necessary€toÐ Ø8  Ðcorrect€past€and€current€forms€and€effects€of€discrimination€against€women,€as€well€as€toÐ Ä$  Ðprovide€them€with€compensation.€These€measures€are€of€a€temporary€nature.а (#(# ÐÌà0  à16.€€Article€4,€paragraph€2,€provides€for€non„identical€treatment€of€women€and€men€due€toÐ ˆè  Ðtheir€biological€differences.€These€measures€are€of€a€permanent€nature,€at€least€until€suchÐ tÔ  Ðtime€as€the€scientific€and€technological€knowledge€referred€to€in€article€11,€paragraph€3,Ð `À Ðwould€warrant€a€review.ÐL¬(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòB.€€TerminologyóóÐ$„(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô17.€€The€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòÔ_ÔtravauxÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔprparatoiresÔ_ÔóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€of€the€Convention€use€different€terms€to€describe€theÐ ü\ Ðð ðtemporary€special€measuresðð€included€in€article€4,€paragraph€1.€The€Committee€itself,€in€itsÐ èH Ðprevious€general€recommendations,€used€various€terms.€States€parties€often€equate€ð ðspecialÐ Ô4 Ðmeasuresðð€in€its€corrective,€compensatory€and€promotional€sense€with€the€terms€ð ðaffirmativeÐ À  Ðactionðð,€ð ðpositive€actionðð,€ð ðpositive€measuresðð,€ð ðreverse€discriminationðð,€and€ð ðpositiveÐ ¬  Ðdiscriminationðð.€These€terms€emerge€from€the€discussions€and€varied€practices€found€inÐ ˜ø Ðdifferent€national€contexts.€òòdóó/€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€In€the€present€general€recommendation,€and€in€accordanceÐ „ ä Ðwith€its€practice€in€the€consideration€of€reports€of€States€parties,€the€Committee€uses€solelyÐ p!Ð Ðthe€term€ð ðtemporary€special€measuresðð,€as€called€for€in€article€4,€paragraph€1.Ð\"¼(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòC.€€Key€elements€of€article€4,€paragraph€1óóÐ4$”(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô18.€€Measures€taken€under€article€4,€paragraph€1,€by€States€parties€should€aim€to€accelerateÐ  &l! Ðthe€equal€participation€of€women€in€the€political,€economic,€social,€cultural,€civil€or€any€otherÐ ø&X" Ðfield.€The€Committee€views€the€application€of€these€measures€not€as€an€exception€to€theÐ ä'D # Ðnorm€of€non„discrimination,€but€rather€as€an€emphasis€that€temporary€special€measures€areÐ Ð(0!$ Ðpart€of€a€necessary€strategy€by€States€parties€directed€towards€the€achievement€of€òòde€facto€óóorÐ ¼)"% Ðsubstantive€equality€of€women€with€men€in€the€enjoyment€of€their€human€rights€andÐ ¨*#& Ðfundamental€freedoms.€While€the€application€of€temporary€special€measures€often€remediesÐ ”+ô#' Ðthe€effects€of€past€discrimination€against€women,€the€obligation€of€States€parties€under€theÐ   ÐConvention€to€improve€the€position€of€women€to€one€of€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality€withÐ Œì Ðmen€exists€irrespective€of€any€proof€of€past€discrimination.€The€Committee€considers€thatÐ x Ø ÐStates€parties€that€adopt€and€implement€such€measures€under€the€Convention€do€notÐ d Ä Ðdiscriminate€against€men.ÐP °(#(# ÐÌà0  à19.€€States€parties€should€clearly€distinguish€between€temporary€special€measures€taken€underÐ ( ˆ Ðarticle€4,€paragraph€1,€to€accelerate€the€achievement€of€a€concrete€goal€for€women€of€òòde€factoÐ t Ðóóor€substantive€equality,€and€other€general€social€policies€adopted€to€improve€the€situation€ofÐ ` Ðwomen€and€the€girl€child.€Not€all€measures€that€potentially€are,€or€will€be,€favourable€toÐ ìL  Ðwomen€are€temporary€special€measures.