ÿWPCx%ÇúÒøcú¶X©éð(1Dß°³˜á·Rk¿ð{IgSW­™8°Dñ=àƒeÖ=W’£µú9@šˆH\ZåéV6•<.öFùo)mÓ")ÚM7~° Ÿ{§(\ua `Ð6¿,AmMö 0nú 0hU>~ 0¼ 0:Ò 05 U6A 0Âw Ú9Ê 0UÝ^ 2 0U> D+“ƾ 0V„ 0(Ú 0U AQWw¨(¬Ô#ÉäUN­ %û 0:N;4=Q mS 0xcj 1uÍ 0wB 0й 0 C 0´ã 0Ç— 0Û^ 0ï9 1‰( 72± 0Dãã 1ƒ' 72ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª ª BÜ Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü Ü 0Cù <ÿÿ:Default ParaÔ€XXXÔÔ€XXXÔ0Iœÿÿ.headerÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÔ€ôôôÔÔ€XXXÔÑ  ÑÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÓ  Óô\  `&Times New Roman0Iœÿÿ.footerÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÔ€ôôôÔÔ€XXXÔÑ  ÑÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÓ  Ó:ÿÿ8page number8z‚ÿÿ6Plain TextÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÔ€ôôôÔÔK€<þ6X9`(Courier NewKÔÔ€XXXÔÔS€ô\  `&Times New RomanSÔÑ  ÑÓ  Ó<þ6X9`(Courier New:ÁÆÿÿ8Body Text 2Ñ  ÑÓ Ø ÓÓ  ÓÓ;1ˆˆuM ¯ ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#;ÓÔ€ôôôÔÔK€<þ6X9`(Courier NewKÔÓ  ÓÓ8.°°` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#8ÓÔ€XXXÔÔS€ô\  `&Times New RomanSÔÑ  ÑÓ  Ó' CRIMINAL >Centre for Refugee Studies>0Centre for Refugee Studies .    ÀÝ ƒ 'ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ  Óò òÔ‡¼F»XXÔLEGAL€RIGHTS€„€PROPERTY,€CIVIL€AND€CONTRACT€RIGHTSÔ#†X9zX»¼FL#Ô(-2$§§Ý ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  Ýk‘¶6‡ (-2$©©Ý ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  Ý'ÈÈÈÈdxdƒ Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5(.3¾$££Ý ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  Ý(ÿÿ$””(-2$¢¢Ý ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  ÝCþÿ<< cÿÿ3|P˜HP PSC 2350 seriesTŽ––––TŽ0(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(ö\$¡¡ÔCEUS.,Ô cC‚6ð˜…WÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ(;3£$´´Ô2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  à3#37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)(Oé;$µµà0  àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0` (#(#à(b·¤$¶¶à0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#à(xir$··à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0¸ (#¸ (#à(ŒÜ$¸¸à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0h(#(#à(ŸF$¹¹à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0Àh(#h(#à(³Àô$ººà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0À(#À(#à(ǵ{$»»à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0p(#(#à "#$%&'(xœAGaeimquy}Bullet ListBullets List!i)(F$ïïà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àà0p(#(#àÔ2#ÔÙ ÙÚ  ÚÚ  ÚÙ Ù)Ô3  Ôà0Èp(#p(#àÙ Ù "#$%&'(xßÈCEIMQUY]aAutoList11)a)-+ d(ÿÿ$òòÚ  ÚÚ  ÚóóÝ ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ  ÓÖ€ ÿÿÖÑ8€9zXXdìdÈ8Ñòòò òIII.€JURISPRUDENCEó óóóÐ Œ ÐÌòòò òÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ôó óóóÐ dØ ÐÌÓ€ ) "#$%&'((œAx3!ÓÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£‘ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòÔ_ÔHabassiÔ_Ô€v.€Denmarkóó€(10/1997),€Ô_ÔCERDÔ_Ô,€A/54/18€(17€March€1999)€86Ð < ° Ð(Ô_ÔCERDÔ_Ô/C/54/D/10/1997)€at€paras.€2.1,€2.2,€9.2„9.4€and€10.݃ 3£‘¾ÝŒÐ( œ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð t(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€On€17€May€1996€the€author€visited€the€shop€"Scandinavian€Car€Styling"€to€purchase€anÐ ì ` Ðalarm€set€for€his€car.€€When€he€inquired€about€procedures€for€obtaining€a€loan€he€wasÐ ØL  Ðinformed€that€"Scandinavian€Car€Styling"€cooperated€with€Ô_ÔSparbankÔ_Ô€Vest,€a€local€bank,€andÐ Ä8  Ðwas€given€a€loan€application€form€which€he€completed€and€returned€immediately€to€the€shop.€Ð °$  ÐThe€application€form€included,€òòinter€aliaóó,€a€standard€provision€according€to€which€the€personÐ œ  Ðapplying€for€the€loan€declared€himself€or€herself€to€be€a€Danish€citizen.€€The€author,€who€hadÐ ˆü  Ða€permanent€residence€permit€in€Denmark€and€was€married€to€a€Danish€citizen,€signed€theÐ tè  Ðform€in€spite€of€this€provision.Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€Subsequently,€Ô_ÔSparbankÔ_Ô€Vest€informed€the€author€that€it€would€approve€the€loan€onlyÐ 8¬ Ðif€he€could€produce€a€Danish€passport€or€if€his€wife€was€indicated€as€applicant.€€The€authorÐ $˜ Ðwas€also€informed€that€it€was€the€general€policy€of€the€bank€not€to€approve€loans€toÐ „ Ðnon-Danish€citizens.Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðè\(#(# Ðà0  à9.2€€Financial€means€are€often€needed€to€facilitate€integration€in€society.€€To€have€access€toÐ ÔH Ðthe€credit€market€and€be€allowed€to€apply€for€a€financial€loan€on€the€same€conditions€as€thoseÐ À4 Ðwhich€are€valid€for€the€majority€in€the€society€is,€therefore,€an€important€issue.Ь (#(# ÐÌà0  à9.3€€In€the€present€case€the€author€was€refused€a€loan€by€a€Danish€bank€on€the€sole€groundÐ „ø Ðof€his€non-Danish€nationality€and€was€told€that€the€nationality€requirement€was€motivatedÐ pä Ðby€the€need€to€ensure€that€the€loan€was€repaid.€€In€the€opinion€of€the€Committee,€however,Ð \ Ð Ðnationality€is€not€the€most€appropriate€requisite€when€investigating€a€person's€will€or€capacityÐ H!¼ Ðto€reimburse€a€loan.€€The€applicant's€permanent€residence€or€the€place€where€his€employment,Ð 4"¨ Ðproperty€or€family€ties€are€to€be€found€may€be€more€relevant€in€this€context.€€A€citizen€mayÐ  #” Ðmove€abroad€or€have€all€his€property€in€another€country€and€thus€evade€all€attempts€toÐ  $€  Ðenforce€a€cÔ_ÔlaimÔ_Ô€of€repayment.€€Accordingly,€the€Committee€finds€that,€on€the€basis€of€articleÐ ø$l! Ð2,€paragraph€(d),€of€the€Convention,€it€is€appropriate€to€initiate€a€proper€investigation€into€theÐ ä%X" Ðreal€reasons€behind€the€bank's€loan€policy€òòvis€€visóó€foreign€residents,€in€order€to€ascertainÐ Ð&D # Ðwhether€or€not€criteria€involving€racial€discrimination,€within€the€meaning€of€article€1€of€theÐ ¼'0!$ ÐConvention,€are€being€applied.Ш("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.4€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€author,€considering€the€incident€an€offence€under€theÐ €*ô#' ÐDanish€Act€against€Discrimination,€reported€it€to€the€police.€€First€the€police€andÐ l+à$( Ðsubsequently€the€State€Prosecutor€in€Ô_ÔViborgÔ_Ô€accepted€the€explanations€provided€by€aÐ Œ Ðrepresentative€of€the€bank€and€decided€not€to€investigate€the€case€further.€€In€the€Committee'sÐ xì Ðopinion,€however,€the€steps€taken€by€the€police€and€the€State€Prosecutor€were€insufficient€toÐ dØ Ðdetermine€whether€or€not€an€act€of€racial€discrimination€had€taken€place.ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€In€the€circumstances,€the€Committee€is€of€the€view€that€the€author€was€denied€effectiveÐ ( œ Ðremedy€within€the€meaning€of€article€6€of€the€Convention€in€connection€with€article€2€(d).Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòL.€R.€et€al.€v.€Slovakia€óó(31/2003),€Ô_ÔCERDÔ_Ô,€A/60/18€(7€March€2005)€119€at€paras.€2.1„2.4,Ð ØL  Ð10.2„10.10,€11€and€12.݃ 3£BÝŒÐÄ8 (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...М (#(# Ðà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô2.1€€On€20€March€2002,€the€councillors€of€the€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô€municipality€adopted€resolution€No.Ð ˆü  Ð251-20/III-2002-Ô_ÔMsZÔ_Ô,€whereby€they€approved€what€the€petitioners€describe€as€a€plan€toÐ tè  Ðconstruct€low-cost€housing€for€the€Roma€inhabitants€of€the€Ô_Ôtown.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòaÔ_Ôóó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€About€1,800€Roma€liveÐ `Ô  Ðin€the€town€in€what€are€described€as€ð ðappallingðð€conditions,€with€most€dwellings€comprisingÐ LÀ Ðthatched€huts€or€houses€made€of€cardboard€and€without€drinking€water,€toilets,€or€drainageÐ 8¬ Ðor€sewage€systems.€€The€councillors€instructed€the€local€mayor€to€prepare€a€project€aimed€atÐ $˜ Ðsecuring€finance€from€a€government€fund€set€up€expressly€to€alleviate€Roma€housingÐ „ Ðproblems€in€the€State€party.Ðüp(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.2€€Thereupon,€certain€inhabitants€of€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô€and€surrounding€villages€established€aÐ ÔH Ðfive-member€ð ðpetition€committeeðð,€led€by€the€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô€chairman€of€the€Real€Slovak€NationalÐ À4 ÐParty.€€The€committee€drafted€a€petition€with€the€following€text:Ь (#(# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àð ðI€do€not€agree€with€the€building€of€low-cost€houses€for€people€of€Gypsy€origin€onÐ „ø Ðthe€territory€of€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô,€as€it€will€lead€to€an€influx€of€inadaptable€citizens€of€GypsyÐ pä Ðorigin€from€the€surrounding€villages,€even€from€other€districts€and€regions.ððÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòbóó/ÔL  ÔÐ\ Ð` (#` (# ÐÔM  ÔÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àThe€petition€was€signed€by€some€2,700€inhabitants€of€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô€and€deposited€with€theÐ 4"¨ Ðmunicipal€council€on€30€July€2002.€€On€5€August€2002,€the€council€considered€the€petitionÐ  #” Ðand€unanimously€voted,€ð ðhaving€considered€the€factual€circumstancesðð,€to€cancel€the€earlierÐ  $€  Ðresolution€by€means€of€a€second€resolution€which€included€an€explicit€reference€to€theÐ ø$l! ÐÔ_Ôpetition.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòcÔ_Ôóó/Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÌà0  à2.3€€On€16€September€2002,€in€the€light€of€the€relevant€Ô_Ôlaw,ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòdÔ_Ôóó/€the€petitionersðð€counselÐ ¼'0!$ Ðrequested€the€Ô_ÔRoðÏððŸðavaÔ_Ô€District€Prosecutor€to€investigate€and€prosecute€the€authors€of€theÐ ¨("% Ðdiscriminatory€petition,€and€to€reverse€the€councilððs€secÔL  ÔÔM  Ôond€resolution€as€it€was€based€on€aÐ ”)#& Ðdiscriminatory€petition.€€On€7€November€2002,€the€District€Prosecutor€rejected€the€requestÐ €*ô#' Ðon€the€basis€of€purported€absence€of€jurisdiction€over€the€matter.€€The€Prosecutor€found€thatÐ l+à$( Ðð ð...the€resolution€in€question€was€passed€by€the€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô€Town€Council€exercising€itsÐ Œ Ðself-governing€powers;€it€does€not€constitute€an€administrative€act€performed€by€publicÐ xì Ðadministration€and,€as€a€result,€the€prosecution€office€does€not€have€the€competence€to€reviewÐ dØ Ðthe€legality€of€this€act€or€to€take€Ô_ÔprosecutorialÔ_Ô€supervision€measures€in€non-penal€areaðð.ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô2.4€€On€18€September€2002,€the€petitionersðð€counsel€applied€to€the€Constitutional€Court€forÐ ( œ Ðan€order€determining€that€articles€12€and€33€of€the€Constitution,€the€Act€on€the€Right€ofÐ  ˆ ÐPetition€and€the€Framework€Convention€for€the€Protection€of€National€Minorities€(CouncilÐ  t Ðof€Europe)€had€been€violated,€cancelling€the€second€resolution€of€the€council€and€examiningÐ ì ` Ðthe€legality€of€the€petition.€€Further€information€was€provided€on€two€occasions€at€the€requestÐ ØL  Ðof€the€Court.€€On€5€February€2003,€the€Court,€in€closed€session,€held€that€the€petitioners€hadÐ Ä8  Ðprovided€no€evidence€that€any€fundamental€rights€had€been€violated€by€the€petition€or€by€theÐ °$  Ðcouncilððs€second€decision.€€It€stated€that€as€neither€the€petition€nor€the€second€resolutionÐ œ  Ðconstituted€legal€acts,€they€were€permissible€under€domestic€law.€€It€further€stated€thatÐ ˆü  Ðcitizens€have€a€right€to€petition€regardless€of€its€content.Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  à...Ð`Ô (#(# Ðà0  à10.2€€The€Committee€observes,€at€the€outset,€that€it€must€determine€whether€an€act€of€racialÐ LÀ Ðdiscrimination,€as€defined€in€article€1€of€the€Convention,€has€occurred€before€it€can€decideÐ 8¬ Ðwhich,€if€any,€substantive€obligations€in€the€Convention€to€prevent,€protect€against€andÐ $˜ Ðremedy€such€acts€have€been€breached€by€the€State€party.Є(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.3€€The€Committee€recalls€that,€subject€to€certain€limitations€not€applicable€in€the€presentÐ è\ Ðcase,€article€1€of€the€Convention€defines€racial€discrimination€as€follows:€€ð ðany€distinction,Ð ÔH Ðexclusion,€restriction€or€preference€based€on€race,€colour,€descent,€or€national€or€ethnicÐ À4 Ðorigin,€which€has€the€purpose€or€effect€of€nullifying€or€impairing€the€recognition,€enjoymentÐ ¬  Ðor€exercise,€on€an€equal€footing,€of€human€rights€and€fundamental€freedoms€in€the€political,Ð ˜  Ðeconomic,€social,€cultural€or€any€other€fieldðð.Єø(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô10.4€€The€State€party€argues€firstly€that€the€challenged€resolutions€of€the€municipal€councilÐ \ Ð Ðmake€no€reference€to€Roma,€and€must€thus€be€distinguished€from€the€resolutions€at€issue€in,Ð H!¼ Ðfor€example,€the€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòÔ_ÔKoptovaÔ_ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôóó€òòyóó/€case€that€were€racially€discriminatory€on€their€face.€€TheÐ 4"¨ ÐCommittee€recalls€that€the€definition€of€racial€discrimination€in€article€1€expressly€extendsÐ  #” Ðbeyond€measures€which€are€explicitly€discriminatory€to€encompass€measures€that€are€notÐ  $€  Ðdiscriminatory€at€face€value€but€are€discriminatory€in€fact€and€effect,€that€is,€if€they€amountÐ ø$l! Ðto€indirect€discrimination.€€In€assessing€such€indirect€discrimination,€the€Committee€mustÐ ä%X" Ðtake€full€account€of€the€particular€context€and€circumstances€of€the€petition,€as€by€definitionÐ Ð&D # Ðindirect€discrimination€can€only€be€demonstrated€circumstantially.м'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.5€€In€the€present€case,€the€circumstances€surrounding€the€adoption€of€the€two€resolutionsÐ ”)#& Ðby€the€municipal€council€of€Ô_ÔDobÔL  ÔÔM  Ôð±ðÔL  ÔÔM  ÔinÔ_Ô€and€the€intervening€petition€presented€to€the€councilÐ €*ô#' Ðfollowing€its€first€resolution€make€abundantly€clear€that€the€petition€was€advanced€by€itsÐ l+à$( Ðproponents€on€the€basis€of€ethnicity€and€was€understood€as€such€by€the€council€as€theÐ Œ Ðprimary,€if€not€the€exclusive€basis€for€revoking€its€first€resolution.€€As€a€result,€theÐ xì ÐCommittee€considers€that€the€petitioners€have€established€a€distinction,€exclusion€orÐ dØ Ðrestriction€based€on€ethnicity,€and€dismisses€this€element€of€the€State€partyððs€objection.ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.6€€The€State€party€argues,€in€the€second€instance,€that€the€municipal€councilððs€resolutionÐ ( œ Ðdid€not€confer€a€direct€and/or€enforceable€right€to€housing,€but€rather€amounted€to€but€oneÐ  ˆ Ðstep€in€a€complex€process€of€policy€development€in€the€field€of€housing.€€The€implication€isÐ  t Ðthat€the€second€resolution€of€the€council,€even€if€motivated€by€ethnic€grounds,€thus€did€notÐ ì ` Ðamount€to€a€measure€ð ðnullifying€or€impairing€the€recognition,€enjoyment€or€exercise,€on€anÐ ØL  Ðequal€footing,€of€human€rights€and€fundamental€freedoms€in€the€political,€economic,€social,Ð Ä8  Ðcultural€or€any€other€fieldðð,€within€the€meaning€of€article€1,€paragraph€1€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòin€fineóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.€€TheÐ °$  ÐCommittee€observes€that€in€complex€contemporary€societies€the€practical€realization€of,€inÐ œ  Ðparticular,€many€economic,€social€and€cultural€rights,€including€those€related€to€housing,€willÐ ˆü  Ðinitially€depend€on€and€indeed€require€a€series€of€administrative€and€policymaking€steps€byÐ tè  Ðthe€State€partyððs€competent€relevant€authorities.€€In€the€present€case,€the€council€resolutionÐ `Ô  Ðclearly€adopted€a€positive€development€policy€for€housing€and€tasked€the€mayor€withÐ LÀ Ðpursuing€subsequent€measures€by€way€of€implementation.Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.7€€In€the€Committeeððs€view,€it€would€be€inconsistent€with€the€purpose€of€the€Convention,Ð „ Ðand€elevate€formalism€over€substance,€to€consider€that€the€final€step€in€the€actualÐ üp Ðimplementation€of€a€particular€human€right€or€fundamental€freedom€must€occur€in€aÐ è\ Ðnon-discriminatory€manner,€while€the€necessary€preliminary€decision-making€elementsÐ ÔH Ðdirectly€connected€to€that€implementation€were€to€be€severed€and€be€free€from€scrutiny.€€AsÐ À4 Ða€result,€the€Committee€considers€that€the€council€resolutions€in€question,€taking€initially€anÐ ¬  Ðimportant€policy€and€practical€step€towards€realization€of€the€right€to€housing,€followed€byÐ ˜  Ðits€revocation€and€replacement€with€a€weaker€measure,€taken€together,€do€indeed€amount€toÐ „ø Ðthe€impairment€of€the€recognition€or€exercise€on€an€equal€basis€of€the€human€right€toÐ pä Ðhousing,€protected€by€article€5,€paragraph€(e)€(iii),€of€the€Convention€and€further€in€articleÐ \ Ð Ð11€of€the€International€Covenant€on€Economic,€Social€and€Cultural€Rights.€€The€CommitteeÐ H!¼ Ðthus€dismisses€the€State€partyððs€objection€on€this€point.Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.8€€In€light€of€this€finding€that€an€act€of€racial€discrimination€has€occurred,€the€CommitteeÐ  $€  Ðrecalls€its€jurisprudence€[òònóó/]...to€the€effect€that€acts€of€municipal€councils,€including€theÐ ø$l! Ðadoption€of€public€resolutions€of€legal€character€such€as€in€the€present€case,€amount€to€actsÐ ä%X" Ðof€public€authorities€within€the€meaning€of€Convention€provisions.€€It€follows€that€the€racialÐ Ð&D # Ðdiscrimination€in€question€is€attributable€to€the€State€party.м'0!$(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à10.9€€Accordingly,€the€Committee€finds€that€the€State€party€is€in€breach€of€its€obligationÐ ”)#& Ðunder€article€2,€paragraph€1€(a),€of€the€Convention€to€engage€in€no€act€of€racial€discriminationÐ €*ô#' Ðand€to€ensure€that€all€public€authorities€act€in€conformity€with€this€obligation.€€TheÐ l+à$( ÐCommittee€also€finds€that€the€State€party€is€in€breach€of€its€obligation€to€guarantee€the€rightÐ Œ Ðof€everyone€to€equality€before€the€law€in€the€enjoyment€of€the€right€to€housing,€contrary€toÐ xì Ðarticle€5,€paragraph€(e)€(iii),€of€the€Convention.ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.10€€€With€respect€to€the€claim€under€article€6,€the€Committee€observes€that,€at€a€minimum,Ð < ° Ðthis€obligation€requires€the€State€partyððs€legal€system€to€afford€a€remedy€in€cases€where€anÐ ( œ Ðact€of€racial€discrimination€within€the€meaning€of€the€Convention€has€been€made€out,Ð  ˆ Ðwhether€before€the€national€courts€or,€in€this€case,€the€Committee.€€The€Committee€havingÐ  t Ðestablished€the€existence€of€an€act€of€racial€discrimination,€it€must€follow€that€the€failure€ofÐ ì ` Ðthe€State€partyððs€courts€to€provide€an€effective€remedy€discloses€a€consequential€violation€ofÐ ØL  Ðarticle€6€of€the€Convention.€€ÐÄ8 (#(# Ðà0  à...а$ (#(# Ðà0  à11.€€The€Committee€on€the€Elimination€of€Racial€Discrimination...is€of€the€view€that€the€factsÐ œ  Ðbefore€it€disclose€violations€of€article€2,€paragraph€1€(a),€article€5,€paragraph€(e)€(iii),€andÐ ˆü  Ðarticle€6€of€the€Convention.Ðtè (#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à12.€€In€accordance€with€article€6€of€the€Convention,€the€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€toÐ LÀ Ðprovide€the€petitioners€with€an€effective€remedy.€€In€particular,€the€State€party€should€takeÐ 8¬ Ðmeasures€to€ensure€that€the€petitioners€are€placed€in€the€same€position€that€they€were€in€uponÐ $˜ Ðadoption€of€the€first€resolution€by€the€municipal€council.€€The€State€party€is€also€under€anÐ „ Ðobligation€to€ensure€that€similar€violations€do€not€occur€in€the€future.€€Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðè\(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòaóó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€State€party€provides,€with€its€submissions€on€the€merits€of€the€petition,€the€followingÐ ¬  Ðfull€text€of€the€resolution:€Ð˜ (#(# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àð ðOn€its€25th€extraordinary€session€held€on€20€March€2002€the€Town€Council€of€theÐ pä Ðtown€of€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔ_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô€adopted€the€following€resolution€from€discussed€reports€and€points:Ð\ Ð` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔRESOLUTION€251-20/III-2002-Ô_ÔMsZÔ_ÔÐ4"¨` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àAfter€discussing€the€proposal€by€Lord€Mayor€Ô_ÔIngÔ_Ô.€Ô_ÔJnÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔVozrÔ_Ô€concerning€the€buildingÐ  $€  Ðof€low-cost€housing€the€Town€Council€of€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_ÔÐø$l!` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àApprovesÐÐ&D #` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àthe€low-cost€housing€-€family€houses€or€apartment€houses€-€development€policy€andШ("%` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àRecommendsЀ*ô#'` (#` (# ÐÐ l+à$( Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  Ôthe€Lord€Mayor€to€deal€with€the€preparation€of€project€documentation€and€acquisitionÐ Œ Ðof€funds€for€this€development€from€State€subsidies.ððÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐxì` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àòòbóó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔPetitionersðð€translation,€which€reflects€exactly€the€text€of€the€petition€set€out€in€theÐ P Ä Ðtranslated€judgement€of€the€Constitutional€Court€provided€by€the€State€party€annexed€to€itsÐ < ° Ðsubmissions€on€the€meritsÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€State€party€suggests€in€its€submissions€on€the€merits€that€aÐ ( œ Ðmore€appropriate€translation€would€beÔL  ÔÔM  Ô:€€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôð ðI€do€not€agree€with€the€construction€of€flats€for€theÐ  ˆ Ðcitizens€of€Gypsy€nationality€(ethnicity)€within€the€territory€of€the€town€of€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔ_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€as€thereÐ  t Ðis€a€danger€of€influx€of€citizens€of€Gypsy€nationality€from€surrounding€area€[sic]€and€evenÐ ì ` Ðfrom€other€districts€and€regions.ððÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòcóó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€State€party€provides,€with€its€submissions€on€the€merits€of€the€petition,€the€followingÐ °$  Ðfull€text€of€the€resolutionÔL  ÔÔM  Ô:М (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÌà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  Ôð ðRESOLUTION€288/5/VIII-2002-Ô_ÔMsZÔ_ÔÐtè ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔI.€€After€discussing€the€petition€of€30€July€2002€and€after€determining€the€facts,€theÐ LÀ ÐTown€Council€of€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô,€through€the€Resolution€of€the€Town€Council€is€inÐ 8¬ Ðcompliance€with€the€law,€on€the€basis€of€the€citizensðð€petitionÐ$˜` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àCancelsÐüp` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔResolution€251-20/III-2002-Ô_ÔMsZÔ_Ô€approving€the€low-cost€housing€-€family€houses€orÐ ÔH Ðapartment€houses€-€development€policy.ÐÀ4` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àII.€€TasksИ ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€Town€Council€commissions€with€elaborating€a€proposal€for€solving€the€existenceÐ pä Ðof€inadaptable€citizens€in€the€town€of€Ô_ÔDobð±ðinÔ_Ô€and€then€to€discuss€it€in€the€bodies€ofÐ \ Ð Ðthe€town€and€at€a€public€meeting€of€the€citizens.€ÐH!¼` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔDeadline:€€November€2002Ð #”` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àResponsible:€€Chairpersons€of€commissions.ððÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ $€ ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àòòdóó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€petitioners€refer€to:Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à(Ô_ÔiÔ_Ô)€€Article€1€of€the€Act€on€the€Right€of€Petition,€which€providesÔL  ÔÔM  Ô:м'0!$(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àà0` (#(#àð ðA€petition€cannot€call€for€a€violation€of€the€Constitution€of€the€Slovak€Republic€andÐ ¨("% Ðits€laws,€nor€deny€or€restrict€individual€rightsðð;€Ð”)#&` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(ii)€€Article€12€of€the€Constitution,€which€providesÔL  ÔÔM  Ô:Ðl+à$((#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(1)€€All€human€beings€are€free€and€equal€in€dignity€and€in€rights.€€Their€fundamentalÐ Œ Ðrights€and€freedoms€are€sanctioned;€inalienable,€Ô_ÔimprescriptibleÔ_Ô€and€irreversible.Ðxì` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à(2)€€Fundamental€rights€shall€be€guaranteed€in€the€Slovak€Republic€to€everyoneÐ dØ Ðregardless€of€sex,€race,€colour,€language,€belief€and€religion,€political€affiliation€orÐ P Ä Ðother€conviction,€national€or€social€origin,€nationality€or€ethnic€origin,€property,Ð < ° Ðdescent€or€any€other€status.€€No€one€shall€be€aggrieved,€discriminated€against€orÐ ( œ Ðfavoured€on€any€of€these€grounds.Ð ˆ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à(3)€€Everyone€has€the€right€to€decide€freely€which€national€group€he€or€she€is€aÐ  t Ðmember€of.€€Any€influence€and€all€manners€of€pressure€that€may€affect€or€lead€to€aÐ ì ` Ðdenial€of€a€personððs€original€nationality€shall€be€prohibited.ÐØL ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à(4)€€No€injury€may€be€inflicted€on€anyone,€because€of€exercising€his€or€herÐ Ä8  Ðfundamental€rights€and€freedoms;а$ ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  à(iii)€€Article€33€of€the€Constitution,€which€providesÔL  ÔÔM  Ô:ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔЈü (#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àÔL  ÔÔM  Ôð ðMembership€in€any€national€minority€or€ethnic€group€may€not€be€used€to€theÐ tè  Ðdetriment€of€any€individualðð;€andÐ`Ô ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(iv)€€The€Act€on€the€Public€Prosecution€Office,€which€provides€that€the€Prosecutor€has€a€dutyÐ 8¬ Ðto€oversee€compliance€by€public€administration€bodies€with€laws€and€regulations,€and€toÐ $˜ Ðreview€the€legality€of€binding€regulations€issued€by€public€administration€bodiesÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.Є(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  àòònóó/€[See€òòÔ_ÔKoptovaÔ_Ô€v.€Slovak€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€case€No.€13/1998,€Opinion€of€8€August€2000ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô],€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôat€para.Ð è\ Ð6.6.ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  àòòyóó/€[ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòÔ_ÔKoptovaÔ_Ô€v.€Slovak€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€case€No.€13/1998,€Opinion€of€8€August€2000].Ь (#(# Ðà0  à_________________И (#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÌòòò òÔ_ÔICCPRÔ_Ôó óóóÐ \ Ð ÐÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£ÜiÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòÔ_ÔAvellanalÔ_Ô€v.€Peruóó€(202/1986),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/44/40€(28€October€1988)€196€at€paras.€2.1,€10.1,Ð 4"¨ Ð10.2€and€11.݃ 3£Üi j݌Р#”(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ðø$l!(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€author€is€the€owner€of€two€apartment€buildings€in€Lima,€which€she€acquired€in€1974.Ð ä%X" ÐIt€appears€that€a€number€of€tenants€took€advantage€of€the€change€in€ownership€to€ceaseÐ Ð&D # Ðpaying€rent€for€their€apartments.€€After€unsuccessful€attempts€to€collect€the€overdue€rent,€theÐ ¼'0!$ Ðauthor€sued€the€tenants€on€13€September€1978.€€The€court€of€first€instance€found€in€herÐ ¨("% Ðfavour€and€ordered€the€tenants€to€pay€her€the€rent€due€since€1974.€€The€Superior€CourtÐ ”)#& Ðreversed€the€judgement€on€21€November€1980€on€the€procedural€ground€that€the€author€wasÐ €*ô#' Ðnot€entitled€to€sue,€because,€according€to€article€168€of€the€Peruvian€Civil€Code,€when€aÐ l+à$( Ðwoman€is€married€only€the€husband€is€entitled€to€represent€matrimonial€property€before€theÐ Œ ÐCourts€("òòEl€Ô_ÔmaridoÔ_Ô€es€el€Ô_ÔrepresentanteÔ_Ô€de€la€Ô_ÔsociedadÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔconyugalÔ_Ôóó").€€On€10€December€1980Ð xì Ðthe€author€appealed€to€the€Peruvian€Supreme€Court,€submitting,€òòinter€aliaóó,€that€the€PeruvianÐ dØ ÐConstitution€now€in€force€abolished€discrimination€against€women€and€that€article€2€(2)€ofÐ P Ä Ðthe€Peruvian€Magna€Carta€provides€that€"the€law€grants€rights€to€women€which€are€not€lessÐ < ° Ðthan€those€granted€to€men".€€However,€on€15€February€1984€the€Supreme€Court€upheld€theÐ ( œ Ðdecision€of€the€Superior€Court.€€Thereupon,€the€author€interposed€the€recourse€of€òòÔ_ÔamparoÔ_Ôóó€onÐ  ˆ Ð6€May€1984,€claiming€that€in€her€case€article€2€(2)€of€the€Constitution€had€been€violated€byÐ  t Ðdenying€her€the€right€to€litigate€before€the€courts€only€because€she€is€a€woman.€€The€SupremeÐ ì ` ÐCourt€rejected€he€recourse€of€òòÔ_ÔamparoÔ_Ôóó€on€10€April€1985.ÐØL (#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÄ8 (#(# Ðà0  à10.1€€With€respect€to€the€requirement€set€forth€in€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant€thatÐ °$  Ð"all€persons€shall€be€equal€before€the€courts€and€tribunals",€the€Committee€notes€that€theÐ œ  Ðcourt€of€first€instance€decided€in€favour€of€the€author,€but€the€Superior€Court€reversed€thatÐ ˆü  Ðdecision€on€the€sole€ground€that€according€to€article€168€of€the€Peruvian€Civil€Code€only€theÐ tè  Ðhusband€is€entitled€to€represent€matrimonial€property,€i.e.€that€the€wife€was€not€equal€to€herÐ `Ô  Ðhusband€for€purposes€of€suing€in€Court.ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.2€€With€regard€to€discrimination€on€the€ground€of€sex€the€Committee€notes€further€thatÐ $˜ Ðunder€article€3€of€the€Covenant€State€parties€undertake€"to€ensure€the€equal€right€of€men€andÐ „ Ðwomen€to€the€enjoyment€of€all€civil€and€political€rights€set€forth€in€the€present€Covenant"€andÐ üp Ðthat€article€26€provides€that€all€persons€are€equal€before€the€law€and€are€entitled€to€the€equalÐ è\ Ðprotection€of€the€law.€€The€Committee€finds€that€the€facts€before€it€reveal€that€the€applicationÐ ÔH Ðof€article€168€of€the€Peruvian€Civil€Code€to€the€author€resulted€in€denying€her€equality€beforeÐ À4 Ðthe€courts€and€constituted€discrimination€on€the€ground€of€sex.Ь (#(# Ðà0  à...И (#(# Ðà0  à11.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€events€of€this€case...discloseÐ „ø Ðviolations€of€articles€3,€14,€paragraph€1€and€26€of€the€Covenant.Ðpä(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£€zÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝSomers€v.€Hungaryóó€(566/1993),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/51/40€vol.€II€(23€July€1996)€144Ð 4"¨ Ð(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/57/D/566/1993)€at€paras.€9.2„9.4,€9.6,€9.8€and€10.€€Ýƒ 3£€z°z݌Р#”(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ðø$l!(#(# Ðà0  à9.2€€...[Ô_ÔT]heÔ_Ô€right€to€property€as€such€is€not€protected€under€the€Covenant.€€However,Ð ä%X" Ðconfiscation€of€private€property€or€failure€by€a€State€party€to€pay€compensation€for€suchÐ Ð&D # Ðconfiscation€could€still€entail€a€breach€of€the€Covenant€if€the€relevant€act€or€omission€wasÐ ¼'0!$ Ðbased€on€discriminatory€grounds€in€violation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€Ð¨("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.3€€...The€Committee€notes€that€the€confiscation€itself€is€not€at€issue€here,€but€rather€theÐ €*ô#' Ðalleged€discriminatory€effect€of€the€compensation€law€on€the€author€and€his€mother.€Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à9.4€€...[Ô_ÔT]heÔ_Ô€only€issue€is€whether€the€award€of€less€than€full€compensation€for€the€loss€of€theÐ Œ Ðauthorððs€property,€under€Act€XXV€of€1991,€€is€contrary€to€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€€TheÐ xì ÐCommittee€observes€that€Act€XXV€contains€objective€compensation€criteria,€which€areÐ dØ Ðapplied€equally€and€without€discrimination€to€individuals€in€the€authorððs€situation.ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  à9.6€€The€corollary€of€the€fact€that€the€Covenant€does€not€protect€the€right€to€property€is€thatÐ ( œ Ðthere€is€no€right,€as€such,€to€have€(expropriated€or€nationalized)€property€Ô_ÔrestitutedÔ_Ô.€€If€a€StateÐ  ˆ Ðparty€to€the€Covenant€provided€compensation€for€nationalization€or€expropriation€on€equalÐ  t Ðterms,€it€does€not€discriminate€against€those€whose€property€was€appropriated€orÐ ì ` Ðnationalized.€€The€Committee€is€of€the€opinion€that€section€7€of€Act€XXV€of€1991€providesÐ ØL  Ðfor€compensation€on€equal€terms...€ÐÄ8 (#(# Ðà0  à...а$ (#(# Ðà0  à9.8€€...As€in€the€case€of€Act€XXV,€the€criteria€for€the€privatization€of€former€State-ownedÐ œ  Ðproperty€in€Act€Ô_ÔLXXVIIIÔ_Ô€of€1993€are€objective.€€The€State€party€has€justified€theÐ ˆü  Ð(exclusionary)€requirement€that€current€tenants€of€former€State-owned€residential€propertyÐ tè  Ðhave€a€"buy€first€option"€even€òòvis--visóó€the€former€owner€of€the€property€with€the€argumentÐ `Ô  Ðthat€tenants€contribute€to€the€maintenance€of€the€property€through€improvements€of€theirÐ LÀ Ðown.€€The€Committee€does€not€consider€that€the€fact€of€giving€the€current€tenants€of€formerÐ 8¬ ÐState-owned€property€priority€in€the€privatization€sale€of€such€property€is€in€itselfÐ $˜ Ðunreasonable;€the€interests€of€the€"current€tenants",€who€may€have€been€occupying€theÐ „ Ðproperty€for€years,€are€deserving€of€protection.€€If€the€former€owners€are,€moreover,Ð üp Ðcompensated€on€equal€and€non-discriminatory€terms€(paragraph€9.6),€the€interplay€betweenÐ è\ ÐAct€XXV€of€1991€and€of€Act€Ô_ÔLXVIIIÔ_Ô€of€1993€can€be€deemed€compatible€with€article€26€ofÐ ÔH Ðthe€Covenant;€with€respect€to€the€application€of€the€privatization€legislation€to€the€author'sÐ À4 Ðcase,€the€Committee€does€not€dispose€of€sufficient€elements€to€conclude€that€its€criteria€wereÐ ¬  Ðapplied€in€a€discriminatory€manner.И (#(# Ðà0  à...Єø(#(# Ðà0  à10.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€as€founds€by€the€CommitteeÐ pä Ðdo€not€reveal€a€breach€of€article€26€or€of€any€other€provision€of€the€Covenant.€€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£;‹ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝAdam€v.€The€Czech€Republicóó€(586/1994),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/51/40€vol.€II€(23€July€1996)€165€at€paras.Ð  #” Ð2.1,€12.2,€12.4„12.7,€13.1€and€Individual€Opinion€by€Ô_ÔNisukeÔ_Ô€Ando€(concurring),€173.݃ 3£;‹k‹ÝŒÐ $€ (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ðä%X"(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€author's€father,€Ô_ÔVlatislavÔ_Ô€Adam,€was€a€Czech€citizen,€whose€property€and€businessÐ Ð&D # Ðwere€confiscated€by€the€Czechoslovak€Government€in€1949.€Mr.€Adam€fled€the€country€andÐ ¼'0!$ Ðeventually€moved€to€Australia,€where€his€three€sons,€including€the€author€of€theÐ ¨("% Ðcommunication,€were€born.€In€1985,€Ô_ÔVlatislavÔ_Ô€Adam€died€and,€in€his€last€will€and€testament,Ð ”)#& Ðleft€his€Czech€property€to€his€sons.€Since€then,€the€sons€have€been€trying€in€vain€to€have€theirÐ €*ô#' Ðproperty€returned€to€them.€Ðl+à$((#(# Ðà0  à...ÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  à12.2€€...[Ô_ÔT]heÔ_Ô€right€to€property,€as€such,€is€not€protected€under€the€Covenant.€However,€aÐ xì Ðconfiscation€of€private€property€or€the€failure€of€a€State€party€to€pay€compensation€for€suchÐ dØ Ðconfiscation€could€still€entail€a€breach€of€the€Covenant€if€the€relevant€act€or€omission€wasÐ P Ä Ðbased€on€discriminatory€grounds,€in€violation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð( œ(#(# Ðà0  à12.4€€In€the€instant€case,€the€author€has€been€affected€by€the€exclusionary€effect€of€theÐ  ˆ Ðrequirement€in€Act€87/1991€that€claimants€be€Czech€citizens.€The€question€before€theÐ  t ÐCommittee,€therefore,€is€whether€the€precondition€to€restitution€or€compensation€isÐ ì ` Ðcompatible€with€the€non„discrimination€requirement€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€In€thisÐ ØL  Ðcontext,€the€Committee€reiterates€its€jurisprudence€that€not€all€differentiation€in€treatment€canÐ Ä8  Ðbe€deemed€to€be€discriminatory€under€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€òò2óó/€€A€differentiation€whichÐ °$  Ðis€compatible€with€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant€and€is€based€on€reasonable€grounds€doesÐ œ  Ðnot€amount€to€prohibited€discrimination€within€the€meaning€of€article€26.€Ðˆü (#(# ÐÌà0  à12.5€€In€examining€whether€the€conditions€for€restitution€or€compensation€are€compatibleÐ `Ô  Ðwith€the€Covenant,€the€Committee€must€consider€all€relevant€factors,€including€the€originalÐ LÀ Ðentitlement€of€the€author's€father€to€the€property€in€question€and€the€nature€of€theÐ 8¬ Ðconfiscation.€The€State€party€itself€has€acknowledged€that€the€confiscations€under€theÐ $˜ ÐCommunist€governments€were€injurious€and€that€is€why€specific€legislation€was€enacted€toÐ „ Ðprovide€for€a€form€of€restitution.€The€Committee€observes€that€such€legislation€must€notÐ üp Ðdiscriminate€among€the€victims€of€the€prior€confiscations,€since€all€victims€are€entitled€toÐ è\ Ðredress€without€arbitrary€distinctions.€Bearing€in€mind€that€the€author's€original€entitlementÐ ÔH Ðto€his€property€by€virtue€of€inheritance€was€not€predicated€on€citizenship,€the€CommitteeÐ À4 Ðfinds€that€the€condition€of€citizenship€in€Act€87/1991€is€unreasonable.€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌà0  à12.6€€In€this€context,€the€Committee€recalls€its€rationale€in€its€views€on€communication€No.Ð „ø Ð516/1992€(òòÔ_ÔSimunekÔ_Ô€et€al.€v.€the€Czech€Republicóó),€adopted€on€19€July€1995,€òò3óó/€in€which€itÐ pä Ðconsidered€that€the€authors€in€that€case€and€many€others€in€analogous€situations€had€leftÐ \ Ð ÐCzechoslovakia€because€of€their€political€opinions€and€had€sought€refuge€from€politicalÐ H!¼ Ðpersecution€in€other€countries,€where€they€eventually€established€permanent€residence€andÐ 4"¨ Ðobtained€a€new€citizenship.€Taking€into€account€that€the€State€party€itself€is€responsible€forÐ  #” Ðthe€departure€of€the€author's€parents€in€1949,€it€would€be€incompatible€with€the€Covenant€toÐ  $€  Ðrequire€the€author€and€his€brothers€to€obtain€Czech€citizenship€as€a€prerequisite€for€theÐ ø$l! Ðrestitution€of€their€property€or,€alternatively,€for€the€payment€of€appropriate€compensation.Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à12.7€€The€State€party€contends€that€there€is€no€violation€of€the€Covenant€because€the€CzechÐ ¼'0!$ Ðand€Slovak€legislators€had€no€discriminatory€intent€at€the€time€of€the€adoption€of€ActÐ ¨("% Ð87/1991.€The€Committee€is€of€the€view,€however,€that€the€intent€of€the€legislature€is€notÐ ”)#& ÐÔ_ÔdispositiveÔ_Ô€in€determining€a€breach€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€but€rather€the€consequencesÐ €*ô#' Ðof€the€enacted€legislation.€Whatever€the€motivation€or€intent€of€the€legislature,€a€law€may€stillÐ l+à$( Ðcontravene€article€26€of€the€Covenant€if€its€effects€are€discriminatory.€ÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  à13.1€€The€Human€Rights€Committee€...€is€of€the€view€that€the€denial€of€restitution€orÐ dØ Ðcompensation€to€the€author€and€his€brothers€constitutes€a€violation€of€article€26€of€theÐ P Ä ÐInternational€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.€Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð( œ(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐ ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð t(#(# Ðà0  àòò2óó/€€See€òòOfficial€Records€of€the€General€Assembly,€Forty„second€Session,€Supplement€No.Ð ì ` Ð40óó€(A/42/40),€annex€Ô_ÔVIII.DÔ_Ô,€communication€No.€182/1994,€(òòÔ_ÔZwaanÔ_Ô„de€Vries€v.€theÐ ØL  ÐNetherlandsóó),€views€adopted€on€9€April€1987,€para.€13.ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€òòIbidóó.,€òòFiftieth€Session,€Supplement€No.€40óó€(A/50/40),€vol.€II,€annex€Ô_ÔX.K.Ô_ÔМ (#(# Ðà0  à_________________Јü (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIndividual€Opinion€by€Ô_ÔNisukeÔ_Ô€AndoóóÐ`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  àConsidering€the€Human€Rights€Committee's€views€on€communication€No.€516/1992,€I€doÐ 8¬ Ðnot€oppose€the€adoption€by€the€Committee€of€the€views€in€the€instant€case.€However,€I€wouldÐ $˜ Ðlike€to€point€to€the€following:€Ð„(#(# ÐÌà0  àFirst,€under€current€rules€of€general€international€law,€States€are€free€to€choose€theirÐ è\ Ðeconomic€system.€As€a€matter€of€fact,€when€the€United€Nations€adopted€the€InternationalÐ ÔH ÐCovenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights€in€1966,€the€then€Socialist€States€were€managingÐ À4 Ðplanned€economies€under€which€private€ownership€was€largely€restricted€or€prohibited€inÐ ¬  Ðprinciple.€Even€nowadays€not€a€few€States€parties€to€the€Covenant,€including€those€adoptingÐ ˜  Ðmarked„oriented€economies,€restrict€or€prohibit€foreigners€from€private€ownership€ofÐ „ø Ðimmovable€properties€in€their€territories.€Ðpä(#(# ÐÌà0  àSecond,€consequently,€it€is€not€impossible€for€a€State€party€to€limit€the€ownership€ofÐ H!¼ Ðimmovable€properties€in€its€territory€to€its€nationals€or€citizens,€thereby€precluding€theirÐ 4"¨ Ðwives€or€children€of€different€nationality€or€citizenship€from€inheriting€or€succeeding€to€thoseÐ  #” Ðproperties.€Such€inheritance€or€succession€is€regulated€by€rules€of€private€international€lawÐ  $€  Ðof€the€States€concerned,€and€I€am€not€aware€of€any€universally€recognized€"absolute€right€ofÐ ø$l! Ðinheritance€or€of€succession€to€private€property".€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  àThird,€while€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights€enshrines€the€principleÐ ¼'0!$ Ðof€non„discrimination€and€equality€before€the€law,€it€does€not€prohibit€"legitimateÐ ¨("% Ðdistinctions"€based€on€objective€and€reasonable€criteria.€Nor€does€the€Covenant€define€orÐ ”)#& Ðprotect€economic€rights€as€such.€This€means€that€the€Human€Rights€Committee€shouldÐ €*ô#' Ðexercise€utmost€caution€in€dealing€with€questions€of€discrimination€in€the€economic€field.Ð l+à$( ÐFor€example,€restrictions€or€prohibitions€of€certain€economic€rights,€including€the€right€ofÐ Œ Ðinheritance€or€succession,€which€are€based€on€nationality€or€citizenship,€may€well€be€justifiedÐ xì Ðas€legitimate€distinctions.ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌò òòòSee€also:ó óóóÐ < ° ÐÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£Ç¯ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòÔ_ÔSimunekÔ_Ô€et€al.€v.€The€Czech€Republicóó€(516/1992),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/50/40€vol.€II€(19€July€1995)€89Ð $ ˜ Ðat€paras.€2.1,€11.3,€11.5„11.7€and€12.1.݃ 3£Ç¯ô¯ÝŒÐ „(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£Y±ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòÔ_ÔBlazekÔ_Ô€et€al.€v.€The€Czech€Republic€óó(857/1999),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/56/40€vol.€II€(12€July€2001)€168Ð ü p Ðat€paras.€2.1,€5.4,€5.6,€5.8,€6€and€Individual€Opinion€by€Ô_ÔNisukeÔ_Ô€Ando€(concurring),€174.݃ 3£Y±†±ÝŒÐè \(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£;³ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòDes€Foursóó€òòv.€Czech€Republicóó€(747/1997),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40€vol.€II€(30€October€2001)€88Ð ÔH  Ð(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/73/D/747/1997)€at€paras.€2.1,€2.3,€2.4,€2.6,€2.7€and€8.2.݃ 3£;³h³ÝŒÐÀ4 (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£è´ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔDrobekÔ_Ô€v.€Slovakiaóó€(643/1995),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/52/40€vol.€II€(14€July€1997)€300Ð „ø  Ð(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/60/C/643/1995)€at€paras.€6.3„6.5€and€7.݃ 3£è´µÝŒÐpä (#(# ÐŒÝ  Ýà0  à...Ð\Ð (#(# Ðà0  à6.3€€Although€the€author's€claim€relates€to€property€rights,€which€are€not€as€such€protectedÐ H¼ Ðby€the€Covenant,€he€contends€that€the€1991€law€violates€his€rights€under€articles€2€and€26€ofÐ 4¨ Ðthe€Covenant€in€that€it€applies€only€to€individuals€whose€property€was€confiscated€after€1948Ð  ” Ðand€thus€excludes€from€compensation€in€respect€of€property€taken€from€ethnic€Germans€byÐ  € Ða€1945€decree€of€the€pre-Communist€regime.€€The€Committee€has€already€had€occasion€toÐ øl Ðhold€that€laws€relating€to€property€rights€may€violate€articles€2€and€26€of€the€Covenant€if€theyÐ äX Ðare€discriminatory€in€character.€€The€question€the€Committee€must€therefore€resolve€in€theÐ ÐD Ðinstant€case€is€whether€the€1991€law€applied€to€the€claimant€falls€into€this€category.€Ð¼0(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.4€€In€its€views€on€Communication€516/1992€(òòÔ_ÔSimunekÔ_Ô€v.€Czech€Republicóó),€the€CommitteeÐ ” Ðheld€that€the€1991€law€violated€the€Covenant€because€it€excluded€from€its€applicationÐ €ô Ðindividuals€whose€property€was€confiscated€after€1948€simply€because€they€were€notÐ là Ðnationals€or€residents€of€the€country€after€the€fall€of€the€Communist€regime€in€1989.€€TheÐ X Ì Ðinstant€case€differs€from€the€views€in€the€above€case,€in€that€the€author€in€the€present€caseÐ D!¸ Ðdoes€not€allege€discriminatory€treatment€in€respect€of€confiscation€of€property€after€1948.€Ð 0"¤ ÐInstead,€he€contends€that€the€1991€law€is€discriminatory€€because€€it€does€€not€also€Ð # Ðcompensate€€victims€€of€the€1945€seizures€decreed€by€the€pre-Communist€regime.€Ð$| (#(# ÐÌà0  à6.5€€The€Committee€has€consistently€held€that€not€every€distinction€or€differentiation€inÐ à%T" Ðtreatment€amounts€to€discrimination€within€the€meaning€of€articles€2€and€26.€€The€CommitteeÐ Ì&@ # Ðconsiders€that,€in€the€present€case,€legislation€adopted€after€the€fall€of€the€Communist€regimeÐ ¸',!$ Ðin€Czechoslovakia€to€compensate€the€victims€of€that€regime€does€not€appear€to€be€òòprimaÐ ¤("% Ðfacieóó€discriminatory€within€the€meaning€of€article€26€merely€because,€as€the€author€contends,Ð )#& Ðit€does€not€compensate€the€victims€of€injustices€allegedly€committed€by€earlier€regimes.€€TheÐ |*ð#' Ðauthor€has€failed€to€substantiate€such€a€claim€with€regard€to€articles€2€and€26.€Ðh+Ü$((#(# Ðà0  à...ÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  à7.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee€therefore€decides:Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  àà8` (#(#à(a)€€the€communication€is€inadmissible...ÐP Ä` Ð ` Ð  ÐÌÌòòÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£ÂÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝMalik€v.€Czech€Republic€óó(669/1995),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/54/40€vol.€II€(21€October€1998)€291€at€paras.Ð  ˆ Ð3.3,€3.4€and€6.5.݃ 3£Â1Â݌Рt(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐØL (#(# Ðà0  à3.3€€Mr.€Malik€specifically€complains€of€the€denial€of€equality€before€the€courts,€in€violationÐ Ä8  Ðof€article€14,€and€of€discrimination,€in€violation€of€article€26.