€The€provision€of€general€conditions€in€order€toÐ Ø8  Ðguarantee€the€civil,€political,€economic,€social€and€cultural€rights€of€women€and€the€girlÐ Ä$  Ðchild,€designed€to€ensure€for€them€a€life€of€dignity€and€non„discrimination,€cannot€be€calledÐ °  Ðtemporary€special€measures.Ðœü (#(# ÐÌà0  à20.€€Article€4,€paragraph€1,€explicitly€states€the€ð ðtemporaryðð€nature€of€such€special€measures.Ð tÔ  ÐSuch€measures€should€therefore€not€be€deemed€necessary€forever,€even€though€the€meaningÐ `À Ðof€ð ðtemporaryðð€may,€in€fact,€result€in€the€application€of€such€measures€for€a€long€period€ofÐ L¬ Ðtime.€The€duration€of€a€temporary€special€measure€should€be€determined€by€its€functionalÐ 8˜ Ðresult€in€response€to€a€concrete€problem€and€not€by€a€predetermined€passage€of€time.Ð $„ ÐTemporary€special€measures€must€be€discontinued€when€their€desired€results€have€beenÐ p Ðachieved€and€sustained€for€a€period€of€time.Ðü\(#(# ÐÌà0  à21.€€The€term€ð ðspecialðð,€though€being€in€conformity€with€human€rights€discourse,€also€needsÐ Ô4 Ðto€be€carefully€explained.€Its€use€sometimes€casts€women€and€other€groups€who€are€subjectÐ À  Ðto€discrimination€as€weak,€vulnerable€and€in€need€of€extra€or€ð ðspecialðð€measures€in€order€toÐ ¬  Ðparticipate€or€compete€in€society.€However,€the€real€meaning€of€ð ðspecialðð€in€the€formulationÐ ˜ø Ðof€article€4,€paragraph€1,€is€that€the€measures€are€designed€to€serve€a€specific€goal.Є ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à22.€€The€term€ð ðmeasuresðð€encompasses€a€wide€variety€of€legislative,€executive,Ð \"¼ Ðadministrative€and€other€regulatory€instruments,€policies€and€practices,€such€as€outreach€orÐ H#¨ Ðsupport€programmes;€allocation€and/or€reallocation€of€resources;€preferential€treatment;Ð 4$” Ðtargeted€recruitment,€hiring€and€promotion;€numerical€goals€connected€with€time€frames;€andÐ  %€  Ðquota€systems.€The€choice€of€a€particular€ð ðmeasureðð€will€depend€on€the€context€in€whichÐ  &l! Ðarticle€4,€paragraph€1,€is€applied€and€on€the€specific€goal€it€aims€to€achieve.Ðø&X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à23.€€The€adoption€and€implementation€of€temporary€special€measures€may€lead€to€aÐ Ð(0!$ Ðdiscussion€of€the€qualifications€and€merit€of€the€group€or€individuals€so€targeted,€and€anÐ ¼)"% Ðargument€against€preferences€for€allegedly€lesser„qualified€women€over€men€in€areas€suchÐ ¨*#& Ðas€politics,€education€and€employment.€As€temporary€special€measures€aim€at€acceleratingÐ ”+ô#' Ðthe€achievement€of€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality,€questions€of€qualification€and€merit,€inÐ   Ðparticular€in€the€area€of€employment€in€the€public€and€private€sectors,€need€to€be€reviewedÐ Œì Ðcarefully€for€gender€bias€as€they€are€normatively€and€culturally€determined.€For€appointment,Ð x Ø Ðselection€or€election€to€public€and€political€office,€factors€other€than€qualification€and€merit,Ð d Ä Ðincluding€the€application€of€the€principles€of€democratic€fairness€and€electoral€choice,€mayÐ P ° Ðalso€have€to€play€a€role.Ð< œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à24.€€Article€4,€paragraph€1,€read€in€conjunction€with€articles€1,€2,€3,€5€and€24,€needs€to€beÐ t Ðapplied€in€relation€to€articles€6€to€16€which€stipulate€that€States€parties€ð ðshall€take€allÐ ` Ðappropriate€measuresðð.