€€He€points€out€that€the€enforcedÐ °$  Ðexpatriation€in€1945,€the€expropriations€and€the€expulsions€were€carried€out€in€a€collectiveÐ œ  Ðway,€and€were€not€based€on€conduct€but€rather€on€status.€€All€members€of€the€GermanÐ ˆü  Ðminority,€including€Social€Democrats€and€other€antifascists€were€expelled€and€their€propertyÐ tè  Ðwas€confiscated,€just€because€they€were€German.€€In€this€context€he€refers€to€the€policy€ofÐ `Ô  Ðethnic€cleansing€in€the€former€Yugoslavia,€which€has€been€recognized€to€be€in€violation€ofÐ LÀ Ðinternational€law.€€He€also€refers€to€the€Nazi€expatriation€and€expropriation€of€German€Jews,Ð 8¬ Ðwhich€were€arbitrary€and€discriminatory.€€He€points€out€that€while€Nazi€laws€have€beenÐ $˜ Ðabrogated€and€restitution€or€compensation€has€been€effected€for€Nazi€confiscations,€neitherÐ „ ÐCzechoslovakia€nor€the€Czech€Republic€has€offered€restitution€or€compensation€to€theÐ üp Ðexpatriated,€expropriated€and€expelled€German€minority.Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  à3.4€€Mr.€Malik€notes€that€by€virtue€of€Law€No.€87/1991€Czech€citizens€with€Czech€residenceÐ À4 Ðmay€obtain€restitution€or€compensation€for€properties€that€were€confiscated€by€theÐ ¬  ÐGovernment€of€Czechoslovakia€in€the€period€from€1948€to€1989.€€Mr.€Malik€and€his€familyÐ ˜  Ðdo€not€qualify€for€compensation€under€this€law,€because€their€properties€were€confiscated€inÐ „ø Ð1945,€and€because€they€lost€their€Czech€citizenship€as€a€result€of€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô€Decree€No.€33€andÐ pä Ðtheir€residence€because€of€their€expulsion.€€Moreover,€he€points€out€that€whereas€there€is€aÐ \ Ð Ðrestitution€and€compensation€law€for€Czechs,€none€has€been€enacted€to€allow€any€form€ofÐ H!¼ Ðrestitution€or€compensation€for€the€German€minority.€€This€is€said€to€constitute€a€violationÐ 4"¨ Ðof€article€26€of€the€Covenant.Ð #”(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð $€ (#(# Ðà0  à6.5€€The€Committee€has€consistently€held€that€not€every€distinction€or€differentiation€inÐ ø$l! Ðtreatment€amounts€to€discrimination€within€the€meaning€of€articles€2€and€26.€€The€CommitteeÐ ä%X" Ðconsiders€that€in€the€present€case,€legislation€adopted€after€the€fall€of€the€Communist€regimeÐ Ð&D # Ðin€Czechoslovakia€to€compensate€victims€of€that€regime€does€not€appear€to€be€òòprima€facieóóÐ ¼'0!$ Ðdiscriminatory€within€the€meaning€of€article€26€merely€because,€as€the€author€contends,€itÐ ¨("% Ðdoes€not€compensate€the€victims€of€injustices€committed€in€the€period€before€the€communistÐ ”)#& Ðregime.€òò128óó/€€The€Committee€considers€that€the€author€has€failed€to€substantiate,€for€purposesÐ €*ô#' Ðof€admissibility,€his€claim€that€he€is€a€victim€of€violations€of€articles€14€and€26€in€this€regard.€Ð l+à$( ÐThis€part€of€the€communication€is€thus€inadmissible€under€article€2€of€the€Optional€Protocol.ÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐdØ(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  àòò128óó/€€See€the€Committee's€decision€declaring€inadmissible€communication€No.€643/1995Ð < ° Ð(Ô_ÔDrobekÔ_Ô€v.€Slovakia),€adopted€on€14€July€1997.Ð( œ(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌòòò òSee€also:ó óóóÐ ì ` ÐÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£ËÒÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔSchlosserÔ_Ô€v.€Czech€Republic€óó(670/1995),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/54/40€vol.€II€(21€October€1998)€298€atÐ ÔH  Ðparas.€3.4,€3.5€and€6.5.݃ 3£ËÒûÒÝŒÐÀ4 (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£MÔÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔMukuntoÔ_Ô€v.€Zambia€óó(768/1997),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/54/40€vol.€II€(23€July€1999)€257€at€paras.€2.2,€6.4,Ð „ø  Ð7€and€8.݃ 3£MÔ}ÔÝŒÐpä (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐH¼(#(# Ðà0  à2.2€€In€1982,€the€author€filed€a€petition€for€compensation€for€unlawful€detention,€ill„treatmentÐ 4¨ Ðand€inhuman€treatment.€òò126óó/€€The€judge€who€was€dealing€with€the€case,€died€in€1986.€€TheÐ  ” Ðcase€was€then€transferred€to€another€judge,€who€also€died,€in€1990,€before€deliveringÐ  € Ðjudgment.€€A€hearing€was€scheduled€to€be€heard€on€31€July€1991€before€a€new€judge.€€TheÐ øl Ðauthor€states€that€at€the€hearing,€he€was€informed€by€the€judge€that€he€was€not€ready€toÐ äX Ðproceed€and€that€he€would€be€informed€about€a€date€for€a€hearing.€€According€to€the€author,Ð ÐD Ðhe€has€never€heard€anything€since.м0(#(# Ðà0  à...Ш(#(# Ðà0  à6.4€€With€regard€to€the€author's€claim€that€he€has€been€denied€access€to€court€to€claimÐ ” Ðcompensation€for€the€illegal€detention€he€suffered€in€1979,€the€Committee€notes€that€theÐ €ô Ðauthor€filed€a€complaint€for€compensation€before€the€Supreme€Court€in€1982€and€1985.€€TheÐ là Ðauthor's€claim€relates€to€his€rights€and€obligations€in€a€suit€at€law€and€therefore€falls€withinÐ X Ì Ðthe€ambit€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.€€It€is€now€1999€and€the€author's€caseÐ D!¸ Ðstill€has€not€been€adjudicated€on.€€Neither€the€author's€claim€nor€the€facts€of€the€case€haveÐ 0"¤ Ðbeen€refuted€by€the€State€party,€which€instead€has€put€forward€reasons€for€the€non€paymentÐ # Ðof€compensation€for€the€detention€the€author€suffered€in€1987€including€alleged€economicÐ $|  Ðdifficulties€to€provide€adequate€conditions€to€all€detained€persons.€€It€is€the€Committee'sÐ ô$h! Ðreiterated€jurisprudence€that€the€rights€set€forth€in€the€Covenant€constitute€minimumÐ à%T" Ðstandards€which€all€States€parties€have€agreed€to€observe.€òò127óó/€€In€this€respect,€theÐ Ì&@ # ÐCommittee€considers€that€the€author's€rights€under€article€14€of€the€Covenant€have€not€beenÐ ¸',!$ Ðrespected.Ф("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€disclose€a€violationÐ |*ð#' Ðof€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.Ðh+Ü$((#(# Їà0  à8.€€...[Ô_ÔT]heÔ_Ô€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€to€provide€Mr.€Ô_ÔMukuntoÔ_Ô€with€an€effectiveÐ Œ Ðremedy,€entailing€compensation€for€the€undue€delay€in€deciding€his€compensation€claim€forÐ xì Ðthe€illegal€detention€he€suffered€in€1979.€€The€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€to€ensure€thatÐ dØ Ðsimilar€violations€do€not€occur€in€the€future.ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐ( œ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð ˆ(#(# Ðà0  àòò126óó/€€From€the€documents€in€the€file€it€appears€that€the€author€made€a€submission,€forÐ  t Ðcompensation,€to€the€High€Court€on€18€November€1985.Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò127óó/€€€Communication€No.€390/1990€(òòÔ_ÔLubutoÔ_Ô€v.€Zambiaóó),€Views€adopted€on€31€OctoberÐ Ä8  Ð1995.€Ð°$ (#(# Ðà0  à_________________М (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£—ãÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔLestourneaudÔ_Ô€v.€Franceóó€(861/1999),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/55/40€vol.€II€(3€November€1999)€234€atÐ `Ô  Ðparas.€4.2€and€5.݃ 3£—ãÇãÝŒÐLÀ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð$˜(#(# Ðà0  à4.2€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€authorððs€claim€is€based€upon€the€difference€inÐ „ Ðremuneration€between€legal€aid€services€performed€by€counsel€for€the€civil€claimant€andÐ üp Ðthose€performed€by€counsel€for€the€defendant.€€The€Committee€recalls€that€differences€inÐ è\ Ðtreatment€do€not€constitute€discrimination,€when€they€are€based€on€objective€and€reasonableÐ ÔH Ðcriteria.€€In€the€present€case,€the€Committee€considers€that€representation€of€a€personÐ À4 Ðpresenting€a€civil€claim€in€a€criminal€case€cannot€be€equalled€to€representing€the€accused.€Ð ¬  ÐThe€arguments€advanced€by€the€author€and€the€material€he€provided€do€not€substantiate,€forÐ ˜  Ðpurposes€of€admissibility,€the€authorððs€claim€that€he€is€a€victim€of€discrimination.Єø(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðpä(#(# Ðà0  à5.€€Accordingly,€the€Human€Rights€Committee€decides:€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€that€the€communication€is€inadmissible€...Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌÌòòÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£§éÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔrelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔNkkljruiÔ_Ô€v.€Finlandóó€(779/1997)€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40€vol.€II€(24€October€2001)Ð ø$l! Ð117€(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/73/D/779/1997)€at€paras.€2.1„2.5,€4.11,€7.2„7.7,€8.1,€8.2,€Individual€OpinionÐ ä%X" Ðby€Ô_ÔPrafullachandraÔ_Ô€N.€Ô_ÔBhagwatiÔ_Ô€(concurring),€129€and€Individual€Opinion€by€Ô_ÔAbdelfattahÔ_ÔÐ Ð&D # ÐAmor,€Ô_ÔNisukeÔ_Ô€Ando,€Christine€Ô_ÔChanetÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔEckartÔ_Ô€Klein,€Ivan€Shearer€and€Max€Ô_ÔYaldenÔ_Ô€(partlyÐ ¼'0!$ Ðdissenting),€130.݃ 3£§éÔé݌Ш("%(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ѐ*ô#'(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€authors€are€reindeer€breeders€of€Sami€ethnic€origin€and€members€of€the€Ô_ÔSallivaaraÔ_ÔÐ l+à$( ÐReindeer€Herding€Co-operative.€The€Co-operative€has€286,000€hectares€of€State-owned€landÐ Œ Ðavailable€for€reindeer€husbandry.€On€23€March€1994,€the€Committee€declared€a€previousÐ xì Ðcommunication,€brought€by€the€authors€among€others€and€which€alleged€that€logging€andÐ dØ Ðroad-construction€activities€in€certain€reindeer€husbandry€areas€violated€article€27€of€theÐ P Ä ÐCovenant,€inadmissible€for€non-exhaustion€of€domestic€remedies.€òò1óó/€In€particular,€theÐ < ° ÐCommittee€considered€that€the€State€party€had€shown€that€article€27€could€be€invoked€in€theÐ ( œ Ðrelevant€domestic€proceedings,€which€the€authors€should€have€engaged€before€coming€to€theÐ  ˆ ÐCommittee.€Thereafter,€following€unsuccessful€negotiations,€the€authors€brought€a€suit€in€theÐ  t ÐÔ_ÔLappiÔ_Ô€District€Court€of€first€instance€against€the€National€Forestry€and€Park€Service€(ForestryÐ ì ` ÐService).€The€suit€sought€the€enjoinder,€on€the€basis€òòinter€aliaóó€of€article€27€of€the€Covenant,Ð ØL  Ðof€any€logging€or€road-construction€in€the€€Ô_ÔMirhaminmaaÔ_Ô-Ô_ÔKariselkÔ_Ô€area.€This€area€is€saidÐ Ä8  Ðto€be€amongst€the€best€winter€herding€lands€of€the€Ô_ÔSallivaraÔ_Ô€Co-operative.€Ð°$ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€On€30€August€1996,€the€District€Court€decided,€following€an€on-site€forest€inspectionÐ ˆü  Ðat€the€authors'€request,€to€prohibit€logging€or€road€construction€in€the€92€hectare€Ô_ÔKariselkÔ_ÔÐ tè  Ðarea,€but€to€allow€it€in€the€Ô_ÔMirhaminmaaÔ_Ô€area.€òò2óó/€The€Court€applied€a€test€of€"whether€theÐ `Ô  Ðharmful€effects€of€felling€are€so€great€that€they€can€be€deemed€to€deny€to€the€Sami€aÐ LÀ Ðpossibility€of€reindeer€herding€that€is€part€of€their€culture,€is€adapted€to€modernÐ 8¬ Ðdevelopments,€and€is€profitable€and€rational".€The€Court€considered€that€logging€in€theÐ $˜ ÐÔ_ÔMirhaminmaaÔ_Ô€area€would€be€of€long-term€benefit€to€reindeer€herding€in€the€area€and€wouldÐ „ Ðbe€convergent€with€those€interests.€In€the€Ô_ÔKariselkÔ_Ô€area,€differing€environmental€conditionsÐ üp Ðmeant€that€there€would€be€a€considerable€long-term€decrease€in€lichen€reserves.€Relying€òòinterÐ è\ Ðaliaóó€on€the€decisions€of€the€Committee,€òò3óó/€the€Court€found€that€these€effects€of€logging,Ð ÔH Ðcombined€with€the€fact€that€the€area€was€an€emergency€feeding€ground,€wÔ_ÔouldÔ_Ô€preventÐ À4 Ðreindeer€herding€in€that€area.€A€factor€in€the€decision€was€the€disclosure€that€an€expertÐ ¬  Ðtestifying€for€the€Forestry€Service€disclosed€he€had€not€visited€the€forest€in€question.€AfterÐ ˜  Ðthe€decision,€logging€duly€proceeded€in€the€Ô_ÔMirhaminmaaÔ_Ô€area.Єø(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€appeal€by€the€Forestry€Service€to€the€Ô_ÔRovaniemiÔ_Ô€Court€of€Appeal,€the€Forestry€BoardÐ \ Ð Ðsought€the€then€exceptional€measure€of€oral€hearings.€The€Court€granted€this€motion,€whileÐ H!¼ Ðrejecting€the€author's€motion€that€the€appellate€court€itself€conduct€an€on-site€inspection.€TheÐ 4"¨ Ðexpert€witness,€having€in€the€meanwhile€examined€the€forest,€repeated€his€first€instanceÐ  #” Ðtestimony€for€the€Forestry€Service.€Another€expert€witness€for€the€Forestry€Service€testifiedÐ  $€  Ðthat€the€authors'€herding€co-operative€would€not€suffer€greatly€in€the€reduction€of€herdingÐ ø$l! Ðland€through€the€logging€in€question,€however€the€Court€was€not€informed€that€the€witnessÐ ä%X" Ðalready€had€proposed€to€the€authorities€that€the€authors'€herd€should€be€reduced€by€500€owingÐ Ð&D # Ðto€serious€overgrazing.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€On€11€July€1997,€the€Appeal€Court,€reversing€the€first€instance€decision,€allowed€loggingÐ ”)#& Ðalso€in€the€Ô_ÔKariselkÔ_Ô€area,€and€awarded€costs€of€75,000€Finnish€marks€against€the€authors.òò4óó/Ð €*ô#' ÐThe€Court€took€a€different€view€of€the€expert€evidence.€It€found€that€the€small€area€of€loggingÐ l+à$( Ðproposed€(which€would€not€involve€further€roadworks)€would€have€minimal€effects€on€theÐ Œ Ðquantities€of€arboreal€lichen€and,€over€time,€increase€the€amounts€of€ground€lichen.€In€lightÐ xì Ðof€the€finding€that€the€area€was€not€the€main€winter€pasture€and€in€recent€years€had€not€beenÐ dØ Ðused€as€a€back-up€area,€the€Court€concluded€it€had€not€been€shown€that€there€would€beÐ P Ä Ðadverse€effects€on€reindeer€in€the€long€run€and€even€the€immediate€effects€would€be€small.Ð < ° ÐThe€authors€were€not€made€aware€by€the€Appeal€Court€or€the€Forestry€Service€that€the€latterÐ ( œ Ðhad€presented€allegedly€distorted€arguments€to€the€Court€based€on€the€Committee's€findingÐ  ˆ Ðof€no€violation€of€article€27€of€the€Covenant€in€the€separate€case€of€òòÔ_ÔJouniÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔLnsmanÔ_Ô€et€al.€v.Ð  t ÐFinlandóó.€òò5óó/€The€authors€learned€of€this€brief€only€upon€receiving€the€Appeal€Court'sÐ ì ` Ðjudgement,€in€which€it€stated€that€the€material€had€been€taken€into€account,€but€that€anÐ ØL  Ðopportunity€for€the€authors€to€comment€was€"manifestly€unnecessary".€On€29€October€1997,Ð Ä8  Ðthe€Supreme€Court€decided,€in€its€discretion€and€without€giving€reasons,€not€to€grant€leaveÐ °$  Ðto€appeal.€Thereafter,€logging€took€place€in€the€Ô_ÔKariselkÔ_Ô€area,€but€no€roads€were€constructed.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€On€15€December€1997,€the€Ombudsman€decided€that€the€municipality€of€Ô_ÔInariÔ_Ô€and€itsÐ tè  Ðmayor€had€exerted€inappropriate€pressure€on€the€authors€by€formally€asking€them€toÐ `Ô  Ðwithdraw€from€their€legal€proceedings,€but€did€not€find€that€the€Forestry€Service€had€actedÐ LÀ Ðunlawfully€or€otherwise€wrongly.€òò6óó/€€The€Ombudsman€limited€his€remedy€to€bringing€thisÐ 8¬ Ðconclusion€to€the€attention€of€the€parties.€On€1€June€1998,€a€decision€of€the€Ministry€ofÐ $˜ ÐAgriculture€and€Forestry€(of€13€November€1997)€entered€into€effect€reducing€the€permissibleÐ „ Ðsize€of€the€Ô_ÔSallivaaraÔ_Ô€herd€by€500€head€from€9,000€to€8,500€animals.€On€3€and€11€NovemberÐ üp Ð1998,€the€Forestry€Service€required€a€total€sum€of€over€20,000€Finnish€marks€from€theÐ è\ Ðauthors€towards€meeting€the€costs€judgement.€òò7óó/€€This€sum€distrained€by€the€Forestry€ServiceÐ ÔH Ðcorresponds€to€a€major€share€of€the€authors'€taxable€income.€ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  à...Ь (#(# Ðà0  à4.11€€As€to€the€imposition€of€costs,€the€State€party€points€out€that€under€its€law€there€is€anÐ ˜  Ðobligation€for€the€losing€party€to€pay,€when€sought,€the€reasonable€legal€costs€of€theÐ „ø Ðsuccessful€party.€òò15óó/€The€law€does€not€alter€this€situation€when€the€parties€are€a€privateÐ pä Ðindividual€and€public€authority,€or€when€the€case€involves€human€rights€issues.€TheseÐ \ Ð Ðprinciples€are€the€same€in€many€other€States,€including€Austria,€Germany,€Norway€andÐ H!¼ ÐSweden,€and€are€justified€as€a€means€of€avoiding€unnecessary€legal€proceedings€and€delays.Ð 4"¨ ÐThe€State€party€argues€this€mechanism,€along€with€free€legal€aid€for€lawyers'€expenses,Ð  #” Ðensures€equality€in€the€courts€between€plaintiffs€and€defendants.€The€State€party€notesÐ  $€  Ðhowever€that,€from€1€June€1999,€an€amendment€to€the€law€will€permit€a€court€òòex€officioóó€toÐ ø$l! Ðreduce€a€costs€order€that€would€otherwise€be€manifestly€unreasonable€or€inequitable€withÐ ä%X" Ðregard€to€the€facts€resulting€in€the€proceedings,€the€position€of€the€parties€and€the€significanceÐ Ð&D # Ðof€the€matter.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# Ðà0  à...Ш("%(#(# Ðà0  à7.2€€As€to€the€authors'€argument€that€the€imposition€of€a€substantial€award€of€costs€againstÐ ”)#& Ðthem€at€the€appellate€level€violated€their€rights€under€article€14,€paragraph€1,€to€equal€accessÐ €*ô#' Ðto€the€courts,€the€Committee€considers€that€a€rigid€duty€under€law€to€award€costs€to€a€winningÐ l+à$( Ðparty€may€have€a€deterrent€effect€on€the€ability€of€persons€who€allege€their€rights€under€theÐ Œ ÐCovenant€have€been€violated€to€pursue€a€remedy€before€the€courts.€In€the€particular€case,€theÐ xì ÐCommittee€notes€that€the€authors€were€private€individuals€bringing€a€case€alleging€breachesÐ dØ Ðof€their€rights€under€article€27€of€the€Covenant.€In€the€circumstances,€the€CommitteeÐ P Ä Ðconsiders€that€the€imposition€by€the€Court€of€Appeal€of€substantial€costs€award,€without€theÐ < ° Ðdiscretion€to€consider€its€implications€for€the€particular€authors,€or€its€effect€on€access€toÐ ( œ Ðcourt€of€other€similarly€situated€claimants,€constitutes€a€violation€of€the€authors'€rights€underÐ  ˆ Ðarticle€14,€paragraph€1,€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant.€The€Committee€notesÐ  t Ðthat,€in€the€light€of€the€relevant€amendments€to€the€law€governing€judicial€procedure€in€1999,Ð ì ` Ðthe€State€party's€courts€now€possess€the€discretion€to€consider€these€elements€on€a€case€byÐ ØL  Ðcase€basis.€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à7.3€€As€to€the€authors'€claims€under€article€14€that€the€procedure€applied€by€the€Court€ofÐ œ  ÐAppeal€was€unfair€in€that€an€oral€hearing€was€granted€and€an€on-site€inspection€was€denied,Ð ˆü  Ðthe€Committee€considers€that,€as€a€general€rule,€the€procedural€practice€applied€by€domesticÐ tè  Ðcourts€is€a€matter€for€the€courts€to€determine€in€the€interests€of€justice.€The€onus€€is€on€theÐ `Ô  Ðauthors€to€show€that€a€particular€practice€has€given€rise€to€unfairness€in€the€particularÐ LÀ Ðproceedings.€In€the€€present€case,€an€oral€hearing€was€granted€as€the€Court€found€it€necessaryÐ 8¬ Ðto€determine€the€reliability€and€weight€to€be€accorded€to€oral€testimony.€The€authors€have€notÐ $˜ Ðshown€that€this€decision€was€manifestly€arbitrary€or€otherwise€amounted€to€a€denial€ofÐ „ Ðjustice.€As€to€the€decision€not€to€pursue€an€on-site€inspection,€the€Committee€considers€thatÐ üp Ðthe€authors€have€failed€to€show€that€the€Court€of€Appeal's€decision€to€rely€on€the€DistrictÐ è\ ÐCourt's€inspection€of€the€area€and€the€records€of€those€proceedings€injected€unfairness€intoÐ ÔH Ðthe€hearing€or€demonstrably€altered€the€outcome€of€the€case.€Accordingly,€the€Committee€isÐ À4 Ðunable€to€find€a€violation€of€article€14€in€the€procedure€applied€by€the€Court€of€Appeal€inÐ ¬  Ðthese€respects.€Ð˜ (#(# ÐÌà0  à7.4€€As€to€the€author's€contention€that€the€Court€of€Appeal€violated€the€authors'€right€to€a€fairÐ pä Ðtrial€contained€in€article€14,€paragraph€1,€by€failing€to€afford€the€authors€an€opportunity€toÐ \ Ð Ðcomment€on€the€brief€containing€legal€argument€submitted€by€the€Forestry€Authority€afterÐ H!¼ Ðexpiry€of€filing€limits,€the€Committee€notes€that€it€is€a€fundamental€duty€of€the€courts€to€Ð 4"¨ Ðensure€equality€between€the€parties,€including€the€ability€to€contest€all€the€argument€andÐ  #” Ðevidence€adduced€by€the€other€party.òò17óó/€The€Court€of€Appeal€states€that€it€had€"specialÐ  $€  Ðreason"€to€take€account€of€these€particular€submissions€made€by€the€one€party,€while€findingÐ ø$l! Ðit€"manifestly€unnecessary"€to€invite€a€response€from€the€other€party.€In€so€doing,€the€€authorsÐ ä%X" Ðwere€precluded€from€responding€to€a€brief€submitted€by€the€other€party€that€the€Court€tookÐ Ð&D # Ðaccount€of€in€reaching€a€decision€favourable€to€the€party€submitting€those€observations.€TheÐ ¼'0!$ ÐCommittee€considers€that€these€circumstances€disclose€a€failure€of€the€Court€of€Appeal€toÐ ¨("% Ðprovide€full€opportunity€to€each€party€to€challenge€the€submissions€of€the€other,€therebyÐ ”)#& Ðviolating€the€principles€of€equality€before€the€courts€and€of€fair€trial€contained€in€article€14,Ð €*ô#' Ðparagraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.€Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à7.5€€Turning€to€the€claim€of€a€violation€of€article€27€in€that€logging€was€permitted€in€theÐ Œ ÐÔ_ÔKariselkÔ_Ô€area,€the€Committee€notes€that€it€is€undisputed€that€the€authors€are€members€of€aÐ xì Ðminority€culture€and€that€reindeer€husbandry€is€an€essential€element€of€their€culture.€TheÐ dØ ÐCommittee's€approach€in€the€past€has€been€to€inquire€whether€interference€by€the€State€€partyÐ P Ä Ðin€that€husbandry€is€so€substantial€that€it€has€failed€to€properly€protect€the€authors'€right€toÐ < ° Ðenjoy€their€culture.€The€question€therefore€before€the€Committee€is€whether€the€logging€ofÐ ( œ Ðthe€92€hectares€of€the€Ô_ÔKariselkÔ_Ô€area€rises€to€such€a€threshold.€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.6€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€authors,€and€other€key€stakeholder€groups,€were€consultedÐ ì ` Ðin€the€evolution€of€the€logging€plans€drawn€up€by€the€Forestry€Service,€and€that€the€plansÐ ØL  Ðwere€partially€altered€in€response€to€criticisms€from€those€quarters.€The€District€Court'sÐ Ä8  Ðevaluation€of€the€partly€conflicting€expert€evidence,€coupled€with€an€on-site€inspection,Ð °$  Ðdetermined€that€the€Ô_ÔKariselkÔ_Ô€area€was€necessary€for€the€authors€to€enjoy€their€cultural€rightsÐ œ  Ðunder€article€27€of€the€Covenant.€The€appellate€court€finding€took€a€different€view€of€theÐ ˆü  Ðevidence,€finding€also€from€the€point€of€view€of€€article€27,€that€the€proposed€logging€wouldÐ tè  Ðpartially€contribute€to€the€long-term€Ô_ÔsustainabilityÔ_Ô€of€reindeer€husbandry€by€allowingÐ `Ô  Ðregeneration€of€ground€lichen€in€particular,€and€moreover€that€the€area€in€question€was€ofÐ LÀ Ðsecondary€importance€to€husbandry€in€the€overall€context€of€the€Collective's€lands.€TheÐ 8¬ ÐCommittee,€basing€itself€on€the€submissions€before€it€from€both€the€authors€and€the€StateÐ $˜ Ðparty,€considers€that€it€does€not€have€sufficient€information€before€it€in€order€to€be€able€toÐ „ Ðdraw€independent€conclusions€on€the€factual€importance€of€the€area€to€husbandry€and€theÐ üp Ðlong-term€impacts€on€the€Ô_ÔsustainabilityÔ_Ô€of€husbandry,€and€the€consequences€under€article€27Ð è\ Ðof€the€Covenant.€Therefore,€the€Committee€is€unable€to€conclude€that€the€logging€of€92Ð ÔH Ðhectares,€in€these€circumstances,€amounts€to€a€failure€on€the€part€of€the€State€party€toÐ À4 Ðproperly€protect€the€authors'€right€to€enjoy€Sami€culture,€in€violation€of€article€27€of€theÐ ¬  ÐCovenant.€Ð˜ (#(# ÐÌà0  à7.7€€In€the€light€of€the€Committee's€findings€above,€it€is€not€necessary€to€consider€the€authors'Ð pä Ðadditional€claims€brought€under€article€2€of€the€Covenant.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à8.1€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€reveal€a€violationÐ 4"¨ Ðby€Finland€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€taken€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant,€andÐ  #” Ðadditionally€a€violation€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant€taken€alone.