€Consequently,€the€Committee€considers€that€States€parties€are€obligedÐ ìL  Ðto€adopt€and€implement€temporary€special€measures€in€relation€to€any€of€these€articles€if€suchÐ Ø8  Ðmeasures€can€be€shown€to€be€necessary€and€appropriate€in€order€to€accelerate€theÐ Ä$  Ðachievement€of€overall,€or€a€specific€goal€of,€womenððs€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality.а (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIV.€€Recommendations€to€States€partiesóóЈè (#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô25.€€Reports€of€States€parties€should€include€information€on€the€adoption,€or€lack€thereof,€ofÐ `À Ðtemporary€special€measures€in€accordance€with€article€4,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Convention,€andÐ L¬ ÐStates€parties€should€preferably€adhere€to€the€terminology€ð ðtemporary€special€measuresðð,€toÐ 8˜ Ðavoid€confusion.Ð$„(#(# ÐÌà0  à26.€€States€parties€should€clearly€distinguish€between€temporary€special€measures€aimed€atÐ ü\ Ðaccelerating€the€achievement€of€a€concrete€goal€of€womenððs€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality,Ð èH Ðand€other€general€social€policies€adopted€and€implemented€in€order€to€improve€the€situationÐ Ô4 Ðof€women€and€the€girl€child.€States€parties€should€bear€in€mind€that€not€all€measures€whichÐ À  Ðpotentially€are€or€would€be€favourable€to€women€qualify€as€temporary€special€measures.Ь (#(# ÐÌà0  à27.€€States€parties€should€analyse€the€context€of€womenððs€situation€in€all€spheres€of€life,€asÐ „ ä Ðwell€as€in€the€specific,€targeted€area,€when€applying€temporary€special€measures€to€accelerateÐ p!Ð Ðthe€achievement€of€womenððs€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality.€They€should€evaluate€theÐ \"¼ Ðpotential€impact€of€temporary€special€measures€with€regard€to€a€particular€goal€within€theirÐ H#¨ Ðnational€context€and€adopt€those€temporary€special€measures€which€they€consider€to€be€theÐ 4$” Ðmost€appropriate€to€accelerate€the€achievement€of€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality€for€women.Ð %€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à28.€€States€parties€should€explain€the€reasons€for€choosing€one€type€of€measure€over€another.Ð ø&X" ÐThe€justification€for€applying€such€measures€should€include€a€description€of€the€actual€lifeÐ ä'D # Ðsituation€of€women,€including€the€conditions€and€influences€which€shape€their€lives€andÐ Ð(0!$ Ðopportunities€„€or€that€of€a€specific€group€of€women,€suffering€from€multiple€forms€ofÐ ¼)"% Ðdiscrimination€„€and€whose€position€the€State€party€intends€to€improve€in€an€acceleratedÐ ¨*#& Ðmanner€with€the€application€of€such€temporary€special€measures.€At€the€same€time,€theÐ ”+ô#' Ðrelationship€between€such€measures€and€general€measures€and€efforts€to€improve€the€positionÐ   Ðof€women€should€be€clarified.ÐŒì(#(# ÐÌà0  à29.€€States€parties€should€provide€adequate€explanations€with€regard€to€any€failure€to€adoptÐ d Ä Ðtemporary€special€measures.€Such€failures€may€not€be€justified€simply€by€averringÐ P ° Ðpowerlessness,€or€by€explaining€inaction€through€predominant€market€or€political€forces,Ð < œ Ðsuch€as€those€inherent€in€the€private€sector,€private€organizations,€or€political€parties.€StatesÐ ( ˆ Ðparties€are€reminded€that€article€2€of€the€Convention,€which€needs€to€be€read€in€conjunctionÐ t Ðwith€all€other€articles,€imposes€accountability€on€the€State€party€for€action€by€these€actors.Ð`(#(# ÐÌà0  à30.€€States€parties€may€report€on€temporary€special€measures€under€several€articles.€UnderÐ Ø8  Ðarticle€2,€States€parties€are€invited€to€report€on€the€legal€or€other€basis€for€such€measures,€andÐ Ä$  Ðtheir€justification€for€choosing€a€particular€approach.€States€parties€are€further€invited€to€giveÐ °  Ðdetails€about€any€legislation€concerning€temporary€special€measures,€and€in€particularÐ œü  Ðwhether€such€legislation€provides€for€the€mandatory€or€voluntary€nature€of€temporary€specialÐ ˆè  Ðmeasures.ÐtÔ (#(# ÐÌà0  à31.€€States€parties€should€include,€in€their€constitutions€or€in€their€national€legislation,Ð L¬ Ðprovisions€that€allow€for€the€adoption€of€temporary€special€measures.€The€CommitteeÐ 8˜ Ðreminds€States€parties€that€legislation,€such€as€comprehensive€anti„discrimination€acts,€equalÐ $„ Ðopportunities€acts€or€executive€orders€on€womenððs€equality,€can€give€guidance€on€the€typeÐ p Ðof€temporary€special€measures€that€should€be€applied€to€achieve€a€stated€goal,€or€goals,€inÐ ü\ Ðgiven€areas.€Such€guidance€can€also€be€contained€in€specific€legislation€on€employment€orÐ èH Ðeducation.€Relevant€legislation€on€non„discrimination€and€temporary€special€measures€shouldÐ Ô4 Ðcover€governmental€actors€as€well€as€private€organizations€or€enterprises.ÐÀ (#(# ÐÌà0  à32.€€The€Committee€draws€the€attention€of€States€parties€to€the€fact€that€temporary€specialÐ ˜ø Ðmeasures€may€also€be€based€on€decrees,€policy€directives€and/or€administrative€guidelinesÐ „ ä Ðformulated€and€adopted€by€national,€regional€or€local€executive€branches€of€government€toÐ p!Ð Ðcover€the€public€employment€and€education€sectors.€Such€temporary€special€measures€mayÐ \"¼ Ðinclude€the€civil€service,€the€political€sphere€and€the€private€education€and€employmentÐ H#¨ Ðsectors.€The€Committee€further€draws€the€attention€of€States€parties€to€the€fact€that€suchÐ 4$” Ðmeasures€may€also€be€negotiated€between€social€partners€of€the€public€or€private€employmentÐ  %€  Ðsector€or€be€applied€on€a€voluntary€basis€by€public€or€private€enterprises,€organizations,Ð  &l! Ðinstitutions€and€political€parties.Ðø&X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à33.€€The€Committee€reiterates€that€action€plans€for€temporary€special€measures€need€to€beÐ Ð(0!$ Ðdesigned,€applied€and€evaluated€within€the€specific€national€context€and€against€theÐ ¼)"% Ðbackground€of€the€specific€nature€of€the€problem€which€they€are€intended€to€overcome.€TheÐ ¨*#& ÐCommittee€recommends€that€States€parties€provide€in€their€reports€details€of€any€action€plansÐ ”+ô#' Ðwhich€may€be€directed€at€creating€access€for€women€and€overcoming€theirÐ   ÐÔ_ÔunderrepresentationÔ_Ô€in€certain€fields,€at€redistributing€resources€and€power€in€particular€areas,Ð Œì Ðand/or€at€initiating€institutional€change€to€overcome€past€or€present€discrimination€andÐ x Ø Ðaccelerate€the€achievement€of€òòde€facto€óóequality.€Reports€should€also€explain€whether€suchÐ d Ä Ðaction€plans€include€considerations€of€unintended€potential€adverse€side€effects€of€suchÐ P ° Ðmeasures€as€well€as€possible€action€to€protect€women€against€them.€States€parties€should€alsoÐ < œ Ðdescribe€in€their€reports€the€results€of€temporary€special€measures€and€assess€the€causes€ofÐ ( ˆ Ðthe€possible€failure€of€such€measures.Ðt(#(# ÐÌà0  à34.€€Under€article€3,€States€parties€are€invited€to€report€on€the€institution(s)€responsible€forÐ ìL  Ðdesigning,€implementing,€monitoring,€evaluating€and€enforcing€such€temporary€specialÐ Ø8  Ðmeasures.€Such€responsibility€may€be€vested€in€existing€or€planned€national€institutions,€suchÐ Ä$  Ðas€womenððs€ministries,€womenððs€departments€within€ministries€or€presidential€offices,Ð °  ÐÔ_ÔombudspersonsÔ_Ô,€tribunals€or€other€entities€of€a€public€or€private€nature€with€the€requisiteÐ œü  Ðmandate€to€design€specific€programmes,€monitor€their€implementation,€and€evaluate€theirÐ ˆè  Ðimpact€and€outcomes.