€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à8.2€€Pursuant€to€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€Committee€considers€that€theÐ ä%X" Ðauthors€are€entitled€to€an€effective€remedy.€In€terms€of€the€award€of€costs€against€the€authors,Ð Ð&D # Ðthe€Committee€considers€that€as€the€costs€award€€violated€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€theÐ ¼'0!$ ÐCovenant€and,€moreover,€followed€proceedings€themselves€in€violation€of€article€14,Ð ¨("% Ðparagraph€1,€the€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€to€restitute€to€the€authors€that€proportionÐ ”)#& Ðof€the€costs€award€already€recovered,€and€to€refrain€from€seeking€execution€of€any€furtherÐ €*ô#' Ðportion€of€the€award.€As€to€the€violation€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€arising€from€the€processÐ l+à$( Ðapplied€by€the€Court€of€Appeal€in€handling€the€brief€submitted€late€by€the€Forestry€ServiceÐ Œ Ð(para.€7.4),€the€Committee€considers€that,€as€the€decision€of€the€Court€of€Appeal€was€taintedÐ xì Ðby€a€substantive€violation€of€fair€trial€provisions,€the€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€toÐ dØ Ðreconsider€the€authors'€claims.€The€State€party€is€also€under€an€obligation€to€ensure€thatÐ P Ä Ðsimilar€violations€do€not€occur€in€the€future.€Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð( œ(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotes€óóÐ ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò1óó/€€òòSara€et€al.€v.€Finlandóó,€Communication€431/1990.€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò2óó/€€The€State€party€points€out€that€the€92€hectare€area€amounts€to€some€3€per€cent€of€the€6,900Ð Ä8  Ðhectares€of€the€Co-operative's€lands€used€for€forestry.€Ð°$ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€òòSara€v.€Finlandóó€(Communication€431/1990),€òòÔ_ÔKitokÔ_Ô€v.€Swedenóó€(CommunicationÐ ˆü  Ð197/1985),€òò€Ô_ÔOminayakÔ_Ô€v.€Canadaóó€(Communication€167/1984),€òòÔ_ÔIlmariÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔLnsmanÔ_Ô€v.€FinlandóóÐ tè  Ð(Communication€511/1992);€and€moreover€the€Committee's€General€Comments€23€(50).€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò4óó/€€Costs,€for€which€the€authors€were€jointly€liable,€totalled€73,965.28€Finnish€marks,€withÐ 8¬ Ð11€per€cent€annual€interest.€Ð$˜(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò5óó/€€Communication€671/1995.€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò6óó/€€The€complaint€had€been€submitted€almost€three€years€earlier.€ÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò7óó/€€€No€information€is€provided€on€whether€the€Forestry€Service€is€pursuing€the€outstandingÐ ¬  Ðportion€of€costs€awarded€to€it€(some€55,000€Finnish€marks).€Ð˜ (#(# Ðà0  à...Єø(#(# Ðà0  àòò15óó/€€Chapter€21,€section€1,€òòCode€of€Judicial€Procedureóó€1993.€Ðpä(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð\ Ð(#(# Ðà0  àòò17óó/€€In€òòJansen-Ô_ÔGielenÔ_Ô€v.€The€Netherlandsóó€(Communication€846/1999),€the€Committee€stated:Ð H!¼ Ð"Consequently,€it€was€the€duty€of€the€Court€of€Appeal,€which€was€not€constrained€by€anyÐ 4"¨ Ðprescribed€time€limit€to€ensure€that€each€party€could€€challenge€the€documentary€evidenceÐ  #” Ðwhich€the€other€filed€or€wished€to€file€and,€if€need€be,€to€adjourn€proceedings.€In€€the€absenceÐ  $€  Ðof€the€guarantee€of€equality€of€arms€between€the€parties€in€the€production€of€evidence€for€theÐ ø$l! Ðpurposes€of€the€hearing,€the€Committee€finds€a€violation€of€article€14,€paragraph€1€of€theÐ ä%X" ÐCovenant."ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  à_________________м'0!$(#(# Ðà0  à...Ш("%(#(# Ðà0  àòòIndividual€Opinion€by€Ô_ÔPrafullachandraÔ_Ô€N.€Ô_ÔBhagwatiÔ_Ô€(concurring)óó€Ð”)#&(#(# ÐÌà0  àI€have€gone€through€the€text€of€the€views€expressed€by€the€majority€members€of€theÐ l+à$( ÐCommittee.€I€agree€with€those€views€save€in€respect€of€paragraph€7.2€and,€partly,€in€respectÐ Œ Ðof€paragraph€8.2.€Since€I€am€in€substantial€agreement€with€the€majority€on€most€of€the€issues,Ð xì ÐI€do€not€think€it€necessary€to€set€out€the€facts€again€in€my€opinion€and€I€will€thereforeÐ dØ Ðstraightaway€proceed€to€discuss€my€dissenting€opinion€in€regard€to€paragraphs€7.2€and€8.2.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  àSo€far€as€the€alleged€violation€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€in€conjunction€with€article€2,€by€theÐ ( œ Ðimposition€of€substantial€costs€is€concerned,€the€majority€members€have€taken€the€view€thatÐ  ˆ Ðsuch€imposition,€on€the€facts€and€circumstances€of€the€case,€constitutes€a€violation€of€thoseÐ  t Ðarticles.€While€some€of€the€members€have€expressed€a€dissenting€view,€I€agree€with€€theÐ ì ` Ðmajority€view€but€I€would€reason€in€a€slightly€different€way.€ÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  àIt€is€clear€that€under€the€law€as€it€then€stood,€the€Court€had€no€discretion€in€the€matter€ofÐ °$  Ðaward€of€costs.€The€Court€was€under€a€statutory€obligation€to€award€costs€to€the€winningÐ œ  Ðparty.€The€Court€could€not€tailor€the€award€of€costs€„€even€refuse€to€award€costs€„€against€theÐ ˆü  Ðlosing€party€taking€into€account€the€nature€of€the€litigation,€the€public€interest€involved,€andÐ tè  Ðthe€financial€condition€of€the€party.€Such€a€legal€provision€had€a€chilling€effect€on€theÐ `Ô  Ðexercise€of€the€right€of€access€to€€justice€by€none€too€wealthy€litigants,€and€particularly€thoseÐ LÀ Ðpursuing€an€òòÔ_ÔactioÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔpopularisÔ_Ôóó.€The€imposition€of€substantial€costs€under€such€a€rigid€andÐ 8¬ Ðblind-folded€legal€provision€in€the€circumstances€of€the€present€case,€where€two€membersÐ $˜ Ðof€the€Sami€tribe€were€pursuing€public€interest€litigation€to€safeguard€their€cultural€rightsÐ „ Ðagainst€what€they€felt€to€be€a€serious€violation,€would,€in€my€opinion,€be€a€clear€violation€ofÐ üp Ðarticle€14,€paragraph€1,€in€conjunction€with€article€2.€It€is€a€matter€of€satisfaction€that€suchÐ è\ Ða€situation€would€not€arise€in€the€future,€because€we€are€told€that€the€law€in€regard€to€the€Ð ÔH Ðimposition€of€costs€has€since€been€amended.€Now€the€Court€has€a€discretion€whether€toÐ À4 Ðaward€costs€at€all€to€the€winning€€party,€and,€if€so,€what€the€amount€of€such€costs€should€beÐ ¬  Ðdepending€upon€various€circumstances€such€as€those€I€have€mentioned€above.€Ð˜ (#(# ÐÌà0  àSo€far€as€paragraph€8.2€is€concerned,€I€would€hold€that€the€authors€are€entitled€to€the€reliefÐ pä Ðset€out€in€paragraph€8.2€in€regard€to€the€costs,€not€only€because€the€award€of€costs€followedÐ \ Ð Ðupon€the€proceedings€in€the€appellate€Court€which€€were€themselves€in€violation€of€articleÐ H!¼ Ð14,€paragraph€1,€for€the€reasons€set€out€in€paragraph€7.4,€but€also€because€the€award€of€costsÐ 4"¨ Ðwas€itself€in€violation€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€read€in€conjunction€with€article€2,€for€theÐ  #” Ðreasons€set€out€in€paragraph€7.2.€I€entirely€agree€with€the€rest€of€paragraph€8.2€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIndividual€Opinion€by€Ô_ÔAbdelfattahÔ_Ô€Amor,€Ô_ÔNisukeÔ_Ô€Ando,€Christine€Ô_ÔChanetÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔEckartÔ_Ô€Klein,€IvanÐ ä%X" ÐShearer€and€Max€Ô_ÔYaldenÔ_Ô€(partly€dissenting)óóÐÐ&D #(#(# ÐÌà0  àWhile€we€share€the€Committee's€general€approach€with€regard€to€the€award€of€costs€(see€alsoÐ ¨("% ÐòòÔ_ÔLindonÔ_Ô€v€Australiaóó€(Communication€646/1995),€we€cannot€agree€that€in€the€present€case€itÐ ”)#& Ðhas€convincingly€been€argued€and€proven€that€the€authors€were€in€fact€so€seriously€affectedÐ €*ô#' Ðby€the€relevant€decision€taken€at€the€appellate€level€that€access€to€the€court€was€or€would€inÐ l+à$( Ðfuture€be€closed€to€them.€In€our€view,€they€have€failed€to€substantiate€a€claim€of€financialÐ Œ Ðhardship.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  àConcerning€possible€deterrent€effects€in€future€on€the€authors€or€other€potential€authors,€dueÐ P Ä Ðnote€must€be€given€to€the€€amendment€of€the€code€of€judicial€procedure€according€to€whichÐ < ° Ða€court€has€the€power€to€reduce€a€costs€order€that€would€be€manifestly€unreasonable€orÐ ( œ Ðinequitable,€having€regard€to€the€concrete€circumstances€of€a€given€case€(see€paragraph€4.11Ð  ˆ Ðabove).€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  àHowever,€given€that€we€share€the€view€that€the€Court€of€Appeal's€judgment€is€vitiated€by€aÐ ØL  Ðviolation€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant€(see€paragraph€7.4€above),€its€decisionÐ Ä8  Ðrelating€to€the€costs€is€necessarily€affected€as€well.€We€therefore€join€the€Committee's€findingÐ °$  Ðthat€the€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€to€refund€to€the€authors€that€€proportion€of€the€costsÐ œ  Ðaward€already€recovered,€and€to€refrain€from€executing€any€further€portion€of€the€award€(seeÐ ˆü  Ðparagraph€8.2€of€the€Committee's€views).€Ðtè (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£cVÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔFbryovÔ_Ô€v.€Czech€Republicóó€(765/1997),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40€vol.€II€(30€October€2001)€103Ð 8¬ Ð(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/73/D/765/1997)€at€paras.€2.1„2.5,€4.1,€4.2,€4.4,€9.2,€9.3,€10€and€11.݃ 3£cV“VÝŒÐ$˜(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€author's€father€Richard€Ô_ÔFischmannÔ_Ô€owned€an€estate€in€Ô_ÔPukliceÔ_Ô€in€the€district€ofÐ è\ ÐÔ_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô,€Czechoslovakia.€In€1930,€at€a€national€census,€he€and€his€family€registered€as€Jews.Ð ÔH ÐIn€1939,€after€the€occupation€by€the€Nazis,€the€estate€was€"Ô_ÔaryanisedÔ_Ô"€òò1óó/€and€a€GermanÐ À4 ÐÔ_ÔsequestratorÔ_Ô€was€appointed.€Richard€Ô_ÔFischmannÔ_Ô€died€in€1942€in€Auschwitz.€The€author€is€notÐ ¬  Ðrepresented€by€counsel.€Ð˜ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€The€rest€of€the€family€was€interned€in€concentration€camps€and€only€the€author€and€herÐ pä Ðbrother€Ô_ÔViteslavÔ_Ô€returned.€In€1945,€the€estate€of€Richard€Ô_ÔFischmannÔ_Ô€was€confiscated€underÐ \ Ð ÐÔ_ÔBenesÔ_Ô€decree€12/1945€because€the€district€committee€decided€that€he€was€German€as€wellÐ H!¼ Ðas€a€traitor€to€the€Czech€Republic€òò2óó/,€the€assumption€that€he€was€German€being€based€on€theÐ 4"¨ Ðassertion€that€he€had€lived€"in€a€German€way".€Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€The€author's€appeal€against€the€confiscation€was€dismissed.€The€decision€of€the€districtÐ ø$l! Ðcommittee€was€upheld€by€a€judgment€of€the€highest€administrative€court€in€Bratislava€on€3Ð ä%X" ÐDecember€1951.€ÐÐ&D #(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€After€the€end€of€communist€rule€in€Czechoslovakia,€the€author€lodged€a€complaint€to€theÐ ¨("% ÐGeneral€procurator,€on€18€December€1990,€for€denial€of€justice€with€regard€to€her€claim€forÐ ”)#& Ðrestitution.€Her€complaint€was€dismissed€on€21€August€1991€for€being€out€of€time,€havingÐ €*ô#' Ðbeen€lodged€more€than€five€years€after€the€confiscation.€The€author€states€that€underÐ l+à$( ÐCommunist€rule€it€was€not€possible€to€lodge€a€complaint€within€the€time€limit€of€five€yearsÐ Œ Ðas€prescribed€by€law.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€The€author€states€that€on€17€June€1992€she€applied€for€restitution€according€to€the€lawÐ P Ä ÐNo.€243/1992€òò3óó/.€Her€application€was€dismissed€on€14€October€1994€by€the€Land€Office€ofÐ < ° ÐÔ_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô.€Ð( œ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à4.1€By€submission€of€20€October€1997,€the€State€party€stated€that€the€author's€application€forÐ  t Ðrestitution€of€her€father's€property€was€dismissed€by€the€Ô_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô€Land€Office€on€14€OctoberÐ ì ` Ð1994,€on€grounds€of€non„compliance€with€the€legal€requirements.€It€explained€that€theÐ ØL  Ðconfiscated€property€of€persons€who€were€deprived€of€Czechoslovak€citizenship€under€theÐ Ä8  ÐÔ_ÔBenesÔ_Ô€decrees€in€1945,€may€be€Ô_ÔrestituatedÔ_Ô€in€cases€where€the€claimant€has€his€citizenshipÐ °$  Ðrenewed€through€the€procedures€set€by€law.€However,€the€law€did€not€expressly€address€theÐ œ  Ðsituation€of€persons€who€never€lost€their€citizenship€and€whose€property€was€confiscated€inÐ ˆü  Ðviolation€of€the€laws€operative€at€that€time.€Since€the€author's€father€never€lost€hisÐ tè  ÐCzechoslovak€citizenship,€he€could€not€be€considered€to€be€an€entitled€person€and€theÐ `Ô  Ðproperty€could€not€be€restored.€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à4.2€The€State€party€further€explained€that€the€author's€appeal€was€dismissed€for€being€filedÐ $˜ Ðout€of€time.€The€author's€lawyer€then€raised€the€objection€that€the€Land€Office's€decision€hadÐ „ Ðnot€been€served€properly,€since€it€had€not€been€served€to€the€lawyer€directly,€but€to€a€memberÐ üp Ðof€his€staff,€who€was€not€authorized€to€receive€it.€The€Land€Office€accepted€the€objection,Ð è\ Ðand€served€the€decision€again.€The€author€subsequently€appealed€against€the€decision.€TheÐ ÔH ÐCity€Court€dismissed€the€appeal€by€a€ruling€dated€6€August€1996,€on€the€ground€that€theÐ À4 Ðdecision€had€been€properly€served€the€first€time€and€should€not€have€been€served€a€secondÐ ¬  Ðtime.€On€11€October€1996,€the€author€filed€a€constitutional€complaint,€which€was€dismissedÐ ˜  Ðby€the€Constitutional€Court€as€inadmissible€òòÔ_ÔrationeÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔtemporisÔ_Ôóó.€Ð„ø(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðpä(#(# Ðà0  à4.4€€The€State€party...submitted€that,€since€the€present€communication€had€been€submittedÐ \ Ð Ðto€the€Committee,€the€Constitutional€Court€had€decided,€in€cases€similar€to€that€of€theÐ H!¼ Ðauthor's€father,€that€applicants€who€never€lost€their€citizenship€were€also€entitled€toÐ 4"¨ Ðrestitution€under€law€no.€243/1992.€As€a€consequence,€the€Central€Land€Office,€whichÐ  #” Ðexamined€the€author's€file,€decided€that€the€Land€Office's€decision€in€the€author's€case€shouldÐ  $€  Ðbe€reviewed,€since€it€was€inconsistent€with€the€Constitutional€Court's€ruling.€On€27€AugustÐ ø$l! Ð1997,€the€Central€Land€Office€initiated€administrative€proceedings€and€on€9€October€1997,Ð ä%X" Ðit€quashed€the€Land€Office's€decision€of€14€October€1994,€and€decided€that€the€author€shouldÐ Ð&D # Ðrestart€her€application€for€restitution€òòab€initioóó.€Normal€appeal€possibilities€would€be€open€toÐ ¼'0!$ Ðthe€author€if€she€was€not€satisfied€with€the€outcome€of€the€proceedings.€Also€for€this€reason,Ð ¨("% Ðthe€State€party€argued€that€the€communication€was€inadmissible€under€article€5,€paragraphÐ ”)#& Ð2(b),€of€the€Optional€Protocol.€Ð€*ô#'(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðl+à$((#(# Ðà0  à9.2€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€State€Party€concedes€that€under€Law€No.€243/1992Ð Œ Ðindividuals€in€a€similar€situation€as€that€of€the€author€qualify€for€restitution€as€a€result€of€theÐ xì Ðsubsequent€interpretation€given€by€the€Constitutional€Court€(para.€4.4).€The€State€PartyÐ dØ Ðfurther€concedes€that€the€decision€of€the€Ô_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô€Land€Office€of€14€October€1994€was€wrongÐ P Ä Ðand€that€the€author€should€have€had€the€opportunity€to€enter€a€fresh€application€before€theÐ < ° ÐÔ_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô€Land€Office.€The€author's€renewed€attempt€to€obtain€redress€has,€however,€beenÐ ( œ Ðfrustrated€by€the€State€party€itself€which,€through€a€letter€of€the€Ministry€of€Agriculture€ofÐ  ˆ Ð25€May€1998,€informed€the€author€that€the€decision€of€the€Ô_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô€Land€Office€of€14€OctoberÐ  t Ð1994€had€become€final€on€the€ground€that€the€decision€of€the€Central€Land€Office€reversingÐ ì ` Ðthe€decision€of€the€Ô_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô€Land€Office€had€been€served€out€of€time.€ÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  à9.3€€Given€the€above€facts,€the€Committee€concludes€that,€if€the€service€of€the€decision€of€theÐ °$  ÐCentral€Land€Office€reversing€the€decision€of€the€Ô_ÔJihlavaÔ_Ô€Land€Office€was€made€out€of€time,Ð œ  Ðthis€was€attributable€to€the€administrative€fault€of€the€authorities.€The€result€is€that€the€authorÐ ˆü  Ðwas€deprived€of€treatment€equal€to€that€of€persons€having€similar€entitlement€to€theÐ tè  Ðrestitution€of€their€previously€confiscated€property,€in€violation€of€her€rights€under€article€26Ð `Ô  Ðof€the€Covenant.€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€therefore€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€discloseÐ $˜ Ða€violation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant.Є(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€underÐ è\ Ðan€obligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€effective€remedy,€including€an€opportunity€to€fileÐ ÔH Ða€new€claim€for€restitution€or€compensation.€The€State€party€should€review€its€legislation€andÐ À4 Ðadministrative€practices€to€ensure€that€all€persons€enjoy€both€equality€before€the€law€as€wellÐ ¬  Ðas€the€equal€protection€of€the€law.€Ð˜ (#(# Ðà0  à_________________Єø(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐpä(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð\ Ð(#(# Ðà0  àòò1óó/€€Ô_ÔiÔ_Ô.€e.€that€the€property€was€taken€away€from€Jews€as€"non„Aryans"€and€transferred€to€theÐ H!¼ ÐGerman€State€or€German€natural€or€juridical€persons.€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò2óó/€€The€author€states€that€according€to€the€edict€Nr.€A€4600€9/11€45€VI/2€of€the€Ministry€ofÐ  $€  Ðthe€Interior€of€13€November€1945€the€district€committees€had€the€competence€to€examine€theÐ ø$l! Ðreliability€of€those€persons€who€in€1930€had€registered€as€Jews.€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€Law€no.€243/1992€provides€for€the€restitution€of€property€which€was€confiscated€as€aÐ ¼'0!$ Ðresult€of€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô€decrees€Nos.€12/1945€and€108/1945.€One€of€the€conditions€to€be€eligible€forÐ ¨("% Ðrestitution€is€that€the€claimant€must€have€been€granted€Czech€citizenship€by€decree€33/1945,Ð ”)#& ÐAct€no.€245/1948,€194/1949€or€34/1953.€Ð€*ô#'(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðl+à$((#(# ЇÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£ñÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòÔ_ÔBrokÔ_Ô€v.€Czech€Republicóó€(774/1997),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40€vol.€II€(31€October€2001)€110Ð xì Ð(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/73/D/774/1997)€at€paras.€2.1„2.6,7.2„7.4,€8€and€9.݃ 3£ñ€ÝŒÐdØ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€Robert€Ô_ÔBrokÔ_Ô's€parents€owned€a€house€in€the€centre€of€Prague€since€1927€(hereinafterÐ ( œ Ðcalled€the€property).€During€1940€and€1941,€the€German€authorities€confiscated€theirÐ  ˆ Ðproperty€with€retroactive€effect€to€16€March€1939,€because€the€owners€were€Jewish.€TheÐ  t Ðproperty€was€then€sold€to€the€company€Matador€on€7€January€1942.€The€author€himself,€wasÐ ì ` Ðdeported€by€the€Nazis,€and€returned€to€Prague€on€16€May€1945,€after€having€been€releasedÐ ØL  Ðfrom€a€concentration€camp.€He€was€subsequently€hospitalized€until€October€1945.€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€After€the€end€of€the€war,€on€19€May€1945,€President€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô'€Decree€No.€5/1945,€followedÐ œ  Ðup€later€by€Act€128/1946,€declared€null€and€void€all€property€transactions€effected€underÐ ˆü  Ðpressure€of€the€occupation€regime€on€the€basis€of€racial€or€political€persecution.€NationalÐ tè  Ðadministration€was€imposed€on€all€enemy€assets.€This€included€the€author's€parents'€propertyÐ `Ô  Ðpursuant€to€a€decision€taken€by€the€Ministry€of€Industry€on€2€August€1945.€However,€inÐ LÀ ÐFebruary€1946,€the€Ministry€of€Industry€annulled€that€decision.€It€also€annulled€the€priorÐ 8¬ Ðproperty€confiscation€and€transfers,€and€the€author's€parents€were€reinstated€as€the€rightfulÐ $˜ Ðowners,€in€accordance€with€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô€Decree€No.€5/1945.€Ð„(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€However,€the€company€Matador,€which€had€been€nationalized€on€27€October€1945,Ð è\ Ðappealed€against€this€decision.€On€7€August€1946,€the€Land€Court€in€Prague€annulled€theÐ ÔH Ðreturn€of€the€property€to€the€author's€parents€and€declared€Matador€to€be€the€rightful€owner.Ð À4 ÐOn€31€January€1947,€the€Supreme€Court€confirmed€this€decision....€The€property€therebyÐ ¬  Ðstayed€in€possession€of€Matador,€and€was€later,€in€1954,€transferred€to€the€state€companyÐ ˜  ÐÔ_ÔTechnomatÔ_Ô.€Ð„ø(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€Following€the€change€to€a€democratic€government€at€the€adoption€of€restitutionÐ \ Ð Ðlegislation,€the€author€applied€for€restitution€under€Act€No.€87/1991€as€amended€by€Act€No.Ð H!¼ Ð116/1994.€The€said€law€provides€restitution€or€compensation€to€victims€of€illegalÐ 4"¨ Ðconfiscation€carried€out€for€political€reasons€during€the€Communist€regime€(25€FebruaryÐ  #” Ð1948€„1€January€1990).€The€law€also€matter€provisions€for€restitution€or€compensation€toÐ  $€  Ðvictims€of€racial€persecution€during€the€Second€World€War,€who€have€an€entitlement€byÐ ø$l! Ðvirtue€of€Decree€No.€5/1945.€The€courts€(District€Court€decision€26€C€49/95€of€20€NovemberÐ ä%X" Ð1995€and€Prague€City€Court€decision€13€Co€34/94„29€of€28€February€1996),€however,Ð Ð&D # Ðrejected€the€author's€claim.€The€District€Court€states€in€its€decision€that€the€amended€ActÐ ¼'0!$ Ðextends€the€right€to€restitution€to€persons€who€lost€their€property€during€the€GermanÐ ¨("% Ðoccupation€and€who€could€not€have€their€property€Ô_ÔrestitutedÔ_Ô€because€of€political€persecution,Ð ”)#& Ðor€who€went€through€legal€procedures€that€violated€their€human€rights€subsequent€to€25Ð €*ô#' ÐFebruary€1948,€on€condition€that€they€comply€with€the€terms€set€forth€in€Act€No.€87/1991.Ð l+à$( ÐHowever,€the€court€was€of€the€opinion€that€the€author€was€not€eligible€for€restitution,€becauseÐ Œ Ðthe€property€was€nationalized€before€25€February€1948,€the€retroactive€cut„off€date€for€claimsÐ xì Ðunder€Act€No.€87/1991€Section€1,€paragraph€1,€and€Section€6.€This€decision€was€confirmedÐ dØ Ðby€the€Prague€City€Court.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€Pursuant€to€section€72€of€Act€No.€182/1993,€the€author€filed€a€complaint€before€theÐ ( œ ÐConstitutional€court€that€his€right€to€property€had€been€violated.€This€provision€allows€anÐ  ˆ Ðindividual€to€file€a€complaint€to€the€Constitutional€Court€if€the€public€authority€has€violatedÐ  t Ðthe€claimant's€fundamental€rights€guaranteed€by€a€constitutional€law€or€by€an€internationalÐ ì ` Ðtreaty€in€particular€the€right€to€property.€ÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€The€Constitutional€Court€concluded€that€since€the€first€and€second€instances€had€decidedÐ °$  Ðthat€the€author€was€not€the€owner€of€the€property,€there€were€no€property€rights€that€couldÐ œ  Ðhave€been€violated.€In€its€decision,€the€Constitutional€Court€invoked€the€question€of€fair€trialÐ ˆü  Ðon€its€own€motion€and€concluded€that€"the€legal€proceedings€were€conducted€correctly€andÐ tè  Ðall€the€legal€regulations€have€been€safeguarded".€Accordingly,€the€Constitutional€CourtÐ `Ô  Ðrejected€the€author's€constitutional€complaint€on€12€September€1996.