€The€Committee€recommends€that€States€parties€ensure€that€women€inÐ tÔ  Ðgeneral,€and€affected€groups€of€women€in€particular,€have€a€role€in€the€design,Ð `À Ðimplementation€and€evaluation€of€such€programmes.€Collaboration€and€consultation€withÐ L¬ Ðcivil€society€and€non„governmental€organizations€representing€various€groups€of€women€isÐ 8˜ Ðespecially€recommended.€Ð$„(#(# ÐÌà0  à35.€€The€Committee€draws€attention€to€and€reiterates€its€general€recommendation€No.€9,€onÐ ü\ Ðstatistical€data€concerning€the€situation€of€women,€and€recommends€that€States€partiesÐ èH Ðprovide€statistical€data€Ô_ÔdisaggregatedÔ_Ô€by€sex€in€order€to€measure€the€achievement€of€progressÐ Ô4 Ðtowards€womenððs€òòde€facto€óóor€substantive€equality€and€the€effectiveness€of€temporary€specialÐ À  Ðmeasures.Ь (#(# ÐÌà0  à36.€€States€parties€should€report€on€the€type€of€temporary€special€measures€taken€in€specificÐ „ ä Ðfields€under€the€relevant€article(s)€of€the€Convention.€Reporting€under€the€respectiveÐ p!Ð Ðarticle(s)€should€include€references€to€concrete€goals€and€targets,€timetables,€the€reasons€forÐ \"¼ Ðchoosing€particular€measures,€steps€to€enable€women€to€access€such€measures,€and€theÐ H#¨ Ðinstitution€accountable€for€monitoring€implementation€and€progress.€States€parties€are€alsoÐ 4$” Ðasked€to€describe€how€many€women€are€affected€by€a€measure,€how€many€would€gain€accessÐ  %€  Ðand€participate€in€a€certain€field€because€of€a€temporary€special€measure,€or€the€amount€ofÐ  &l! Ðresources€and€power€it€aims€to€redistribute€to€how€many€women,€and€within€what€time€frame.Ðø&X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à37.€€The€Committee€reiterates€its€general€recommendations€5,€8€and€23,€wherein€itÐ Ð(0!$ Ðrecommended€the€application€of€temporary€special€measures€in€the€fields€of€education,€theÐ ¼)"% Ðeconomy,€politics€and€employment,€in€the€area€of€women€representing€their€GovernmentsÐ ¨*#& Ðat€the€international€level€and€participating€in€the€work€of€international€organizations,€and€inÐ ”+ô#' Ðthe€area€of€political€and€public€life.€States€parties€should€intensify,€within€their€nationalÐ   Ðcontexts,€such€efforts€especially€with€regard€to€all€facets€of€education€at€all€levels€as€well€asÐ Œì Ðall€facets€and€levels€of€training,€employment€and€representation€in€public€and€political€life.Ð x Ø ÐThe€Committee€recalls€that€in€all€instances,€but€particularly€in€the€area€of€health,€StatesÐ d Ä Ðparties€should€carefully€distinguish€in€each€field€between€measures€of€an€ongoing€andÐ P ° Ðpermanent€nature€and€those€of€a€temporary€nature.Ð< œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à38.€€States€parties€are€reminded€that€temporary€special€measures€should€be€adopted€toÐ t Ðaccelerate€the€modification€and€elimination€of€cultural€practices€and€stereotypical€attitudesÐ ` Ðand€behaviour€that€discriminate€against€or€are€disadvantageous€for€women.€TemporaryÐ ìL  Ðspecial€measures€should€also€be€implemented€in€the€areas€of€credit€and€loans,€sports,€cultureÐ Ø8  Ðand€recreation,€and€legal€awareness.€Where€necessary,€such€measures€should€be€directed€atÐ Ä$  Ðwomen€subjected€to€multiple€discrimination,€including€rural€women.а (#(# ÐÌà0  à39.€€Although€the€application€of€temporary€special€measures€may€not€be€possible€under€allÐ ˆè  Ðthe€articles€of€the€Convention,€the€Committee€recommends€that€their€adoption€be€consideredÐ tÔ  Ðwhenever€issues€of€accelerating€access€to€equal€participation,€on€the€one€hand,€andÐ `À Ðaccelerating€the€redistribution€of€power€and€resources,€on€the€other€hand,€are€involved€as€wellÐ L¬ Ðas€where€it€can€be€shown€that€these€measures€will€be€necessary€and€most€appropriate€underÐ 8˜ Ðthe€circumstances.Ð$„(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðp(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐü\(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòaóó/€€Indirect€discrimination€against€women€may€occur€when€laws,€policies€and€programmesÐ Ô4 Ðare€based€on€seemingly€gender„neutral€criteria€which€in€their€actual€effect€have€a€detrimentalÐ À  Ðimpact€on€women.€Gender„neutral€laws,€policies€and€programmes€unintentionally€mayÐ ¬  Ðperpetuate€the€consequences€of€past€discrimination.€They€may€be€inadvertently€modelled€onÐ ˜ø Ðmale€lifestyles€and€thus€fail€to€take€into€account€aspects€of€womenððs€life€experiences€whichÐ „ ä Ðmay€differ€from€those€of€men.€These€differences€may€exist€because€of€stereotypicalÐ p!Ð Ðexpectations,€attitudes€and€behaviour€directed€towards€women€which€are€based€on€theÐ \"¼ Ðbiological€differences€between€women€and€men.€They€may€also€exist€because€of€theÐ H#¨ Ðgenerally€existing€subordination€of€women€by€men.Ð4$”(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòbóó/€€ð ðGender€is€defined€as€the€social€meanings€given€to€biological€sex€differences.€It€is€anÐ  &l! Ðideological€and€cultural€construct,€but€is€also€reproduced€within€the€realm€of€materialÐ ø&X" Ðpractices;€in€turn€it€influences€the€outcomes€of€such€practices.€It€affects€the€distribution€ofÐ ä'D # Ðresources,€wealth,€work,€decision„making€and€political€power,€and€enjoyment€of€rights€andÐ Ð(0!$ Ðentitlements€within€the€family€as€well€as€public€life.€Despite€variations€across€cultures€andÐ ¼)"% Ðover€time,€gender€relations€throughout€the€world€entail€asymmetry€of€power€between€menÐ ¨*#& Ðand€women€as€a€pervasive€trait.€Thus,€gender€is€a€social€Ô_ÔstratifierÔ_Ô,€and€in€this€sense€it€isÐ ”+ô#' Ðsimilar€to€other€Ô_ÔstratifiersÔ_Ô€such€as€race,€class,€ethnicity,€sexuality,€and€age.€It€helps€usÐ   Ðunderstand€the€social€construction€of€gender€identities€and€the€unequal€structure€of€powerÐ Œì Ðthat€underlies€the€relationship€between€the€sexes.ðð€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò1999€World€Survey€on€the€Role€of€WomenÐ x Ø ÐinóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòDevelopmentóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€United€Nations,€New€York,€1999,€page€ix.Ðd Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòcóó/€€See,€for€example,€the€International€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€RacialÐ < œ ÐDiscrimination,€which€mandates€temporary€special€measures.€The€practice€of€treatyÐ ( ˆ Ðmonitoring€bodies,€including€the€Committee€on€the€Elimination€of€Racial€Discrimination,Ð t Ðthe€Committee€on€Economic,€Social€and€Cultural€Rights,€and€the€Human€Rights€Committee,Ð ` Ðshows€that€these€bodies€consider€the€application€of€temporary€special€measures€as€mandatoryÐ ìL  Ðto€achieve€the€purposes€of€the€respective€treaties.€Conventions€adopted€under€the€auspicesÐ Ø8  Ðof€the€International€Labour€Organization,€and€various€documents€of€the€United€NationsÐ Ä$  ÐEducational,€Scientific€and€Cultural€Organization€also€explicitly€or€implicitly€provide€forÐ °  Ðsuch€measures.