€ÐLÀ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð8¬(#(# Ðà0  à7.2€€The€question€before€the€Committee€is€whether€the€application€of€Act€No.€87/1991,€asÐ $˜ Ðamended€by€Act€No.€116/1994,€to€the€author's€case€entails€a€violation€of€his€right€to€equalityÐ „ Ðbefore€the€law€and€to€the€equal€protection€of€the€law.€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.3€€These€laws€provide€restitution€or€compensation€to€victims€of€illegal€confiscation€carriedÐ ÔH Ðout€for€political€reasons€during€the€Communist€regime.€The€law€also€provides€for€restitutionÐ À4 Ðor€compensation€to€victims€of€racial€persecution€during€the€Second€World€War€who€had€anÐ ¬  Ðentitlement€under€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô€Decree€No.€5/1945.€The€Committee€observes€that€legislation€mustÐ ˜  Ðnot€discriminate€among€the€victims€of€the€prior€confiscation€to€which€it€applies,€since€allÐ „ø Ðvictims€are€entitled€to€redress€without€arbitrary€distinctions.€Ðpä(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.4€€The€CommÔ_ÔitteeÔ_Ô€notes€that€Act€No.€87/1991€as€amended€by€Act€No.€116/1994€gave€riseÐ H!¼ Ðto€a€restitution€claim€of€the€author€which€was€denied€on€the€ground€that€the€nationalizationÐ 4"¨ Ðthat€took€place€in€1946/47€on€the€basis€of€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô€Decree€No.€100/1945€falls€outside€the€scopeÐ  #” Ðof€laws€of€1991€and€1994.€Thus,€the€author€was€excluded€from€the€benefit€of€the€restitutionÐ  $€  Ðlaw€although€the€Czech€nationalization€in€1946/47€could€only€be€carried€out€because€theÐ ø$l! Ðauthor's€property€was€confiscated€by€the€Nazi€authorities€during€the€time€of€GermanÐ ä%X" Ðoccupation.€In€the€Committee's€view€this€discloses€a€discriminatory€treatment€of€the€author,Ð Ð&D # Ðcompared€to€those€individuals€whose€property€was€confiscated€by€Nazi€authorities€withoutÐ ¼'0!$ Ðbeing€subjected,€immediately€after€the€war,€to€Czech€nationalization€and€who,€therefore,Ð ¨("% Ðcould€benefit€from€the€laws€of€1991€and€1994.€Irrespective€of€whether€the€arbitrariness€inÐ ”)#& Ðquestion€was€inherent€in€the€law€itself€or€whether€it€resulted€from€the€application€of€the€lawÐ €*ô#' Ðby€the€courts€of€the€State€party,€the€Committee€finds€that€the€author€was€denied€his€right€toÐ l+à$( Ðequal€protection€of€the€law€in€violation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à8.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€substantiate€aÐ dØ Ðviolation€of€article€26€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€under€anÐ ( œ Ðobligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€effective€remedy.€Such€remedy€should€includeÐ  ˆ Ðrestitution€of€the€property€or€compensation,€and€appropriate€compensation€for€the€periodÐ  t Ðduring€which€the€author€and€his€widow€were€deprived€of€the€property,€starting€on€the€dateÐ ì ` Ðof€the€court€decision€of€20€November€1995€and€ending€on€the€date€when€the€restitution€hasÐ ØL  Ðbeen€completed.€The€State€party€should€review€its€relevant€legislation€and€administrativeÐ Ä8  Ðpractices€to€ensure€that€neither€the€law€nor€its€application€entails€discrimination€inÐ °$  Ðcontravention€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£å¤ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔGedumbeÔ_Ô€v.€Democratic€Republic€of€the€Congo€óó(641/1995),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40€vol.€II€(9€JulyÐ `Ô  Ð2002)€24€(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/75/D/641/1995)€at€paras.€2.1„2.5,€5.2,€5.3,€6.1€and€6.2.€Ýƒ 3£å¤¥ÝŒÐLÀ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð$˜(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€In€1985€the€author€was€appointed€director€of€a€Ô_ÔZairianÔ_Ô€consular€school€in€Bujumbura,Ð „ ÐBurundi.€In€1988€he€was€suspended€from€his€duties€by€Ô_ÔMbolokoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô,€the€then€Ô_ÔZairianÔ_ÔÐ üp Ðambassador€to€Burundi.€This€suspension€allegedly€was€attributable€to€a€complaint€addressedÐ è\ Ðby€the€author€and€by€other€staff€members€of€the€schoolòò1óó/€to€several€administrative€authoritiesÐ ÔH Ðof€Zaire,€including€the€President€and€the€Minister€of€Foreign€Affairs,€concerning€theÐ À4 Ðembezzlement€by€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô€of€the€salaries€for€the€personnel€of€the€consular€school.€MoreÐ ¬  Ðparticularly,€the€ambassador€allegedly€embezzled€the€author's€salary€in€order€to€force€him€toÐ ˜  Ðyield€his€wife.€Ð„ø(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€In€March€1988€a€fact„finding€commission€was€sent€from€Zaire€to€Bujumbura,€which,Ð \ Ð Ðpurportedly,€made€an€overwhelming€report€against€the€ambassador€and€confirmed€all€theÐ H!¼ Ðallegations€made€against€him.€In€August€1988€the€Minister€of€Foreign€Affairs€of€ZaireÐ 4"¨ Ðenjoined€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô€to€pay€all€the€salary€arrears€to€the€author,€who,€in€the€meantime,€had€beenÐ  #” Ðtransferred€as€director€of€the€Ô_ÔZairianÔ_Ô€consular€school€to€Kigali,€Rwanda.€The€ambassador,Ð  $€  Ðwho€allegedly€refused€to€obey€this€order,€was€suspended€from€his€duties€and€recalled€to€ZaireÐ ø$l! Ðon€20€June€1989.€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€In€September€1989€the€Ministry€of€Primary€and€Secondary€Education€issued€an€order€toÐ ¼'0!$ Ðreinstate€the€author€in€his€post€in€Bujumbura.€Accordingly,€the€author€moved€back€toÐ ¨("% ÐBurundi€in€order€to€fill€his€post.€Subsequently,€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô,€who€despite€his€suspensionÐ ”)#& Ðremained€in€Bujumbura€until€20€December€1989,€informed€the€authorities€in€Zaire€that€theÐ €*ô#' Ðauthor€was€a€member€of€a€network€of€political€opponents€of€the€Ô_ÔZairianÔ_Ô€Government,€andÐ l+à$( Ðthat€he€therefore€had€requested€the€authorities€of€Burundi€to€expel€him.€For€this€reason,€theÐ Œ Ðauthor€maintains,€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô€and€his€successor€at€the€embassy,€Ô_ÔViziÔ_Ô€Topi,€refused€to€reinstateÐ xì Ðhim€in€his€post,€even€after€confirmation€by€the€Minister€of€Primary€and€Secondary€Education,Ð dØ Ðor€to€pay€his€salary€arrears.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€The€author€appealed€to€the€Public€Prosecutor€of€the€County€Court€(òòTribunal€de€GrandeÐ ( œ ÐInstanceóó)€of€Ô_ÔUviraÔ_Ô,€who€passed€on€the€file€to€the€Public€Prosecutor€of€the€Court€of€AppealÐ  ˆ Ð(òòÔ_ÔCourÔ_Ô€Ô_Ôd'AppelÔ_Ôóó)€of€Ô_ÔBukavuÔ_Ô€on€25€July€1990.€Both€offices€described€the€facts€as€being€anÐ  t Ðabuse€of€rights€and€called€into€question€the€former€ambassador's€conduct.€On€14€SeptemberÐ ì ` Ð1990€the€case€was€further€transmitted€for€advice€to€the€Office€of€the€Public€Prosecutor€inÐ ØL  ÐKinshasa,€where€the€case€was€registered€in€February€1991.€Since€then,€despite€numerousÐ Ä8  Ðreminders€sent€by€the€author,€no€further€action€has€been€taken.€Consequently,€the€authorÐ °$  Ðappealed€to€the€Minister€of€Justice€and€to€the€Chairman€of€the€National€Assembly.€The€latterÐ œ  Ðinterceded€with€the€Minister€of€Foreign€Affairs€and€the€Minister€of€Education,€who,Ð ˆü  Ðallegedly,€intervened€on€the€author's€behalf€with€Mr.€Ô_ÔViziÔ_Ô€Topi,€all€to€no€avail.€Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€On€7€October€1990€the€author€served€a€summons€on€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô€for€adultery,€slanderousÐ LÀ Ðdenunciation€and€prejudicial€charges,€abuse€of€power€and€embezzlement€of€private€monies.Ð 8¬ ÐBy€a€letter€dated€24€October€1990,€the€President€of€the€Kinshasa€Court€of€Appeal€(òòÔ_ÔCourÔ_ÔÐ $˜ ÐÔ_Ôd'AppelÔ_Ôóó)€informed€the€author€that€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô,€as€an€ambassador,€benefited€from€functionalÐ „ Ðimmunity€and€could€only€be€brought€to€trial€upon€summons€of€the€Public€Prosecutor.€All€theÐ üp Ðauthor's€requests€to€the€latter€to€start€legal€proceedings€against€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô€have€to€dateÐ è\ Ðremained€unanswered.€According€to€the€author,€this€is€due€to€the€fact€that€a€specialÐ ÔH Ðauthorization€of€the€President€is€required€to€start€legal€proceedings€against€members€of€theÐ À4 Ðsecurity€police€and€that,€therefore,€the€Public€Prosecutor€could€not€take€the€risk€of€servingÐ ¬  Ða€summons€on€Mr.€Ô_ÔIkoloÔ_Ô,€who€is€also€a€senior€official€in€the€National€Intelligence€andÐ ˜  ÐProtection€Service.€Accordingly,€the€author's€case€cannot€be€the€subject€of€a€judicialÐ „ø Ðdetermination.€Therefore,€it€is€submitted,€all€available€and€effective€domestic€remedies€haveÐ pä Ðbeen€exhausted.€Ð\ Ð(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐH!¼(#(# Ðà0  à5.2€€With€regard€to€the€alleged€violation€of€article€25€Ô_Ô(c)Ô_Ô€of€the€Covenant,€the€CommitteeÐ 4"¨ Ðnotes€that€the€author€has€made€specific€allegations€relating,€on€the€one€hand,€to€hisÐ  #” Ðsuspension€in€complete€disregard€of€legal€procedure€and,€in€particular,€in€violation€of€theÐ  $€  ÐÔ_ÔZairianÔ_Ô€regulations€governing€State€employees,€and,€on€the€other€hand,€to€the€failure€toÐ ø$l! Ðreinstate€him€in€his€post,€in€contravention€of€decisions€by€the€Ministry€of€Primary€andÐ ä%X" ÐSecondary€Education.€In€this€connection€the€Committee€notes€also€that€the€non„payment€ofÐ Ð&D # Ðthe€author's€salary€arrears,€notwithstanding€the€instructions€by€the€Minister€for€ForeignÐ ¼'0!$ ÐAffairs,€is€the€direct€consequence€of€the€failure€to€implement€the€above„mentioned€decisionsÐ ¨("% Ðby€the€authorities.€In€the€absence€of€a€response€by€the€State€party,€the€Committee€finds€thatÐ ”)#& Ðthe€facts€in€the€case€show€that€the€decisions€by€the€authorities€in€the€author's€favour€have€notÐ €*ô#' Ðbeen€acted€upon€and€cannot€be€regarded€as€an€effective€remedy€for€violation€of€article€25€Ô_Ô(c)Ô_ÔÐ l+à$( Ðread€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant.€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à5.3€€To€the€extent€that€the€Committee€has€found€that€there€was€no€effective€legal€procedureÐ dØ Ðallowing€the€author€to€invoke€his€rights€before€a€tribunal€(article€25€Ô_Ô(c)Ô_Ô€in€conjunction€withÐ P Ä Ðarticle€2),€no€separate€issue€arises€concerning€the€conformity€of€proceedings€before€such€aÐ < ° Ðtribunal€with€article€14€of€the€Covenant.€With€regard€to€article€26,€the€Committee€sustainsÐ ( œ Ðthe€author's€reasoning€by€finding€a€violation€of€article€25€Ô_Ô(c)Ô_Ô.€Ð ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð t(#(# Ðà0  à6.1€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€disclose€violationsÐ ì ` Ðby€the€Democratic€Republic€of€the€Congo€of€articles€25€Ô_Ô(c)Ô_Ô€in€conjunction€with€article€2€ofÐ ØL  Ðthe€Covenant.€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à6.2€€Pursuant€to€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€Committee€is€of€the€view€thatÐ œ  Ðthe€author€is€entitled€to€an€appropriate€remedy,€namely:€(a)€effective€reinstatement€to€publicÐ ˆü  Ðservice€and€to€his€post,€with€all€the€consequences€that€Ô_ÔthatÔ_Ô€implies,€or,€if€necessary,€to€aÐ tè  Ðsimilar€post;òò2óó/€(b)€compensation€comprising€a€sum€equivalent€to€the€payment€of€the€arrearsÐ `Ô  Ðof€salary€and€remuneration€that€he€would€have€received€from€the€time€at€which€he€was€notÐ LÀ Ðreinstated€to€his€post,€beginning€in€September€1989.òò3óó/€Ð8¬(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð$˜(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóЄ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò1óó/€€This€complaint€was€also€signed€by€Ô_ÔOdiaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔAmisiÔ_Ô;€communication€No.€497/1992€(òòÔ_ÔOdiaÔ_ÔÐ è\ ÐÔ_ÔAmisiÔ_Ô€v.€Zaireóó),€declared€inadmissible€on€27€July€1994.€ÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò2óó/€€Communication€No.€630/1995€òòÔ_ÔAbdoulayeÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔMazouÔ_Ô€v.€Cameroonóó.€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€Communications€No.€422/1990,€423/1990€and€424/1990,€òòÔ_ÔAdimayoÔ_Ô€M.€Ô_ÔAduayomÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔSofianouÔ_ÔÐ „ø ÐT.€Ô_ÔDiassoÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔYawoÔ_Ô€S.€Ô_ÔDobouÔ_Ô€v.€Togoóó.€Ðpä(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌÌÓ€ ) "#$%&'((œAxx) "#$%&'(ÓÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£FÎÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝJoslin€€v.€New€Zealand€óó(902/1999),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40€vol.€II€(17€July€2002)€214Ð  #” Ð(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/75/D/902/1999)€at€paras.€2.1„2.4,€8.2,€8.3,€9€and€Individual€Opinion€by€Mr.Ð  $€  ÐÔ_ÔRajsoomerÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔLallahÔ_Ô€and€Mr.€Martin€Ô_ÔScheininÔ_Ô€(concurring),€226.€€Ýƒ 3£FÎvÎÝŒÐø$l!(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€Ms.€Joslin€and€Ms.€Rowan€commenced€a€lesbian€relationship€in€January€1988.€Since€thatÐ ¼'0!$ Ðpoint,€they€have€jointly€assumed€responsibility€for€their€children€out€of€previous€marriages.Ð ¨("% ÐIn€living€together,€they€have€pooled€finances€and€jointly€own€their€common€home.€TheyÐ ”)#& Ðmaintain€sexual€relations.€On€4€December€1995,€they€applied€under€the€Marriage€Act€1955Ð €*ô#' Ðto€the€local€Registrar€of€Births,€Deaths€and€Marriages€for€a€marriage€licence,€by€lodging€aÐ l+à$( Ðnotice€of€intended€marriage€at€the€local€Registry€Office.€On€14€December€1995,€the€DeputyÐ Œ ÐRegistrar-General€rejected€the€application.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€Similarly,€Ms.€Ô_ÔZelfÔ_Ô€and€Ms.€Pearl€commenced€a€lesbian€relationship€in€April€1993.€TheyÐ P Ä Ðalso€share€responsibility€for€the€children€of€a€previous€marriage,€pool€financial€resources€andÐ < ° Ðmaintain€sexual€relations.€On€22€January€1996,€the€local€Registry€Office€refused€to€acceptÐ ( œ Ða€notice€of€intended€marriage.€On€2€February€1996,€Ms€Ô_ÔZelfÔ_Ô€and€Ms€Pearl€lodged€a€notice€ofÐ  ˆ Ðintended€marriage€at€another€Registry€Office.€On€12€February€1996,€the€Registrar-GeneralÐ  t Ðinformed€them€that€the€notice€could€not€be€processed.€The€Registrar-General€indicated€thatÐ ì ` Ðthe€Registrar€was€acting€lawfully€in€interpreting€the€Marriage€Act€as€confined€to€marriageÐ ØL  Ðbetween€a€man€and€a€woman.€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€All€four€authors€thereupon€applied€to€the€High€Court€for€a€declaration€that,€as€lesbianÐ œ  Ðcouples,€they€were€lawfully€entitled€to€obtain€a€marriage€licence€and€to€marry€pursuant€to€theÐ ˆü  ÐMarriage€Act€1955.€On€28€May€1996,€the€High€Court€declined€the€application.€ObservingÐ tè  Ðinter€alia€that€the€text€of€article€23,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant€"does€not€point€to€same-sexÐ `Ô  Ðmarriages",€the€Court€held€that€the€statutory€language€of€the€Marriage€Act€was€clear€inÐ LÀ Ðapplying€to€marriage€between€a€man€and€a€woman€only.€Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€On€17€December€1997,€a€Full€Bench€of€the€Court€of€Appeal€rejected€the€authors'€appeal.Ð „ ÐThe€Court€held€unanimously€that€the€Marriage€Act,€in€its€terms,€clearly€applied€to€marriageÐ üp Ðbetween€a€man€and€a€woman€only.€A€majority€of€the€Court€further€went€on€to€hold€that€theÐ è\ Ðrestriction€in€the€Marriage€Act€of€marriage€to€a€man€and€a€woman€did€not€constituteÐ ÔH Ðdiscrimination.€Justice€Keith,€expressing€the€majority's€views€at€length,€found€no€support€inÐ À4 Ðthe€scheme€and€text€of€the€Covenant,€the€Committee's€prior€jurisprudence,€the€òòÔ_ÔtravauxÔ_ÔóóÐ ¬  ÐòòÔ_ÔprparatoiresÔ_Ôóó€nor€scholarly€writing€òò1óó/€for€the€proposition€that€a€limitation€of€marriage€to€aÐ ˜  Ðman€and€a€woman€violated€the€Covenant.€Ð„ø(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðpä(#(# Ðà0  à8.2€€The€authors'€essential€claim€is€that€the€Covenant€obligates€States€parties€to€confer€uponÐ \ Ð Ðhomosexual€couples€the€capacity€to€marry€and€that€by€denying€the€authors€this€capacity€theÐ H!¼ ÐState€party€violates€their€rights€under€articles€16,€17,€23,€paragraphs€1€and€2,€and€26€of€theÐ 4"¨ ÐCovenant.€The€Committee€notes€that€article€23,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant€expresslyÐ  #” Ðaddresses€the€issue€of€the€right€to€marry.€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  àGiven€the€existence€of€a€specific€provision€in€the€Covenant€on€the€right€to€marriage,€anyÐ ä%X" Ðclaim€that€this€right€has€been€violated€must€be€considered€in€the€light€of€this€provision.Ð Ð&D # ÐArticle€23,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant€is€the€only€substantive€provision€in€the€CovenantÐ ¼'0!$ Ðwhich€defines€a€right€by€using€the€term€"men€and€women",€rather€than€"every€human€being",Ð ¨("% Ð"everyone"€and€"all€persons".€Use€of€the€term€"men€and€women",€rather€than€the€generalÐ ”)#& Ðterms€used€elsewhere€in€Part€III€of€the€Covenant,€has€been€consistently€and€uniformlyÐ €*ô#' Ðunderstood€as€indicating€that€the€treaty€obligation€of€States€parties€stemming€from€article€23,Ð l+à$( Ðparagraph€2,€of€the€Covenant€is€to€recognize€as€marriage€only€the€union€between€a€man€andÐ Œ Ða€woman€wishing€to€marry€each€other.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à8.3€€In€light€of€the€scope€of€the€right€to€marry€under€article€23,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant,Ð P Ä Ðthe€Committee€cannot€find€that€by€mere€refusal€to€provide€for€marriage€between€homosexualÐ < ° Ðcouples,€the€State€party€has€violated€the€rights€of€the€authors€under€articles€16,€17,€23,Ð ( œ Ðparagraphs€1€and€2,€or€26€of€the€Covenant.€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€do€not€disclose€aÐ ì ` Ðviolation€of€any€provision€of€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.€ÐØL (#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐÄ8 (#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóа$ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò1óó/€€Harris,€D.,€Joseph,€S.:€The€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights€andÐ ˆü  ÐUnited€Kingdom€Law,€Oxford,€Oxford€University€Press,€1995,€p.€507€("It€seems€clear€thatÐ tè  Ðthe€drafters€did€not€envisage€homosexual€or€lesbian€marriages€as€falling€within€the€terms€ofÐ `Ô  Ðarticle€23€(2).")€ÐLÀ(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIndividual€Opinion€by€Mr.€Ô_ÔRajsoomerÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔLallahÔ_Ô€and€Mr.€Martin€Ô_ÔScheininÔ_Ô€(concurring)óóЄ(#(# ÐÌà0  àWe€found€no€difficulty€in€joining€the€Committee's€consensus€on€the€interpretation€of€the€rightÐ è\ Ðto€marry€under€article€23,€paragraph€2.€This€provision€entails€an€obligation€for€States€toÐ ÔH Ðrecognize€as€marriage€the€union€of€one€adult€man€and€one€adult€woman€who€wish€to€marryÐ À4 Ðeach€other.€The€provision€in€no€way€limits€the€liberty€of€States,€pursuant€to€article€5,Ð ¬  Ðparagraph€2,€to€recognize,€in€the€form€of€marriage€or€in€some€other€comparable€form,€theÐ ˜  Ðcompanionship€between€two€men€or€between€two€women.€However,€no€support€can€beÐ „ø Ðdrawn€from€this€provision€for€practices€that€violate€the€human€rights€or€dignity€ofÐ pä Ðindividuals,€such€as€child€marriages€or€forced€marriages.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  àAs€to€the€Committee's€unanimous€view€that€it€cannot€find€a€violation€of€article€26,€either,€inÐ 4"¨ Ðthe€non-recognition€as€marriage€of€the€same-sex€relationships€between€the€authors,€we€wishÐ  #” Ðto€add€a€few€observations.€This€conclusion€should€not€be€read€as€a€general€statement€thatÐ  $€  Ðdifferential€treatment€between€married€couples€and€same-sex€couples€not€allowed€under€theÐ ø$l! Ðlaw€to€marry€would€never€amount€to€a€violation€of€article€26.€On€the€contrary,€theÐ ä%X" ÐCommittee's€jurisprudence€supports€the€position€that€such€differentiation€may€very€well,Ð Ð&D # Ðdepending€on€the€circumstances€of€a€concrete€case,€amount€to€prohibited€discrimination.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  àContrary€to€what€was€asserted€by€the€State€party€(para.€4.12),€it€is€the€established€view€of€theÐ ”)#& ÐCommittee€that€the€prohibition€against€discrimination€on€grounds€of€"sex"€in€article€26Ð €*ô#' Ðcomprises€also€discrimination€based€on€sexual€Ô_Ôorientation.òòaÔ_Ôóó/€And€when€the€Committee€hasÐ l+à$( Ðheld€that€certain€differences€in€the€treatment€of€married€couples€and€unmarried€heterosexualÐ Œ Ðcouples€were€based€on€reasonable€and€objective€criteria€and€hence€not€discriminatory,€theÐ xì Ðrationale€of€this€approach€was€in€the€ability€of€the€couples€in€question€to€choose€whether€toÐ dØ Ðmarry€or€not€to€marry,€with€all€the€entailing€Ô_Ôconsequences.òòbÔ_Ôóó/€No€such€possibility€of€choiceÐ P Ä Ðexists€for€same-sex€couples€in€countries€where€the€law€does€not€allow€for€same-sex€marriageÐ < ° Ðor€other€type€of€recognized€same-sex€partnership€with€consequences€similar€to€or€identicalÐ ( œ Ðwith€those€of€marriage.€Therefore,€a€denial€of€certain€rights€or€benefits€to€same-sex€couplesÐ  ˆ Ðthat€are€available€to€married€couples€may€amount€to€discrimination€prohibited€under€articleÐ  t Ð26,€unless€otherwise€justified€on€reasonable€and€objective€criteria.€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  àHowever,€in€the€current€case€we€find€that€the€authors€failed,€perhaps€intentionally,€toÐ Ä8  Ðdemonstrate€that€they€were€personally€affected€in€relation€to€certain€rights€not€necessarilyÐ °$  Ðrelated€to€the€institution€of€marriage,€by€any€such€distinction€between€married€and€unmarriedÐ œ  Ðpersons€that€would€amount€to€discrimination€under€article€26.€Their€references€to€differencesÐ ˆü  Ðin€treatment€between€married€couples€and€same-sex€unions€were€either€repetitious€of€theÐ tè  Ðrefusal€of€the€State€party€to€recognize€same-sex€unions€in€the€specific€form€of€"marriage"Ð `Ô  Ð(para.€3.1),€an€issue€decided€by€the€Committee€under€article€23,€or€remained€unsubstantiatedÐ LÀ Ðas€to€if€and€how€the€authors€were€so€personally€affected€(para.€3.5).€Taking€into€account€theÐ 8¬ Ðassertion€by€the€State€party€that€it€does€recognize€the€authors,€with€and€without€their€children,Ð $˜ Ðas€families€(para.€4.8),€we€are€confident€in€joining€the€Committee's€consensus€that€there€wasÐ „ Ðno€violation€of€article€26.€Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðè\(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòaóó/€€òòÔ_ÔToonenÔ_Ô€v.€Australiaóó,€Communication€No.€488/1992.€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòbóó/€€òòÔ_ÔDanningÔ_Ô€v.€the€Netherlandsóó,€Communication€No.€180/1984.€Ð„ø(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðpä(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£ÇûÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòÔ_ÔPateraÔ_Ô€v.€Czech€Republicóó€(946/2000),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40€vol.€II€(25€July€2002)€294Ð 4"¨ ÐÔ_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/75/D/946/2000€at€paras.€2.2„2.6,€7.2„7.4€and€8.€Ýƒ 3£Çûôû݌Р#”(#(# ÐŒÝ  Ý€Ìà0  à...Ðø$l!(#(# Ðà0  à2.2€€In€a€preliminary€court€decision€from€the€Regional€Court€Prague€West€of€12€July€1993,Ð ä%X" Ðconfirmed€in€a€further€preliminary€court€decision€of€2€October€1995,€the€author€was€grantedÐ Ð&D # Ðthe€right€to€see€his€son€every€second€weekend€from€Saturday€morning€until€Sunday€evening.Ð ¼'0!$ ÐHowever,€Ms.€Ô_ÔR.P.Ô_Ô€did€not€comply€with€the€decisions€and€has€refused€the€author€regularÐ ¨("% Ðaccess€ever€since.€Only€during€1994€and€1995€was€the€author€allowed€to€see€his€son€on€anÐ ”)#& Ðirregular€basis,€but€then€under€the€surveillance€of€a€family€member€of€Ms.€Ô_ÔR.P.Ô_Ô€or€armedÐ €*ô#' Ðsecurity€officers.€Ms.€Ô_ÔR.P.Ô_Ô€has€been€repeatedly€fined€for€her€refusal€to€comply€with€the€courts'Ð l+à$( Ðdecisions.ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€In€1994,€the€author€initiated€criminal€proceedings€against€her€for€not€complying€with€theÐ dØ Ðsaid€court€decisions,€in€accordance€with€the€Criminal€Code€No.€140/1961€Coll.,€paragraphÐ P Ä Ð171,€section€3.€The€case€was€dealt€with€by€the€Court€of€Ô_ÔOkresnÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔsoudÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔðBðstÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔnadÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔLabemÔ_Ô,€andÐ < ° Ðhad€at€the€time€of€the€author's€submission€to€the€Committee€on€9€February€2002,€not€yet€beenÐ ( œ Ðdecided.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€Subsequently,€the€author€brought€new€criminal€charges€against€Ms.€Ô_ÔR.P.Ô_Ô€for€notÐ ì ` Ðcomplying€with€further€preliminary€decisions€granting€the€author€access€to€his€son€fromÐ ØL  ÐDecember€1997€to€August€1998.€The€case€was€held€over€for€two€years,€from€11€January€1999Ð Ä8  Ðuntil€14€February€2001,€when€eventually€the€judge€withdrew€from€the€case.€The€new€judgeÐ °$  Ðdismissed€the€charges€against€Ms.€Ô_ÔR.P.Ô_Ô€(2)€However,€the€author€alleges€that€this€decision€wasÐ œ  Ðnot€delivered€to€the€parties€in€accordance€with€law,€and€it€therefore€did€not€enter€into€force.Ð ˆü  ÐThe€author's€complaint€to€the€Constitutional€Court€was€dismissed.Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€On€18€November€1993,€the€Ô_ÔKladnoÔ_Ô€Regional€Court€convicted€Ms.€Ô_ÔR.P.Ô_Ô€of€three€criminalÐ LÀ Ðacts€relating€to€the€child€custody€case.€The€decision€was€appealed,€but€shortly€before€theÐ 8¬ Ðverdict€of€the€Court€of€Appeal,€Ms.€Ô_ÔR.P.Ô_Ô€was€granted€a€pardon€for€two€of€the€criminal€acts,Ð $˜ Ðwhereas€the€third€remained€undecided,€and€eventually€became€time-barred.€On€20€NovemberÐ „ Ð1995,€the€author€submitted€a€constitutional€complaint,€which€was€rejected€on€the€ground€thatÐ üp Ðthe€author€had€not€been€a€party€to€the€criminal€case.Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€In€a€statement€of€1€June€1992,€a€court€specialist€Dr.€Ô_ÔJ.K.Ô_Ô,€and€Dr.€Ô_ÔJ.B.Ô_Ô,€explained€that€theÐ À4 Ðauthor's€wife€suffers€from€a€mental€disorder€in€the€development€of€her€personality.€In€anotherÐ ¬  Ðstatement€by€Dr.€Ô_ÔJ.C.Ô_Ô€and€Mr.€Ô_ÔH.D.Ô_Ô€of€11€May€1993,€it€was€stated€that€the€author's€wife€wasÐ ˜  Ðdamaging€the€interests€of€their€son€by€not€allowing€contact€between€the€father€and€the€son.Ð „ø ÐThese€statements€were€supported€by€statements€from€a€court€specialist,€Mr.€Ô_ÔV.F.Ô_Ô,€dated€14Ð pä ÐMay€1995€and€15€April€1997.€Ð\ Ð(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐH!¼(#(# Ðà0  à7.2€€As€to€the€alleged€violation€of€article€17,€the€Committee€notes€the€State€party's€contentionÐ 4"¨ Ðthat€there€is€no€documentation€of€arbitrary€or€unlawful€interference€by€the€State€party€withÐ  #” Ðthe€author's€family,€that€the€decisions€of€courts€of€all€instances€have€complied€with€the€rulesÐ  $€  Ðof€procedure€set€by€law,€and€that€the€delay€in€the€resolution€of€the€divorce€and€custodyÐ ø$l! Ðproceedings€is€due€to€the€numerous€petitions€submitted€by€the€author.€However,€the€currentÐ ä%X" Ðcommunication€is€not€based€only€on€article€17,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant,€but€also€onÐ Ð&D # Ðparagraph€2€of€the€said€provision,€according€to€which€everyone€has€the€right€to€the€protectionÐ ¼'0!$ Ðof€the€law€against€interference€or€attacks€on€one's€privacy€and€family€life.Ш("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.3€€The€Committee€considers€that€article€17€generally€includes€effective€protection€to€theÐ €*ô#' Ðright€of€a€parent€to€regular€contact€with€his€or€her€minor€children.€While€there€may€beÐ l+à$( Ðexceptional€circumstances€in€which€denying€contact€is€required€in€the€interests€of€the€childÐ Œ Ðand€cannot€be€deemed€unlawful€or€arbitrary,€in€the€present€case€the€domestic€courts€of€theÐ xì ÐState€party€have€ruled€that€such€contact€should€be€maintained.€Consequently,€the€issue€beforeÐ dØ Ðthe€Committee€is€whether€the€State€party€has€afforded€effective€protection€to€the€author'sÐ P Ä Ðright€to€meet€his€son€in€accordance€with€the€court€decisions€of€the€State€party.Ð< °(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.4€€Although€the€courts€repeatedly€fined€the€author's€wife€for€failure€to€respect€theirÐ  ˆ Ðpreliminary€orders€regulating€the€author's€access€to€his€son,€these€fines€were€neither€fullyÐ  t Ðenforced€nor€replaced€with€other€measures€aimed€at€ensuring€the€author's€rights.€In€theseÐ ì ` Ðcircumstances€and€taking€into€account€the€considerable€delays€at€various€stages€of€theÐ ØL  Ðproceedings,€the€Committee€takes€the€view€that€the€author's€rights€under€article€17€of€theÐ Ä8  ÐCovenant,€in€conjunction€with€article€2,€paragraphs€1€and€2€of€the€Covenant,€did€not€receiveÐ °$  Ðeffective€protection.€Consequently,€the€Committee€is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€itÐ œ  Ðdisclose€a€violation€of€article€17,€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant.Јü (#(# ÐÌà0  à8.€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€under€anÐ `Ô  Ðobligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€effective€remedy,€which€should€include€measuresÐ LÀ Ðto€ensure€prompt€implementation€of€the€court's€orders€regarding€contact€between€the€authorÐ 8¬ Ðand€his€son.€The€State€party€is€also€under€an€obligation€to€prevent€similar€violations€in€theÐ $˜ Ðfuture.Є(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐè\(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  àòò2óó/€€This€point€of€the€submission€is€unclear.ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ь (#(# ÐÌòòFor€dissenting€opinion€in€this€context,€see€Ô_ÔPateraÔ_Ô€v.€Czech€Republicóó€(946/2000),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/57/40Ð „ø Ðvol.€II€(25€July€2002)€294€(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/75/D/946/2000)€at€Individual€Opinion€by€Mr.€Ô_ÔNisukeÔ_Ô€Ando€andÐ pä ÐMr.€Ô_ÔPrafullachandraÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔNatwarlalÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBhagwatiÔ_Ô,€302.Ð \ Ð ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£¼ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔPezoldovaÔ_Ô€v.€The€Czech€Republicóó€(757/1997),€Ô_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô,€A/58/40€vol.€II€(25€October€2002)€25Ð  #” Ð(Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/76/D/757/1997)€at€paras.€2.1„2.7,€7.1„7.3,€11.2„11.6,€12.1,12.2€and€IndividualÐ  $€  ÐOpinion€by€€Ô_ÔPrafullachandraÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔNatwarlalÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBhagwatiÔ_Ô€(concurring),€39.݃ 3£¼ìÝŒÐø$l!(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€Mrs.€Ô_ÔPezoldovaÔ_Ô€was€born€on€1€October€1947€in€Vienna€as€the€daughter€and€lawfulÐ ¼'0!$ Ðheiress€of€Dr.€Ô_ÔJindrichÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô.€The€author€states€that€the€Nazi€German€GovernmentÐ ¨("% Ðhad€confiscated€all€of€her€family's€properties€in€Austria,€Germany,€and€Czechoslovakia,Ð ”)#& Ðincluding€an€estate€in€Czechoslovakia€known€as€"the€Ô_ÔSteklÔ_Ô"€in€1940.€She€states€that€theÐ €*ô#' Ðproperty€was€confiscated€because€her€adoptive€grandfather€Dr.€Adolph€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€wasÐ l+à$( Ðan€opponent€of€Nazi€policies.€He€left€Czechoslovakia€in€September€1939€and€died€in€ItalyÐ Œ Ðin€1950.€The€author's€father,€Ô_ÔJindrichÔ_Ô,€was€arrested€by€the€Germans€in€1943€and€imprisonedÐ xì Ðin€Ô_ÔBuchenwaldÔ_Ô€from€where€he€was€released€in€1944.€He€went€into€exile€in€the€United€StatesÐ dØ Ðand€did€not€return€to€Czechoslovakia€after€the€war.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€After€the€Second€World€War,€the€family€properties€were€placed€under€NationalÐ ( œ ÐAdministration€by€the€Czechoslovak€Government€in€1945.€Pursuant€to€the€Decrees€issuedÐ  ˆ Ðby€the€Czechoslovak€President€Edward€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô,€No.€12€of€21€June€1945€and€No.€108€of€25Ð  t ÐOctober€1945,€houses€and€agricultural€property€of€persons€of€German€and€Hungarian€ethnicÐ ì ` Ðorigin€were€confiscated...€ÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€13€August€1947,€a€general€confiscation€law€No.€142/1947€was€enacted,€allowing€theÐ °$  ÐGovernment€to€nationalize,€in€return€for€compensation,€agricultural€land€over€50€hectares€andÐ œ  Ðindustrial€enterprises€employing€more€than€200€workers.€This€law€was,€however,€not€appliedÐ ˆü  Ðto€the€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€estate€because€on€the€same€day€a€òòlex€Ô_ÔspecialisÔ_Ôóó,€Law€No.€143/1947€(theÐ tè  Ðso„called€"Lex€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô"),€was€promulgated,€providing€for€the€transfer€of€ownershipÐ `Ô  Ðof€the€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€properties€to€the€State€without€compensation,€notwithstanding€the€factÐ LÀ Ðthat€the€properties€had€already€been€confiscated€pursuant€to€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô'€Decrees€12€and€108.òò2óó/Ð 8¬ ÐThe€author€contends€that€Law€No.€143/1947€was€unconstitutional,€discriminatory€andÐ $˜ Ðarbitrary,€perpetuating€and€formalizing€the€earlier€persecution€of€the€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€familyÐ „ Ðby€the€Nazis.€According€to€the€author,€the€Law€did€not€automatically€affect€the€previousÐ üp Ðconfiscation€under€the€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô'€Decrees.€However,€on€30€January€1948,€the€confiscation€of€theÐ è\ ÐÔ_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€agricultural€lands€under€Decrees€Nos.€12€and€108€was€revoked.Ð ÔH ÐÔ_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô's€representative€was€informed€by€letter€of€12€February€1948,€and€the€partiesÐ À4 Ðwere€given€the€possibility€to€appeal€within€15€days.€The€author€submits€therefore€that€theÐ ¬  Ðrevocation€only€took€effect€after€27€February€1948€(two€days€after€the€qualifying€date€25Ð ˜  ÐFebruary€1948€for€restitution€under€law€229/1991).€Ð„ø(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€According€to€the€author,€the€transfer€of€the€property€was€not€automatic€upon€the€comingÐ \ Ð Ðinto€force€of€Law€No.€143/1947,€but€subject€to€the€Ô_ÔintabulationÔ_Ô€(writing€into€the€register)€inÐ H!¼ Ðthe€public€register€of€the€transfer€of€the€relevant€rights€of€ownership.€In€this€context,€theÐ 4"¨ Ðauthor€states€that€National€Administration€(see€paragraph€2.2)€remained€in€force€until€JuneÐ  #” Ð1948,€and€that€Ô_ÔintabulationÔ_Ô€of€the€properties€by€land€offices€and€Courts€shows€that,€at€theÐ  $€  Ðtime,€Law€No.€143/1947€was€not€considered€as€having€immediately€transferred€title.€Ðø$l!(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€Following€the€collapse€of€communist€administration€in€1989,€several€restitution€lawsÐ Ð&D # Ðwere€enacted.€Pursuant€to€Law€No.€229/1991,òò3óó/€the€author€applied€for€restitution€to€theÐ ¼'0!$ Ðregional€land€authorities,€but€her€applications€for€restitution€were€rejected€by€decisions€of€14Ð ¨("% ÐFebruary,€20€May€and€19€July€1994.€Ð”)#&(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€The€Prague€City€Court,€by€decisions€of€27€June€1994€òò4óó/€and€28€February€1995,òò5óó/€refusedÐ l+à$( Ðthe€author's€appeal€and€decided€that€the€ownership€of€the€properties€had€been€lawfully€andÐ Œ Ðautomatically€transferred€to€the€State€by€operation€of€Law€No.€143/1947,€on€13€August€1947.Ð xì ÐSince€according€to€restitution€Law€No.€229/1991€the€qualifying€period€for€claims€ofÐ dØ Ðrestitution€started€on€25€February€1948,€the€Prague€City€Court€decided€that€the€author€wasÐ P Ä Ðnot€entitled€to€claim€restitution.òò6óó/€The€Court€refused€the€author's€request€to€suspend€theÐ < ° Ðproceedings€in€order€to€request€the€Constitutional€Court€to€rule€on€the€allegedÐ ( œ Ðunconstitutionality€and€invalidity€of€Law€No.€143/1947.€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.7€€On€9€March€1995€the€author's€application€before€the€Constitutional€Court€concerning€theÐ ì ` ÐCity€Court's€decision€of€27€June€1994€was€rejected.€The€Court€upheld€the€City€Court'sÐ ØL  Ðdecision€that€ownership€had€been€transferred€to€the€State€automatically€by€operation€of€LawÐ Ä8  ÐNo.€143/1947€and€refused€to€consider€whether€Law€No.€143/1947€was€unconstitutional€andÐ °$  Ðvoid.€The€author€did€not€appeal€the€City€Court's€decision€of€28€February€1995€to€theÐ œ  ÐConstitutional€Court,€as€it€would€have€been€futile€in€light€of€the€outcome€of€the€first€appeal.€Ðˆü (#(# Ðà0  à...Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  à7.1€€By€submission€of€23€March€2002,€the€author€refers€to€the€Committee's€Views€in€case€No.Ð `Ô  Ð774/1997€(òòÔ_ÔBrokÔ_Ô€v.€The€Czech€Republicóó),€and,€with€respect€to€the€issue€of€equal€access,€withinÐ LÀ Ðthe€limits€of€the€admissibility€granted€for€issues€under€articles€2€and€26€of€the€Covenant,Ð 8¬ Ðalleges€that€the€Ministry€of€Agriculture€and€various€State€archives,€until€the€year€2001,Ð $˜ Ðconsistently€denied€to€the€author€and€to€all€land€authorities€access€to€the€complete€file€on€theÐ „ Ðconfiscation€procedures€against€her€grandfather€Dr.€Adolph€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€and€his€appealsÐ üp Ðlodged€in€due€course...In€particular,€it€is€stated€that€as€late€as€2001€author's€counsel€wasÐ è\ Ðdenied€the€inspection€of€the€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€file€by€the€director€for€legal€affairs€in€theÐ ÔH ÐMinistry,€Dr.€Ô_ÔJindrichÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔUrfusÔ_Ô,€and€only€when€the€author€had€found€other€relevant€documentsÐ À4 Ðin€another€archive,€was€counsel€informed€by€the€Ministry,€on€11€May€2001,€that€the€fileÐ ¬  Ðindeed€existed€and€he€was€allowed€to€inspect€it.€Moreover,€it€is€stated€that€on€5€October€1993Ð ˜  Ðthe€head€of€the€State€archive€in€Ô_ÔKrumlovÔ_Ô,€Dr.€Anna€Ô_ÔKubikovaÔ_Ô,€had€denied€the€author€the€useÐ „ø Ðof€the€archive€in€the€presence€of€her€assistant€Ô_ÔIngÔ_Ô.€Ô_ÔZalohaÔ_Ô,€dismissing€her€with€the€words€"AllÐ pä ÐCzech€citizens€are€entitled€to€use€this€archive€but€you€are€not€entitled€to€do€so."€The€authorÐ \ Ð Ðcomplains€that€such€denials€of€access€illustrate€the€inequality€of€treatment€to€which€she€hasÐ H!¼ Ðbeen€subjected€by€the€Czech€authorities€since€1992.€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.2€€The€documents€suppressed€prove€that,€in€fact,€the€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€estate€was€confiscatedÐ  $€  Ðpursuant€to€Presidential€Decree€No.€12/45.€The€authorities€of€the€State€party€not€onlyÐ ø$l! Ðprevented€the€author€from€detecting€and€reporting€the€complete€facts€of€her€case€to€the€landÐ ä%X" Ðauthorities€and€courts€and€to€meet€the€deadlines€for€lodging€claims€according€to€laws€87/91Ð Ð&D # Ðand€243/92,€but€also€wilfully€misled€all€land€authorities€and€the€Human€Rights€Committee.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.3€€On€29€November€2001,€the€Regional€Court€of€Ô_ÔCeskeÔ_Ô€Budejovice€(15€Co€633/2001„115)Ð ”)#& Ðas€court€of€appeal€confirmed€that€the€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô€estate€was€indeed€confiscated€pursuantÐ €*ô#' Ðto€Section€1,€par.€1,€lit€(a)€of€Decree€No.€12/45,€thus€underlining€the€inapplicability€of€LawÐ l+à$( Ð143/47.€However,€the€Court€granted€no€redress€to€the€author,€because€according€to€the€author,Ð Œ Ðthere€was€no€remedy€available€for€anybody€deemed€to€be€of€German€or€Hungarian€stock.€Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐdØ(#(# Ðà0  à11.2€€The€question€before€the€Committee€is€whether€the€author€was€excluded€from€access€toÐ P Ä Ðan€effective€remedy€in€a€discriminatory€manner.€According€to€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€allÐ < ° Ðpersons€are€equal€before€the€law€and€every€person€has€the€right€to€equal€protection€of€the€law.€Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.3€€The€Committee€notes€the€statement€of€the€author€that€the€essence€of€her€complaint€isÐ  t Ðthat€the€Czech€authorities€have€violated€her€right€to€equal€treatment€by€arbitrarily€denyingÐ ì ` Ðher€right€to€restitution€on€the€basis€of€Laws€Nos.€229/1991€and€243/1992€with€the€argumentÐ ØL  Ðthat€the€properties€of€her€adoptive€grandfather€were€confiscated€under€Law€No.€143/1947€andÐ Ä8  Ðnot€under€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô'€Decrees€Nos.€12€and€108/1945€and€therefore€the€restitution€laws€of€1991Ð °$  Ðand€1992€would€not€apply.€The€Committee€notes€further€the€author's€argument€that€the€StateÐ œ  Ðparty€constantly,€until€the€year€2001,€denied€her€access€to€the€relevant€files€and€archives,€soÐ ˆü  Ðthat€only€then€could€documents€be€presented€that€would€prove€that,€in€fact,€the€confiscationÐ tè  Ðoccurred€on€the€basis€of€the€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô'€Decrees€of€1945€and€not€of€Law€No.€143/1947,€with€theÐ `Ô  Ðconsequence€that€the€author€would€be€entitled€to€restitution€under€the€laws€of€1991€and€1992.€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.4€€The€Committee€recalls€its€jurisprudence€that€the€interpretation€and€application€ofÐ $˜ Ðdomestic€law€is€essentially€a€matter€for€the€courts€and€authorities€of€the€State€partyÐ „ Ðconcerned.€However,€in€pursuing€a€claim€under€domestic€law,€the€individual€must€have€equalÐ üp Ðaccess€to€remedies,€which€includes€the€opportunity€to€ascertain€and€present€the€true€facts,Ð è\ Ðwithout€which€the€courts€would€be€misled.€The€Committee€notes€that€the€State€party€has€notÐ ÔH Ðaddressed€the€allegation€of€the€author€that€she€was€denied€access€to€documents€which€wereÐ À4 Ðcrucial€for€the€correct€decision€of€her€case.€In€the€absence€of€any€explanation€by€the€StateÐ ¬  Ðparty,€due€weight€must€be€given€to€the€author's€allegations.€Ð˜ (#(# ÐÌà0  à11.5€€In€this€context,€the€Committee€also€notes€that€by€decision€of€29€November€2001,€theÐ pä ÐRegional€Court€of€Ô_ÔCeskeÔ_Ô€Budejovice€recognized€that€the€taking€of€Dr.€AdolphÐ \ Ð ÐÔ_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô's€property€had€been€effected€pursuant€to€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô'€Decree€12/1945.€TheÐ H!¼ ÐCommittee€further€notes€that€on€30€January€1948€the€confiscation€of€the€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_ÔÐ 4"¨ Ðagricultural€lands€under€Ô_ÔBenesÔ_Ô'€Decrees€Nos.€12€and€108/1945€was€revoked,€apparently€inÐ  #” Ðorder€to€give€way€for€the€application€of€Law€143/1947.€The€point€in€time€when€theÐ  $€  Ðrevocation€became€effective€seems€not€to€have€been€clarified,€because€the€courts€proceededÐ ø$l! Ðfrom€the€premise€that€Law€No.€143€was€the€only€applicable€legal€basis.€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.6€€It€is€not€the€task€of€the€Committee€but€of€the€courts€of€the€State€party€to€decide€onÐ ¼'0!$ Ðquestions€of€Czech€Law.€The€Committee€finds,€however,€that€the€author€was€repeatedlyÐ ¨("% Ðdiscriminated€against€in€being€denied€access€to€relevant€documents€which€could€have€provedÐ ”)#& Ðher€restitution€claims.€The€Committee€is,€therefore,€of€the€view€that€the€author's€rights€underÐ €*ô#' Ðarticle€26€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant€were€violated.€Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à12.1€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€reveal€a€violationÐ Œ Ðof€article€26,€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à12.2€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a)€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€underÐ P Ä Ðan€obligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€effective€remedy,€including€an€opportunity€to€fileÐ < ° Ða€new€claim€for€restitution€or€compensation.€The€State€party€should€review€its€legislation€andÐ ( œ Ðadministrative€practices€to€ensure€that€all€persons€enjoy€both€equality€before€the€law€as€wellÐ  ˆ Ðas€the€equal€protection€of€the€law.€Ð t(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðì `(#(# Ðà0  àòòIndividual€Opinion€by€€Ô_ÔPrafullachandraÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔNatwarlalÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBhagwatiÔ_Ô€(concurring)óóÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  àI€agree€with€the€Committee's€conclusion€that€the€facts€before€it€reveal€a€violation€of€articlesÐ °$  Ð26€and€2€of€the€Covenant.€However,€I€am€persuaded€that€there€is€also€a€violation€of€articleÐ œ  Ð14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant,€which€stipulates€that€all€persons€shall€be€equal€before€theÐ ˆü  Ðcourts€and€tribunals€and€be€entitled€to€a€fair€and€public€hearing€of€their€rights€and€obligationsÐ tè  Ðin€a€suit€at€law.€As€a€prerequisite€to€have€a€fair€and€meaningful€hearing€of€a€claim,€a€personÐ `Ô  Ðshould€be€afforded€full€and€equal€access€to€public€sources€of€information,€including€landÐ LÀ Ðregistries€and€archives,€so€as€to€obtain€the€elements€necessary€to€establish€a€claim.€The€authorÐ 8¬ Ðhas€demonstrated€that€she€was€denied€such€equal€access,€and€the€State€party€has€failed€toÐ $˜ Ðexplain€or€refute€the€author's€allegations.€Moreover,€the€protracted€legal€proceedings€in€thisÐ „ Ðcase,€now€lasting€over€10€years,€have€not€yet€been€completed.€In€the€context€of€this€particularÐ üp Ðcase€and€in€the€light€of€previous€Czech€restitution€cases€already€adjudicated€by€theÐ è\ ÐCommittee,€the€apparent€reluctance€of€the€Czech€authorities€and€of€the€Czech€courts€toÐ ÔH Ðprocess€restitution€claims€fairly€and€expeditiously€also€entails€a€violation€of€the€spirit,€if€notÐ À4 Ðthe€letter€of€article€14.€It€should€also€be€remembered€that,€subsequent€to€the€entry€into€forceÐ ¬  Ðof€the€Optional€Protocol€for€the€Czech€Republic,€the€State€party€has€continued€to€apply€LawÐ ˜  ÐNo.€143/1947€(the€"law€Ô_ÔSchwarzenbergÔ_Ô")€which€targeted€exclusively€the€property€of€theÐ „ø Ðauthor's€family.€Such€ad€hominem€legislation€is€incompatible€with€the€Covenant,€as€a€generalÐ pä Ðdenial€of€the€right€to€equality.€In€the€light€of€the€above,€I€believe€that€the€appropriate€remedyÐ \ Ð Ðshould€have€been€restitution€and€not€just€the€opportunity€of€resubmitting€a€claim€to€the€CzechÐ H!¼ Ðcourts.€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  àIn€1999€the€Committee€had€declared€this€communication€admissible,€insofar€as€it€might€raiseÐ  $€  Ðissues€under€articles€26€and€2€of€the€Covenant.€I€do€not€think€that€this€necessarily€precludedÐ ø$l! Ðthe€Committee€from€making€a€finding€of€a€violation€of€article€14,€since€the€State€party€wasÐ ä%X" Ðaware€of€all€elements€of€the€communication€and€could€have€addressed€the€article€14€issuesÐ Ð&D # Ðraised€by€the€author.€Of€course,€the€Committee€could€have€revised€its€admissibility€decisionÐ ¼'0!$ Ðso€as€to€include€the€claims€under€article€14€of€the€Covenant,€and€requested€relevantÐ ¨("% Ðobservations€from€the€State€party.€This,€however,€would€have€further€delayed€disposition€ofÐ ”)#& Ða€case€which€has€been€before€the€Courts€of€the€State€party€since€1992€and€before€theÐ €*ô#' ÐCommittee€since€1997.€Ðl+à$((#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐxì(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐdØ(#(# Ðà0  àòò2óó/€€The€law€reads:€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à"1€(1)€The€ownership€of€the€property€of€the€so„called€primogeniture€branch€of€theÐ ( œ ÐSchwarzenberg€family€in€Hlubok€nad€Vlatavou€„€as€far€as€it€is€situated€in€the€CzechoslovakÐ  ˆ ÐRepublic€„€is€transferred€by€law€to€the€county€of€Bohemia€...