€The€Ô_ÔSubcommissionÔ_Ô€on€the€Promotion€and€Protection€of€Human€RightsÐ œü  Ðconsidered€this€question€and€appointed€a€Special€Rapporteur€to€prepare€reports€for€itsÐ ˆè  Ðconsideration€and€action.€The€Commission€on€the€Status€of€Women€reviewed€the€use€ofÐ tÔ  Ðtemporary€special€measures€in€1992.€The€outcome€documents€adopted€by€United€NationsÐ `À Ðworld€conferences€on€women,€including€the€Platform€for€Action€of€the€1995€Fourth€WorldÐ L¬ ÐConference€on€Women€and€its€follow„up€review€of€2000,€contain€references€to€positiveÐ 8˜ Ðaction€as€a€tool€for€achieving€de€facto€equality.€The€use€of€temporary€special€measures€by€theÐ $„ ÐSecretary„General€of€the€United€Nations€is€a€practical€example€in€the€area€of€womenððsÐ p Ðemployment,€including€through€administrative€instructions€on€the€recruitment,€promotionÐ ü\ Ðand€placement€of€women€in€the€Secretariat.€These€measures€aim€at€achieving€the€goal€ofÐ èH Ð50/50€gender€distribution€at€all€levels,€but€at€the€higher€echelons€in€particular.€ÐÔ4(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòdóó/€€The€term€ð ðaffirmative€actionðð€is€used€in€the€United€States€of€America€and€in€a€number€ofÐ ¬  ÐUnited€Nations€documents,€whereas€the€term€ð ðpositive€actionðð€is€currently€widely€used€inÐ ˜ø ÐEurope€as€well€as€in€many€United€Nations€documents.€However,€the€term€ð ðpositive€actionððÐ „ ä Ðis€used€in€yet€another€sense€in€international€human€rights€law€to€describe€ð ðpositive€StateÐ p!Ð Ðactionðð€(the€obligation€of€a€State€to€initiate€action€versus€a€Stateððs€obligation€to€abstain€fromÐ \"¼ Ðaction).€Hence,€the€term€ð ðpositive€actionðð€is€ambiguous€inasmuch€as€its€meaning€is€notÐ H#¨ Ðconfined€to€temporary€special€measures€as€understood€in€article€4,€paragraph€1,€of€theÐ 4$” ÐConvention.€The€terms€ð ðreverse€discriminationðð€or€ð ðpositive€discriminationðð€are€criticizedÐ  %€  Ðby€a€number€of€commentators€as€inappropriate.Ð &l!(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðø&X"(#(# ÐÌÌññÓ€ -$&'()*+,(ñ–xx -$&'()*+,ÓññÝ"‚$3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£YÍÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXVII€(Fifty„seventh€session,€2000):€DiscriminationÐ ¼)"% ÐAgainst€Roma,€A/55/18€(2000)€154€at€paras.€15,€23,€28,€29€and€41.€€For€text€of€GeneralÐ ¨*#& ÐRecommendation,€see€ò òEQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATION€„€ó óRACIALÐ ”+ô#' ÐDISCRIMINATION.݃$3£Y͆Í݌Р(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌññÓ€ -$&'()*+,(ñ–xx -$&'()*+,ÓññÝ"‚$3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£íÏÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXIX€(Sixty„first€session,€2002):€On€Article€1,€ParagraphÐ d Ä Ð1,€of€the€Convention€(Descent),€A/57/18€(2002)€111€at€paras.€e,€f€and€h.€For€text€of€GeneralÐ P ° ÐRecommendation,€seeò ò€EQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATION€ó ó„€RACIALÐ < œ ÐDISCRIMINATION.݃$3£íÏÐÝŒÐ, Œ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚$3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚$3£ÒÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICESCRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€16€(Thirty„fourth€session,€2005):€Article€3:€The€Equal€Right€ofÐ ðP  ÐMen€and€Women€to€the€Enjoyment€of€all€Economic,€Social€and€Cultural€Rights,€E/2006/22Ð Ü<  Ð(2005)€116€at€paras.€10,€15,€21,€35€and€36.€For€text€of€General€Comment,€see€ò òEQUALITYÐ È(  ÐAND€DISCRIMINATION€ó ó„€GENDER€DISCRIMINATION€„€General.݃$3£Ò/Ò݌и (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÓ=Ó