€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  à"4€The€annexation€of€the€property€rights€as€well€as€all€other€rights€according€to€paragraph€1Ð ØL  Ðin€favour€of€the€county€of€Bohemia€will€be€dealt€with€by€the€courts€and€offices,€which€keepÐ Ä8  Ðpublic€records€of€immobile€property€or€other€rights,€and€that€following€an€application€by€theÐ °$  ÐNational€Committee€in€Prague.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à"5€(1)€The€property€is€transferred€into€the€ownership€of€the€county€of€Bohemia€withoutÐ tè  Ðcompensation€for€the€former€owners€ð8ð"Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€Act€No.€229/1991€enacted€by€the€Federal€Assembly€of€the€Czech€and€Slovak€FederalÐ 8¬ ÐRepublic€came€into€force€on€24€June€1991.€The€purpose€of€this€law€was€"to€alleviate€theÐ $˜ Ðconsequences€of€some€property€injuries€suffered€by€the€owners€of€agrarian€and€forestÐ „ Ðproperty€in€the€period€from€1948€to€1989".€According€to€the€Act€persons€who€are€citizens€ofÐ üp Ðthe€Czech€and€Slovak€Federal€Republic€who€reside€permanently€on€its€territory€and€whoseÐ è\ Ðland€and€buildings€and€structures€belonging€to€their€original€farmstead€devolved€to€the€StateÐ ÔH Ðor€other€legal€entities€between€25€February€1948€and€1€January€1990€are€entitled€to€restitutionÐ À4 Ðof€this€former€property€òòinter€aliaóó€if€it€devolved€to€the€State€by€dispossession€withoutÐ ¬  Ðcompensation€under€Law€No.€142/1947,€and€in€general€by€expropriation€withoutÐ ˜  Ðcompensation.€By€judgement€of€13€December€1995€the€Constitutional€Court€„€held€that€theÐ „ø Ðrequirement€of€permanent€residence€in€Act€No.€229/1991€was€unconstitutional.€Ðpä(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò4óó/€€Concerning€the€"Stekl"€property.€ÐH!¼(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò5óó/€€Concerning€properties€in€Krumlov€and€Klatovy.€Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò6óó/€€The€Prague€City€Court€decided€that€the€author€was€not€an€"entitled€person"€under€sectionÐ ø$l! Ð4€(1)€of€Act€No.€229/1991€on€the€ground€that€the€transfer€of€the€Schwarzenberg€property€toÐ ä%X" ÐCzechoslovakia€occurred€immediately€upon€the€promulgation€of€Act€No.€143/1947€on€13Ð Ð&D # ÐAugust€1947,€before€the€qualifying€date€of€25€February€1948€prescribed€by€section€4€(1)€ofÐ ¼'0!$ ÐAct€no.€229/1991.€However,€before€the€judgement€by€the€Prague€City€Court,€theÐ ¨("% Ðinterpretation€had€been€that€the€material€date€was€the€date€of€intabulation€of€the€property,Ð ”)#& Ðwhich€in€the€instant€case€occurred€after€25€February€1948.€In€this€context,€the€author€statesÐ €*ô#' Ðthat€the€Constitutional€Court,€by€judgement€of€14€June€1995,€concerning€Act€No.€142/1947Ð l+à$( Ðrecognized€that€until€1€January€1951€intabulation€had€been€necessary€for€the€transfer€ofÐ Œ Ðproperty.€Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌòòFor€dissenting€opinion€in€this€context,€see€Pezoldova€v.€The€Czech€Republicóó€(757/1997),€ICCPR,Ð < ° ÐA/58/40€vol.€II€(25€October€2002)€25€(CCPR/C/76/D/757/1997)€at€Individual€Opinion€by€Mr.€NisukeÐ ( œ ÐAndo,€38.Ð  ˆ ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£¢uÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòBaban€et€al.€v.€Australiaóó€(1014/2001),€ICCPR,€A/58/40€vol.€II€(6€August€2003)€331Ð ØL  Ð(CCPR/C/78/D/1014/2001)€at€paras.€1.1,€2.2„2.6,€7.2€and€9.݃ 3£¢uÏuÝŒÐÄ8 (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à1.1€€€The€author€of€the€communication€is€Omar€Sharif€Baban,€born€on€3€May€1976€and€anÐ œ  ÐIraqi€national€of€Kurdish€ethnicity.€€He€brings€the€communication€on€his€own€behalf€and€thatÐ ˆü  Ðof€his€son€Bawan€Heman€Baban,€born€on€3€November€1997€and€also€an€Iraqi€national€ofÐ tè  ÐKurdish€ethnicity.€The€author€and€his€son€were€detained,€at€the€time€of€presentation€of€theÐ `Ô  Ðcommunication,€in€Villawood€Detention€Centre,€Sydney,€Australia.òò1óó/€€€The€author€claimsÐ LÀ Ðthat€they€are€victims€of€violations€by€Australia€of€articles€7,€9,€paragraph€1,€10,€paragraph€1,Ð 8¬ Ð19€and€24,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.€€The€author€is€represented€by€counsel.€Ð$˜(#(# Ðà0  à...Є(#(# Ðà0  à2.2€€On€15€June€1999,€the€author€and€his€son€arrived€in€Australia€without€travelÐ üp Ðdocumentation€and€were€detained€in€immigration€detention€under€section€189(1)€MigrationÐ è\ ÐAct€1958.€On€28€June€1999,€they€applied€for€refugee€status.€€On€7€July€1999,€the€author€wasÐ ÔH Ðinterviewed€by€an€officer€of€the€Department€of€Immigration€and€Multicultural€AffairsÐ À4 Ð(DIMA).€€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€€On€13€July€1999,€DIMA€rejected€the€author's€claim.€€On€6€September€1999,€the€RefugeeÐ „ø ÐReview€Tribunal€(RRT)€dismissed€the€author's€appeal€against€DIMA's€decision.€€On€10Ð pä ÐSeptember€1999,€DIMA€advised€the€author€that€his€case€did€not€satisfy€the€requirements€forÐ \ Ð Ðan€exercise€of€the€Minister's€discretion€to€allow€a€person€to€remain€in€Australia€onÐ H!¼ Ðhumanitarian€grounds.€€On€12€April€2000,€Federal€Court€(Whitlam€J)€dismissed€the€author'sÐ 4"¨ Ðapplication€for€judicial€review€of€the€RRT's€decision.€€Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€€On€24€July€2000,€the€author,€along€with€other€detainees,€participated€in€a€hunger€strikeÐ ø$l! Ðin€a€recreation€room€at€Villawood€Detention€Centre,€Sydney.€€On€26€July€2000,€the€hungerÐ ä%X" Ðstrikers€were€allegedly€cut€off€from€power€and€contact€with€the€outside€world.€AllegedlyÐ Ð&D # Ðdrugged€bottled€water€was€supplied.€€Guards€were€alleged€to€have€forcibly€deprived€theÐ ¼'0!$ Ðhunger€strikers€of€sleep€by€making€noise.€€On€27€July€2000,€the€hunger€strikers€(and€theÐ ¨("% Ðauthor's€son)€were€forcibly€removed€and€transferred€to€another€detention€centre€in€PortÐ ”)#& ÐHedland,€Western€Australia.€€At€Port€Hedland,€the€author€and€his€son€were€detained€in€anÐ €*ô#' Ðisolation€cell€without€window€or€toilet.€On€the€fifth€day€of€his€detention€in€isolation€(his€sonÐ l+à$( Ðwas€regularly€fed€from€the€dayòò€afteróó€arrival),€the€author€discontinued€his€hunger€strike,€and,Ð Œ Ðeight€days€later,€he€was€removed€from€the€cell.€€During€the€period€of€isolation,€the€authorÐ xì Ðcontends€that€access€to€his€legal€adviser€was€denied.€€On€15€August€2000,€the€author€and€hisÐ dØ Ðson€were€returned€to€the€Villawood€detention€centre€in€Sydney€to€attend€their€hearing€in€theÐ P Ä ÐFull€Federal€Court.€Ð< °(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€€On€21€September€2000,€the€Full€Court€of€the€Federal€Court€dismissed€the€authors'Ð  ˆ Ðfurther€appeal€against€the€Federal€Court's€decision.€€The€same€day,€the€authors€lodged€anÐ  t Ðapplication€for€special€leave€to€appeal€in€the€High€Court€of€Australia.€€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€€In€June€2001,€the€author€and€his€son€escaped€from€Villawood€Detention€Centre.€TheirÐ Ä8  Ðcurrent€precise€whereabouts€are€unknown.€€On€16€July€2001,€the€Registry€of€the€High€CourtÐ °$  Ðof€Australia€listed€the€author's€case€for€hearing€on€12€October€2001.€€On€15€October€2001,Ð œ  Ðthe€High€Court€adjourned€the€hearing€of€the€author's€appeal€until€the€author€and€his€son€wereÐ ˆü  Ðlocated.€€€Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  à...Ð`Ô (#(# Ðà0  à7.2€€€As€to€the€claims€under€article€9,€the€Committee€recalls€its€jurisprudence€that,€in€orderÐ LÀ Ðto€avoid€a€characterization€of€arbitrariness,€detention€should€not€continue€beyond€the€periodÐ 8¬ Ðfor€which€the€State€party€can€provide€appropriate€justification.òò14óó/€€€In€the€present€case,€theÐ $˜ Ðauthor's€detention€as€a€non-citizen€without€an€entry€permit€continued,€in€mandatory€terms,Ð „ Ðuntil€he€was€removed€or€granted€a€permit.€€While€the€State€party€advances€particular€reasonsÐ üp Ðto€justify€the€individual€detention...the€Committee€observes€that€the€State€party€has€failed€toÐ è\ Ðdemonstrate€that€those€reasons€justified€the€author's€continued€detention€in€the€light€of€theÐ ÔH Ðpassage€of€time€and€intervening€circumstances€such€as€the€hardship€of€prolonged€detentionÐ À4 Ðfor€his€son€or€the€fact€that€during€the€period€under€review€the€State€Party€apparently€did€notÐ ¬  Ðremove€Iraqis€from€Australia...€In€particular,€the€State€party€has€not€demonstrated€that,€in€theÐ ˜  Ðlight€of€the€author's€particular€circumstances,€there€were€not€less€invasive€means€of€achievingÐ „ø Ðthe€same€ends,€that€is€to€say,€compliance€with€the€State€party's€immigration€policies,€by,€forÐ pä Ðexample,€the€imposition€of€reporting€obligations,€sureties€or€other€conditions.€€TheÐ \ Ð ÐCommittee€also€notes€that€in€the€present€case€the€author€was€unable€to€challenge€hisÐ H!¼ Ðcontinued€detention€in€court.€€Judicial€review€of€detention€would€have€been€restricted€to€anÐ 4"¨ Ðassessment€of€whether€the€author€was€a€non-citizen€without€valid€entry€documentation,€and,Ð  #” Ðby€direct€operation€of€the€relevant€legislation,€the€relevant€courts€would€not€have€been€ableÐ  $€  Ðto€consider€arguments€that€the€individual€detention€was€unlawful€in€terms€of€the€Covenant.Ð ø$l! ÐJudicial€review€of€the€lawfulness€of€detention€under€article€9,€paragraph€4,€is€not€limited€toÐ ä%X" Ðmere€compliance€of€the€detention€with€domestic€law€but€must€include€the€possibility€to€orderÐ Ð&D # Ðrelease€if€the€detention€is€incompatible€with€the€requirements€of€the€Covenant,€in€particularÐ ¼'0!$ Ðthose€of€article€9,€paragraph€1.òò15óó/€€€In€the€present€case,€the€author€and€his€son€were€held€inÐ ¨("% Ðimmigration€detention€for€almost€two€years€without€individual€justification€and€without€anyÐ ”)#& Ðchance€of€substantive€judicial€review€of€the€continued€compatibility€of€their€detention€withÐ €*ô#' Ðthe€Covenant.€€Accordingly,€the€rights€of€both€the€author€and€his€son€under€article€9,Ð l+à$( Ðparagraphs€1€and€4,€of€the€Covenant€were€violated.€ÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  à9.€€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€under€anÐ dØ Ðobligation€to€provide€the€authors€with€an€effective€remedy,€including€compensation.€€€ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐ( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò1óó/€€€See,€however,€paragraph€2.6.Ð t(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðì `(#(# Ðà0  àòò14óó/€€€òòA.€v.€Australiaóó€[Case€No.€560/1993,€Views€adopted€on€3€April€1997]€and€òòC.€v.€AustraliaÐ ØL  Ðóó[Case€No.€900/1999,€Views€adopted€on€28€October€2002].ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò15óó/€€Ibid.€Ðœ (#(# Ðà0  à_________________Јü (#(# ÐÌòòFor€dissenting€opinion€in€this€context,€see€Baban€et€al.€v.€Australiaóó€(1014/2001),€ICCPR,€A/58/40Ð `Ô  Ðvol.€II€(6€August€2003)€331€(CCPR/C/78/D/1014/2001)€at€Individual€Opinion€by€Ms.€RuthÐ LÀ ÐWedgwood,€344.Ð 8¬ ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£{—ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòKazantzis€v.€Cyprusóó€(972/2001),€ICCPR,€A/58/40€vol.€II€(7€August€2003)€499Ð üp Ð(CCPR/C/78/D/972/2001)€at€paras.€2.1„2.4€and€6.5.݃ 3£{—¨—ÝŒÐè\(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€€On€23€June€1997,€the€Supreme€Council€of€Judicature€invited€applications€from€qualifiedÐ ¬  Ðadvocates€for€two€vacancies€of€the€post€of€District€Judge€and€one€vacancy€of€the€post€ofÐ ˜  ÐJudge€of€the€Industrial€Disputes€Tribunal.€€The€author€applied€for€both€posts€on€30€July€1997.€Ð „ø ÐHe€was€interviewed€by€the€Supreme€Council€of€Judicature€for€both€posts€on€9€September€andÐ pä Ð11€September€1997,€respectively.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€€On€18€September€1997,€the€Supreme€Council€of€Judicature€decided€that€a€candidateÐ 4"¨ Ðother€than€the€author€was€most€suitable€for€the€post€of€Judge€of€the€Industrial€DisputesÐ  #” ÐTribunal.€€The€Council€also€ascertained€that€there€were€four€additional€vacancies€for€the€postÐ  $€  Ðof€District€Judge,€in€addition€to€the€two€vacancies€in€relation€to€which€applications€hadÐ ø$l! Ðalready€been€invited.€€It€decided€not€to€fill€two€vacancies€at€the€time,€but€rather€to€invite€alsoÐ ä%X" Ðapplications€for€the€four€additional€vacancies.€€It€was€decided€that,€concerning€the€fourÐ Ð&D # Ðadditional€vacancies,€candidates€who€had€already€submitted€applications€for€the€two€vacantÐ ¼'0!$ Ðposts€would€be€considered€for€all€six€vacancies.€€On€15€and€18€October€1997,€all€candidates,Ð ¨("% Ðincluding€the€author,€were€interviewed.€Ð”)#&(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€21€October€1997,€the€Council€evaluated€the€candidates,€taking€into€account€theÐ l+à$( Ðreports€on€the€abilities€of€each,€by€the€President€of€the€District€Court€in€which€the€candidateÐ Œ Ðwas€practicing€as€a€lawyer,€and€decided€to€appoint€the€six€candidates€considered€the€mostÐ xì Ðsuitable€for€the€post€of€District€Judge.€€The€author€was€not€among€those€selected€forÐ dØ Ðappointment.€Notice€of€the€appointments€decided€by€the€Council€was€published€in€theÐ P Ä ÐOfficial€Gazette€of€the€Republic€on€14€November€1997.€€The€author€was€not€personallyÐ < ° Ðnotified€of€his€non-appointment,€nor€the€reasons€therefor.€Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€€The€author€did€not€contest€this€issue€before€the€local€courts,€as€previous€jurisprudenceÐ  t Ðof€the€Supreme€Court€had€held€that€no€Cypriot€court€had€jurisdiction€over€the€decisions€ofÐ ì ` Ðthe€Supreme€Council€of€Judicature.€€In€òòKourris€v.€Supreme€Council€of€Judicatureóó,òò1óó/€theÐ ØL  ÐSupreme€Court€held,€by€a€majority€of€three€judges€to€two,€that€"...it€follows€that€the€Court€hasÐ Ä8  Ðno€jurisdiction€to€entertain€a€recourse€against€any€act,€decision€or€omission€of€the€saidÐ °$  ÐCouncil€(of€Judicature)€because€the€functions€of€such€Council€òòare€very€closely€connectedÐ œ  Ðwith€the€exercise€of€judicial€power.óó"€(Emphasis€original)Јü (#(# Ðà0  à...Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  à6.5€€€As€to€the€author's€claim€under€article€14,€paragraph€1,€the€Committee€observes€that,€inÐ `Ô  Ðcontrast€to€the€situation€in€òòCasanovas€v.€Franceóóòò6óó/€and€òòChira€Vargas€v.€Peruóó7/€concerningÐ LÀ Ðremoval€from€public€employment,€the€issue€in€dispute€concerns€the€denial€by€a€bodyÐ 8¬ Ðexercising€a€non-judicial€task€of€an€application€for€employment€in€the€judiciary.€TheÐ $˜ ÐCommittee€recalls€that€the€concept€of€"suit€at€law"€under€article€14,€paragraph€1,€is€based€onÐ „ Ðthe€nature€of€the€right€in€question€rather€than€the€status€of€one€of€the€parties.òò8óó/€€€It€considersÐ üp Ðthat€the€procedure€of€appointing€judges,€albeit€subject€to€the€right€in€article€25(c)€to€accessÐ è\ Ðto€public€service€on€general€terms€of€equality€as€well€as€the€right€in€article€2,€paragraph€3,€toÐ ÔH Ðan€effective€remedy,€does€not€additionally€come€within€the€purview€of€a€determination€ofÐ À4 Ðrights€and€obligations€in€a€suit€at€law,€within€the€meaning€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€theÐ ¬  ÐCovenant.€€This€part€of€the€communication€is€therefore€inadmissible€òòratione€materiaeóó,€underÐ ˜  ÐArticle€3€of€the€Optional€Protocol.€Ð„ø(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðpä(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐ\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò1óó/€€€(1972)€3€CLR€390.Ð4"¨(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð #”(#(# Ðà0  àòò6óó/€€€Case€No.€441/1990,€Views€adopted€on€19€July€1994.Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò7óó/€€€Case€No.€906/2000,€Views€adopted€on€22€July€2002.Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò8óó/€€€òòY.€L.€v€Canadaóó€Case€No.€112/81,€Decision€adopted€on€8€April€1986,€at€paragraph€9.2;Ð ¼'0!$ Ðand€òòCasanovas€v.€Franceóó€[Case€No.€441/1990],€at€paragraph€5.2.Ш("%(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Д)#&(#(# ÐÌÐ l+à$( ЇÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£9­ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝHruska€v.€Czech€Republic€óó(1191/2003),€ICCPR,€A/59/40€vol.€II€(30€October€2003)€565€Ð Œ Ð(CCPR/C/79/D/1191/2003)€at€paras.€2.1„2.4,€4.2€and€5.݃ 3£9­i­ÝŒÐxì(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€On€3€March€2001,€the€State€Social€Security€Administration,€Prague€Office,€(Ceska€spravaÐ < ° Ðsocialniho€zabezpeceni€Praha)€issued€a€decision€regarding€the€calculation€of€the€author'sÐ ( œ Ðdisability€benefits.€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€On€13€April€2001,€the€author€appealed€this€decision€in€the€Regional€Court€at€BrnoÐ ì ` Ðrequesting€a€review€of€the€decision€to€the€effect€that€it€include€an€additional€insurance€periodÐ ØL  Ðfor€purposes€of€calculating€her€disability€benefits.€The€Regional€Court€at€Brno,€by€judgementÐ Ä8  Ðof€12€September€2002,€upheld€the€decision€of€the€Social€Security€Administration,Ð °$  Ðconsidering€the€author's€claim€to€be€unreasonable.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€The€author€appealed€to€the€High€Court€at€Olomouc€on€24€October€2002,€claiming€thatÐ tè  Ðthe€decision€of€the€Regional€Court€violated€the€ICCPR,€the€International€Covenant€onÐ `Ô  ÐEconomic,€Social€and€Cultural€Rights,€and€article€95,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Czech€Constitution.€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€On€16€December€2002,€the€High€Court€halted€the€proceedings€and€informed€the€authorÐ $˜ Ðthat€as€a€consequence€of€an€amendment€of€the€law€and€the€resulting€expiry€of€the€Court'sÐ „ Ðjurisdiction€in€the€matter,€the€author€would€need€to€submit€her€appeal€to€the€SupremeÐ üp ÐAdministrative€Court.€The€author€was€also€informed€that€complainants€before€the€SupremeÐ è\ ÐAdministrative€Court€are€required€to€have€a€representative€who€is€a€lawyer€or€has€at€leastÐ ÔH Ðhigher€legal€education.€ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  à...Ь (#(# Ðà0  à4.2€€The€Committee€recalls€its€jurisprudence€to€the€effect€that€it€does€not€consider€that€theÐ ˜  Ðrequirement€of€legal€representation€before€the€highest€national€judicial€instance€is€not€basedÐ „ø Ðon€objective€and€reasonable€criteria.òò2óó/€€The€author€has€not€advanced€any€arguments€inÐ pä Ðsupport€of€her€claim,€beyond€the€mere€assertion€that€this€requirement€was€discriminatory.Ð \ Ð ÐThe€Committee€accordingly€considers€that€she€has€not€substantiated€her€claim,€for€purposesÐ H!¼ Ðof€admissibility.€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à5.€Accordingly,€the€Committee€decides:€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€that€the€communication€is€inadmissible€under€article€2€of€the€Optional€Protocol.€Ðä%X"(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  à_________________м'0!$(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóШ("%(#(# Ðà0  à...Д)#&(#(# Ðà0  àòò2óó/€€See€decision€on€case€no.€866/1999,€decision€of€31€August€2001,€òòMarina€TorregrosaÐ €*ô#' ÐLafuente€et€al.€v.€Spainóó,€para.€6.3.Ðl+à$((#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£÷ºÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòLovell€v.€Australiaóó€(920/2000),€ICCPR,€A/59/40€vol.€II€(24€March€2004)€101€at€paras.€2.1„2.3Ð P Ä Ðand€€9.2„9.4.݃ 3£÷º$»ÝŒÐ< °(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€author€was€retained€as€an€industrial€advocate€by€a€trade€union,€the€Communications,Ð  t ÐElectrical,€Energy,€Information,€Postal,€Plumbing€and€Allied€Workersðð€Union€of€Australia,Ð ì ` ÐEngineering€and€Electric€Division,€Western€Australia€Branch€(CEPU),€when€it€becameÐ ØL  Ðinvolved€in€industrial€action€against€Hamersley€Iron€PTY€Ltd€(Hamersley)€in€1992.€Ð Ä8  ÐHamersley,€represented€by€the€law€firm€Freehill,€Hollingdale€and€Page€(Freehill),Ð °$  Ðcommenced€civil€proceedings€in€the€Supreme€Court€of€Western€Australia€against€the€CEPUÐ œ  Ðand€a€number€of€its€officials,€seeking€injunctions€and€compensatory€damages€on€a€numberÐ ˆü  Ðof€grounds.€€During€these€proceedings,€Hamersley€was€required€to€make€available€forÐ tè  Ðdiscovery€by€the€CEPU€and€its€officials€all€relevant€documents€for€which€privilege€could€notÐ `Ô  Ðbe€claimed.€€These€documents€were€obtained€and€inspected€by€the€author€and€the€CEPU.€Ð LÀ ÐIncluded€in€these€documents€were€five€documents,€in€relation€to€which€Hamersley€allegedÐ 8¬ Ðthat€the€author€and€the€CEPU,€by€revealing€their€contents€publicly€in€a€radio€interview,€inÐ $˜ Ðnewspaper€articles€and€in€a€series€of€briefings€prepared€for€distribution€to€members€of€theÐ „ ÐCEPU€and€other€unions,€and€by€using€them€contrary€to€the€rules€of€discovery,€had€committedÐ üp Ðcontempt€of€court.Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€On€22€May€1998,€the€author€and€the€CEPU€were€convicted€at€first€instance€in€the€FullÐ À4 ÐCourt€of€the€Supreme€Court€of€Western€Australia€(three€judges)€on€two€accounts€of€contemptÐ ¬  Ðof€court.€€The€first€was€the€misuse€of€the€five€discovered€documents,€in€that€the€author€hadÐ ˜  Ðused€them€contrary€to€the€implied€undertaking€not€to€use€discovered€documents€which€hadÐ „ø Ðbeen€obtained€from€the€other€party€in€the€civil€action€in€the€process€of€discovery,€or€toÐ pä Ðcommunicate€their€contents€other€than€for€the€purposes€of€the€litigation€for€which€theÐ \ Ð Ðdocuments€were€discovered.€€The€second€was€the€interference€with€due€administration€ofÐ H!¼ Ðjustice,€in€that€the€authorððs€conduct,€by€disclosing€the€contents€of€the€discovered€documents,Ð 4"¨ Ðwas€intended€and€placed€improper€pressure€on€Hamersley,€in€regard€to€the€main€proceedings,Ð  #” Ðit€invited€public€prejudgement€of€the€issues,€and€had€the€tendency€to€frighten€off€potentialÐ  $€  Ðwitnesses.Ðø$l!(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€The€authorððs€defence€with€regard€to€the€first€contempt€charge,€had€been,€òòinter€aliaóó,€thatÐ Ð&D # Ðthe€documents€in€question,€once€referred€to€in€open€court,€had€become€part€of€the€publicÐ ¼'0!$ Ðdomain€and€there€was€no€limitation€any€longer€on€their€use;€that€Hamersley,€by€respondingÐ ¨("% Ðto€the€allegations€made€by€the€author€in€reliance€on€material€contained€in€the€discoveredÐ ”)#& Ðdocuments,€had€waived€its€right€to€confidentiality€of€the€discovered€documents;€and€thatÐ €*ô#' Ðpublication€and€use€of€the€documents€was€consistent€with€his€freedom€of€politicalÐ l+à$( Ðcommunication€protected€by€the€Australian€Constitution.€€On€22€July€1998,€the€Court€finedÐ Œ Ðthe€author€$A€40,000€(plus€costs),€and€the€union€$A€55,000€(plus€costs).Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐdØ(#(# Ðà0  à9.2€€With€regard€to€the€authorððs€claim€under€article€19,€paragraph€2,€that€he€was€convictedÐ P Ä Ðand€fined€for€publishing€documents€that€had€been€referred€to€in€an€open€court,€the€CommitteeÐ < ° Ðrecalls€that€article€19,€paragraph€2,€guarantees€the€right€to€freedom€of€expression€and€includesÐ ( œ Ðthe€ð ðòòfreedom€to€seek,€receive€and€impart€information€and€ideas€of€all€kinds,€regardless€ofÐ  ˆ Ðfrontiers,€either€orally,€in€writing€or€in€print,€in€the€form€of€art,€or€through€any€other€mediaóóðð.€Ð  t ÐIt€considers€that€the€author,€by€publishing€documents€that€were€referred€to€in€an€open€court,Ð ì ` Ðby€virtue€of€different€media,€was€exercising€his€right€to€impart€information€within€theÐ ØL  Ðmeaning€of€article€19,€paragraph€2.€€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à9.3€€The€Committee€observes€that€any€restriction€of€the€freedom€of€expression€pursuant€toÐ œ  Ðparagraph€3€of€article€19€must€cumulatively€meet€the€following€conditions:€€it€must€beÐ ˆü  Ðprovided€for€by€law,€it€must€address€one€of€the€aims€enumerated€in€paragraph€3€(a)€and€(b)Ð tè  Ðof€article€19,€and€must€be€necessary€to€achieve€the€legitimate€purpose.€€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à9.4€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€institution€of€contempt€of€court€is€an€institution€providedÐ 8¬ Ðby€law€restricting€freedom€of€expression€for€achieving€the€aim€of€protecting€the€right€ofÐ $˜ Ðconfidentiality€of€a€party€to€the€litigation€or€the€integrity€of€the€court€or€public€order.€€HereÐ „ Ðin€the€present€case,€though€the€five€documents€were€directed€to€be€discovered€on€theÐ üp Ðapplication€of€the€author€and€CEPU,€they€were€not€allowed€to€be€adduced€in€evidence€withÐ è\ Ðthe€result€that€they€did€not€become€part€of€the€published€record€of€the€case.€€It€may€be€notedÐ ÔH Ðthat€these€five€documents€were€not€read€aloud€in€court€and€their€contents€were€not€madeÐ À4 Ðknown€to€anyone€except€the€parties€to€the€litigation€and€their€lawyers.€€There€was€clearly,€inÐ ¬  Ðthe€circumstances,€a€restriction€on€the€publication€of€these€five€documents,€implied€from€theÐ ˜  Ðrefusal€of€the€court€to€allow€them€to€be€adduced€in€evidence€and€not€taking€them€as€part€ofÐ „ø Ðthe€public€record€of€the€case.€€This€restriction€was€provided€by€the€law€of€contempt€of€courtÐ pä Ðand€it€was€necessary€for€achieving€the€aim€of€protecting€the€rights€of€others,€i.e.€Hamersley,Ð \ Ð Ðor€for€the€protection€of€public€order€(òòordre€publicóó).€€The€Committee€accordingly€concludesÐ H!¼ Ðthat€the€authorððs€conviction€for€contempt€was€a€permissible€restriction€of€his€freedom€ofÐ 4"¨ Ðexpression,€in€accordance€with€article€19,€paragraph€3,€and€that€there€has€been€no€violationÐ  #” Ðof€article€19,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant.Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£çÖÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòHoyos€v.€SpainÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€óó(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1008/2001)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔA/59/40€vol.€II€(30€March€2004)€472€at€paras.€2.1„2.5,Ð Ð&D # Ð6.5,€7€and€Individual€Opinion€of€Ruth€Wedgwood€(concurring),€at€487„488.€Ýƒ 3£çÖ×݌м'0!$(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Д)#&(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€author€was€the€firstborn€daughter€of€Mr.€Alfonso€de€Hoyos€y€Snchez,€who€died€onÐ €*ô#' Ð15€July€1995.€€Subsequently,€she€applied€to€the€King€for€succession€to€the€ranks€and€titlesÐ l+à$( Ðheld€by€her€father,€including€the€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòDukedom€of€Almodð;ðvar€del€RoóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€with€the€rank€of€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòGrandeeÐ Œ Ðof€SpainóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.€€She€asserts€that€she€made€a€formal€application€with€the€intention€of€placing€onÐ xì Ðrecord€her€greater€right€to€succession€to€the€title€in€question.ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€In€an€Order€published€in€the€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòBoletn€Oficial€del€EstadoóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€of€21€June€1996,€succession€toÐ < ° Ðthe€title€of€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòDuke€of€Almodð;ðvar€del€RoóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€was€granted€to€the€authorððs€brother,€Isidoro€Hoyos€yÐ ( œ ÐMartnez€de€Irujo.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€The€author€asserts€that,€although€as€firstborn€daughter€she€had€the€greater€right,€she€hadÐ ì ` Ðagreed€to€renounce€the€title€under€an€agreement€she€had€made€with€her€brothers€on€theÐ ØL  Ðdistribution€of€their€fatherððs€titles€of€nobility.€€She€asserts€that€at€the€time€this€took€place,€theÐ Ä8  Ðcriterion€established€by€the€judgement€of€the€Supreme€Court€of€20€June€1987,€pronouncingÐ °$  Ðthe€precedence€for€males€in€succession€to€titles€of€nobility€discriminatory€andÐ œ  Ðunconstitutional,€was€in€force.€€However,€the€Constitutional€Courtððs€judgement€of€3€JulyÐ ˆü  Ð1997€abrogated€that€decision;€it€stated€that€male€primacy€in€the€order€of€succession€to€theÐ tè  Ðtitles€provided€for€in€the€Acts€of€4€May€1948€and€11€October€1820,€was€neitherÐ `Ô  Ðdiscriminatory€nor€unconstitutional,€given€that€article€14€of€the€Spanish€Constitution,€whichÐ LÀ Ðguaranteed€equality€before€the€law,€was€not€applicable€in€view€of€the€historical€and€symbolicÐ 8¬ Ðnature€of€the€institution.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òò1óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€The€author€argues€that€this€led€to€her€brothers€initiating€legalÐ $˜ Ðproceedings€to€strip€her€of€her€titles.Є(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€As€a€result,€in€June€1999,€the€author€instituted€legal€proceedings€against€her€brotherÐ è\ ÐIsidoro€in€Majadahonda€Court€of€First€Instance€No.€6,€asserting€her€greater€right€to€the€title.ÐÔH(#(# ЀÌà0  à2.5€€In€its€judgement€of€11€May€2000,€the€Majadahonda€Court€dismissed€the€claim,€inÐ ¬  Ðaccordance€with€the€Constitutional€Courtððs€judgement€of€3€July€1997.€€The€judge€said,Ð ˜  Ðhowever,€that€she€sympathized€with€the€authorððs€position€but€she€could€not€deviate€from€theÐ „ø Ðinterpretation€the€Constitutional€Court€had€given€to€the€laws€and€provisions€of€the€legalÐ pä Ðregime.Ð\ Ð(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐH!¼(#(# Ðà0  à6.5€€€The€Committee€notes€that€while€the€State€party€has€argued€that€hereditary€titles€ofÐ 4"¨ Ðnobility€are€devoid€of€any€legal€and€material€effect,€they€are€nevertheless€recognized€by€theÐ  #” ÐState€partyððs€laws€and€authorities,€including€its€judicial€authorities.€€Recalling€its€establishedÐ  $€  Ðjurisprudence,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òò7óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€the€Committee€reiterates€that€article€26€of€the€Covenant€is€a€free-standingÐ ø$l! Ðprovision€which€prohibits€all€discrimination€in€any€sphere€regulated€by€a€State€party€to€theÐ ä%X" ÐCovenant.€€However,€the€Committee€considers€that€article€26€cannot€be€invoked€in€supportÐ Ð&D # Ðof€claiming€a€hereditary€title€of€nobility,€an€institution€that,€due€to€its€indivisible€andÐ ¼'0!$ Ðexclusive€nature,€lies€outside€the€underlying€values€behind€the€principles€of€equality€beforeÐ ¨("% Ðthe€law€and€non-discrimination€protected€by€article€26.€€It€therefore€concludes€that€theÐ ”)#& Ðauthorððs€communication€is€incompatible€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòratione€materiaeóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€with€the€provisions€of€theÐ €*ô#' ÐCovenant,€and€thus€inadmissible€pursuant€to€article€3€of€the€Optional€Protocol.€Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à7.€€The€Committee€therefore€decides:€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€That€the€communication€is€inadmissible€under€article€3€of€the€Optional€Protocol;ÐdØ(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à...ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐ( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò1óó/€€Two€individual€votes€by€three€judges€dissented€from€the€content€of€the€judgement;€theyÐ  t Ðconsidered€that€the€provision€in€question€should€have€been€declared€unconstitutional.Ðì `(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐØL (#(# Ðà0  àòò7óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔSee€e.g.€€Views€on€communication€No.€182/1984€(ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòZwaan€de€Vries€v.€The€NetherlandsóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô),Ð Ä8  ÐViews€adopted€9€April€1987.а$ (#(# Ðà0  à_________________М (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIndividual€Opinion€of€Ruth€Wedgwood€(concurring)óóÐtè (#(# ÐÌà0  àIn€its€review€of€country€reports,€as€well€as€in€its€views€on€individual€communications,€theÐ LÀ ÐHuman€Rights€Committee€has€upheld€the€rights€of€women€to€equal€protection€of€the€law,Ð 8¬ Ðeven€in€circumstances€where€compliance€will€require€significant€changes€in€local€practice.€Ð $˜ ÐIt€is€thus€troubling€to€see€the€Committee€dismiss€so€cavalierly€the€communication€of€IsabelÐ „ ÐHoyos€Martnez€de€Irujo.€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  àThe€distribution€of€family€titles€in€Spain€is€regulated€by€public€law.€€Decisions€on€successionÐ ÔH Ðto€titles€of€honour€or€nobility€are€published€as€official€acts€of€State€in€the€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòBoletin€Oficial€delÐ À4 ÐEstadoóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.€€The€order€of€succession€is€not€a€matter€of€private€preference€of€the€currentÐ ¬  Ðtitleholder.€€Rather,€female€descendants€are€statutorily€barred€from€any€senior€claim€to€a€title,Ð ˜  Ðpursuant€to€the€preference€for€males,€regardless€of€the€wishes€of€the€ascendant€titleholder.€Ð „ø ÐSuch€a€statutory€rule,€see€statute€of€4€June€1948,€would€seem€to€be€a€public€act€ofÐ pä Ðdiscrimination.Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  àThe€Committeeððs€stated€reasons€for€dismissing€the€communication€of€Ms.€Hoyos€MartnezÐ 4"¨ Ðde€Iraujo,€in€her€claim€to€inheritance€of€the€title€of€the€Duchy€of€Almodovar€de€Rio,€can€giveÐ  #” Ðno€comfort€to€the€State€party.€€In€rejecting€her€petition,€as€inadmissible€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòratione€materiaeóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€theÐ  $€  ÐCommittee€writes€that€hereditary€titles€of€nobility€are€ð ðan€institution€thatð8ðlies€outside€theÐ ø$l! Ðunderlying€values€behind€the€principles€of€equality€before€the€law€and€non-discriminationÐ ä%X" Ðprotected€by€article€26ðð.€€This€cryptic€sentence€could€be€read€to€suggest€that€the€continuationÐ Ð&D # Ðof€hereditary€titles€is€itself€incompatible€with€the€Covenant.€€One€hopes€that€the€futureÐ ¼'0!$ Ðjurisprudence€of€the€Committee€will€give€appropriate€weight€to€the€desire€of€many€countriesÐ ¨("% Ðto€preserve€the€memory€of€individuals€and€families€who€figured€prominently€in€the€buildingÐ ”)#& Ðof€the€national€State.Ѐ*ô#'(#(# ÐÐ l+à$( Ðà0  àThe€use€of€titles€can€be€adapted€to€take€account€of€the€legal€equality€of€women.€€Even€withinÐ Œ Ðthe€tradition€of€a€title,€a€change€of€facts€may€warrant€a€change€in€discriminatory€rules.€€ForÐ xì Ðexample,€in€an€age€of€national€armies,€it€is€no€longer€expected€that€a€titleholder€must€haveÐ dØ Ðthe€ability€to€fight€on€the€battlefield.€€(Admittedly,€Jeanne€dððArc€might€suggest€a€wider€rangeÐ P Ä Ðof€reference€as€well.)€Ð< °(#(# ÐÌà0  àIn€its€accession€to€modern€human€rights€treaties,€Spain€recognized€the€difficulties€posed€byÐ  ˆ Ðautomatic€male€preference.€€Spain€ratified€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€PoliticalÐ  t ÐRights€on€27€July€1977.€€Spain€also€approved€the€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€AllÐ ì ` ÐForms€of€Discrimination€against€Women€on€16€December€1983.€€In€the€latter€accession,Ð ØL  ÐSpain€made€a€single€reservation€that€has€importance€here.€€Spain€noted€that€the€ConventionÐ Ä8  Ðshall€not€affect€the€constitutional€provisions€concerning€succession€to€the€Spanish€crown.€Ð °$  ÐThis€unique€protection€for€royal€succession€was€not€accompanied€by€any€other€similarÐ œ  Ðreservation€concerning€lesser€titles.€€Ðˆü (#(# ÐÌà0  àSpain€did€not€make€any€similar€reservation€to€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€andÐ `Ô  ÐPolitical€Rights€in€1977.€€Still,€good€practice€would€suggest€that€Spain€should€be€given€theÐ LÀ Ðbenefit€of€the€same€reservation€in€the€application€of€the€Covenant,€in€light€of€theÐ 8¬ ÐCommitteeððs€later€interpretation€of€article€26€as€an€independent€guarantee€of€equal€protectionÐ $˜ Ðof€the€law.€€But€the€bottom€line€is€that,€even€with€this€reservation,€Spain€did€not€attempt€toÐ „ Ðcarve€out€any€special€protection€to€perpetuate€gender€discrimination€in€the€distribution€ofÐ üp Ðother€aristocratic€titles.Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  àIt€is€not€surprising€that€a€State€party€should€see€the€inheritance€of€the€throne€as€posing€aÐ À4 Ðunique€question,€without€intending€to€perpetuate€any€broader€practice€of€placing€women€lastÐ ¬  Ðin€line.€€Indeed,€we€have€been€reminded€by€the€incumbent€King€of€Spain€that€even€a€singularÐ ˜  Ðand€traditional€institution€such€as€royalty€may€be€adapted€to€norms€of€equality.€€King€JuanÐ „ø ÐCarlos€recently€suggested€that€succession€to€the€throne€of€Spain€should€be€recast.€€Under€JuanÐ pä ÐCarlosðð€proposal,€after€his€eldest€son€completes€his€reign,€the€sonððs€first€child€would€succeedÐ \ Ð Ðto€the€throne,€regardless€of€whether€the€child€is€a€male€or€a€female.€€In€an€age€when€manyÐ H!¼ Ðwomen€have€served€as€heads€of€State,€this€suggestion€should€seem€commendable€andÐ 4"¨ Ðunremarkable.Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  àIn€its€judgement€of€20€June€1987,€upholding€the€equal€claim€of€female€heirs€to€non-royalÐ ø$l! Ðtitles,€the€Supreme€Court€of€Spain€referenced€the€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€AllÐ ä%X" ÐForms€of€Discrimination€against€Women,€as€well€as€article€14€of€the€1978€SpanishÐ Ð&D # ÐConstitution.€€In€its€future€deliberations,€Spain€may€also€wish€to€reference€general€commentÐ ¼'0!$ ÐNo.€18€of€the€Human€Rights€Committee,€which€states€that€article€2€of€the€CovenantÐ ¨("% Ðð ðprohibits€discrimination€in€law€or€in€fact€in€any€field€regulated€and€protected€by€publicÐ ”)#& Ðauthoritiesðð.€€And€it€is€worth€recalling€that€under€the€rules€of€the€Committee,€the€dispositionÐ €*ô#' Ðof€any€particular€communication€does€not€constitute€a€formal€precedent€in€regard€to€any€otherÐ l+à$( Ðcommunication€or€review€of€country€reports.€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àThe€hereditary€title€in€question€here€has€been€represented€by€the€State€party€as€ð ðdevoid€of€anyÐ dØ Ðmaterial€or€legal€contentðð€and€purely€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòònomen€honorisóó...€€Thus,€it€is€important€to€note€the€limitsÐ P Ä Ðof€the€Committeeððs€instant€decision.€€The€Committeeððs€Views€should€not€be€taken€asÐ < ° Ðsheltering€any€discriminatory€rules€of€inheritance€where€real€or€chattel€property€is€at€stake.€Ð ( œ ÐIn€addition,€these€views€do€not€protect€discrimination€concerning€traditional€heritable€officesÐ  ˆ Ðthat€may,€in€some€societies,€still€carry€significant€powers€of€political€or€judicialÐ  t Ðdecision-making.€€We€sit€as€a€monitoring€committee€for€an€international€covenant,€andÐ ì ` Ðcannot€settle€broad€rules€in€disregard€of€these€local€facts.ÐØL (#(# ÐÌòòFor€dissenting€opinions€in€this€context€see€Hoyos€v.€SpainóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1008/2001)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€A/59/40€vol.€II€(30Ð °$  ÐMarch€2004)€472€at€Individual€Opinion€of€Rafael€Rivas€Posada,€481„482€and€Individual€Opinion€ofÐ œ  ÐMr.€Hipð;ðlito€Solari€Yrigoyen,€483„486.Ð ˆü  ÐÌò òòòSee€also:óóó óÐ `Ô  ÐÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£'ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòBarcaiztegui€v.€SpainóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1019/2001)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔA/59/40€vol.€II€(30€March€2004)€489€at€paras.Ð H¼ Ð2.1,€2.2,€2.4,€6.4€and€individual€opinion€of€Ruth€Wedgwood€(concurring),€at€503„504.݃ 3£'TÝŒÐ4¨(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£mÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝPalandjian€v.€HungaryÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€óóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1106/2002)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔA/59/40€vol.€II€(31€March€2004)€534€at€paras.Ð øl Ð2.1„2.4,€3.2,€6.3€and€7.݃ 3£mÝŒÐäX(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...м0(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€In€1952,€the€property€of€the€authorsðð€father€in€Budapest,€which€he€co-owned€with€hisÐ ¨ Ðbrother,€was€nationalized€by€the€former€communist€regime.€€In€the€same€year,€the€familyÐ ” Ðwent€to€live€in€Austria.€€In€1960,€the€authorsðð€father,€an€Armenian/Iranian€citizen,€died€andÐ €ô Ðthe€authors€emigrated€to€the€United€States.Ðlà(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€In€1991,€the€Hungarian€authorities€adopted€Act€No.€XXV€of€1991€(hereafter€referred€toÐ D!¸ Ðas€the€ð ðCompensation€Actðð),€providing€partial€compensation€for€property€that€had€beenÐ 0"¤ Ðnationalized€during€the€communist€regime.€€According€to€paragraph€2€of€this€law,€theÐ # Ðfollowing€persons€were€entitled€to€compensation:€€(1)€Hungarian€citizens;€(2)€formerÐ $|  ÐHungarian€citizens;€and€(3)€foreign€citizens€who€were€residents€of€Hungary€on€31€DecemberÐ ô$h! Ð1990.Ðà%T"(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€11€December€1992€and€30€April€1993,€the€Hungarian€consulate€in€New€York€repliedÐ ¸',!$ Ðto€inquiries€from€Ms.€Palandjian€about€her€entitlement€to€compensation,€explaining€that€sheÐ ¤("% Ðwas€ineligible,€as€her€father€was€not€a€person€entitled€under€the€Compensation€Act,€since€heÐ )#& Ðwas€not€a€Hungarian€citizen€at€the€time€of€nationalization.Ð|*ð#'(#(# ÐÐ h+Ü$( ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.4€€On€16€March€1993,€the€Budapest€Loss€Settlement€Office€rejected€Ms.€PalandjianððsÐ Œ Ðrequest€for€compensation,€as€her€father€did€not€meet€the€criteria€established€in€theÐ xì ÐCompensation€Act.€€On€29€April€1993,€she€filed€an€appeal€against€this€decision.€€On€2€MayÐ dØ Ð1996,€the€National€Loss€Settlement€and€Compensation€Office€affirmed€the€decision€of€theÐ P Ä ÐBudapest€Loss€Settlement€Office.€€On€1€April€1998,€the€Pest€District€Court€confirmed€theÐ < ° Ðdecision€of€the€Budapest€Loss€Settlement€Office.Ð( œ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à3.2€€The€authors€claim€that€their€right€to€property€was€violated,€as€the€Hungarian€authoritiesÐ  t Ðfailed€to€return€their€fatherððs€property€to€them€or€to€compensate€them€for€the€nationalizationÐ ì ` Ðof€his€property€in€1952.ÐØL (#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÄ8 (#(# Ðà0  à6.3€€Concerning€the€authorsðð€claim€relating€to€the€confiscation€of€their€fatherððs€property,€theÐ °$  ÐCommittee€observes€that€the€right€to€property€is€not€expressly€protected€under€the€Covenant.€Ð œ  ÐThe€allegation€concerning€a€violation€of€the€authorsðð€right€to€property€òòper€se€óóis€thusÐ ˆü  Ðinadmissible€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòratione€materiaeóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€under€article€3€of€the€Optional€Protocol.Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  à...Ð`Ô (#(# Ðà0  à7.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee€therefore€decides:€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€That€the€communication€is€inadmissible€under€articles€3,€and€5,€paragraph€2€(b),€of€theÐ $˜ ÐOptional€Protocol;Є(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðüp(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£ãÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòPetersen€v.€GermanyÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€óóÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1115/2002)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€A/59/40€vol.€II€(1€April€2004)€538€at€paras.€2.1„2.5,€€6.6„Ð À4 Ð6.8,€6.10€and€7.݃ 3£ã ݌Ь (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Єø(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€author€is€the€father€of€a€child€born€out€of€wedlock€on€3€May€1985.€€He€lived€withÐ pä Ðthe€childððs€mother,€Ms.€B,€from€May€1980€to€November€1985.€€They€agreed€that€the€sonÐ \ Ð Ðwould€bear€the€motherððs€surname.€€After€separation€from€the€mother,€the€author€continuedÐ H!¼ Ðto€pay€maintenance€and€had€regular€contact€with€his€son€until€autumn€1993.€€In€August€1993,Ð 4"¨ Ðthe€mother€married€Mr.€K.,€and€took€her€husbandððs€name€in€conjunction€with€her€ownÐ  #” Ðsurname,€i.e.€B.-K.Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€In€November€1993,€the€author€asked€the€Youth€Office€of€Bremen€whether€the€motherÐ ä%X" Ðhad€applied€for€a€change€of€his€sonððs€surname.€€By€letter€of€20€December€1993,€he€wasÐ Ð&D # Ðadvised€that€she€had€enquired€about€the€possibility,€but€that€no€request€had€been€filed€yet.€Ð ¼'0!$ ÐIn€his€letter,€the€competent€Youth€Office€official€informed€the€author€that,€should€such€aÐ ¨("% Ðrequest€be€lodged,€he€would€agree€to€a€change€of€surname,€as€the€stepfather€had€been€livingÐ ”)#& Ðtogether€with€the€mother€and€the€son€for€more€than€one€year€and€since€the€child€fullyÐ €*ô#' Ðaccepted€him.€€On€30€December€1993,€the€mother€and€her€husband€recorded€statements€atÐ l+à$( Ðthe€Bremen€Registry€Office,€to€the€effect€that€they€gave€their€family€name€(K.)€to€the€authorððsÐ Œ Ðson.€€They€also€filed€a€document€issued€by€the€Bremen€Youth€Office,€on€29€December€1993,Ð xì Ðon€behalf€of€the€son€(then€8€years€old),€according€to€which€he€agreed€to€the€change€of€hisÐ dØ Ðsurname.€€The€Bremen€Registry€Office€informed€the€Helmstedt€Registry€Office€accordingly,Ð P Ä Ðfollowing€which€the€registrar€of€the€Helmstedt€Registry€Office€added€the€change€of€theÐ < ° Ðchildððs€surname€to€his€birth€record.Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€6€April€1994,€the€author€filed€an€action€with€the€Administrative€Court€of€BremenÐ  t Ðagainst€the€Bremen€Municipality,€complaining€that€the€Bremen€Youth€Office€had€failed€toÐ ì ` Ðhear€him€about€the€envisaged€change€of€his€sonððs€surname.€€On€19€May€1994,€theÐ ØL  ÐAdministrative€Court€of€Bremen€declared€itself€incompetent€to€deal€with€the€action€andÐ Ä8  Ðtransferred€the€case€to€the€District€Court€of€Braunschweig.а$ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€On€21€October€1994,€the€Braunschweig€District€Court€dismissed€the€authorððs€claim€forÐ ˆü  Ðrectification€of€his€sonððs€birth€record,€insofar€as€the€change€of€his€surname€was€concerned.€Ð tè  ÐThe€Court€found€that€the€entry€was€correct€because€the€childððs€surname€had€been€changedÐ `Ô  Ðin€accordance€with€s.€1618ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òò2óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€of€the€Civil€Code.€€It€considered€that€this€section€did€notÐ LÀ Ðamount€to€a€violation€of€the€non-discrimination€provision€of€the€German€Constitution€or€ofÐ 8¬ Ðarticle€8€of€the€European€Convention€on€Human€Rights.€€On€balance,€s.€1618€of€the€CivilÐ $˜ ÐCode€did€not€affect€the€equality€between€children€born€out€of€wedlock€and€children€born€inÐ „ Ðwedlock.€€Rather,€in€providing€for€the€possibility€of€having€the€same€surname,€s.€1618Ð üp Ðensured€that€the€childððs€status€-€born€out€of€wedlock€-€was€not€disclosed€to€the€public.€€As€farÐ è\ Ðas€procedural€matters€were€concerned,€the€proceedings€for€a€change€of€surname€in€which€theÐ ÔH Ðnatural€father€did€not€participate€could€not€be€objected€to€on€constitutional€grounds.€€InÐ À4 Ðparticular,€there€was€no€breach€of€the€authorððs€rights€as€a€natural€parent,€since€his€son€hadÐ ¬  Ðnever€borne€the€fatherððs€surname.€€The€change€of€surname€served€the€best€interests€of€theÐ ˜  Ðchild.€€A€right€of€the€natural€father€to€be€heard€in€the€proceedings,€as€argued€by€the€author,Ð „ø Ðwithout€the€possibility€to€block€a€change€of€surname€would€not€be€effective,€as€mother€andÐ pä Ðstepfather€would€have€the€final€say€in€any€event.Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€On€4€January€1995,€the€Regional€Court€of€Braunschweig€dismissed€the€authorððs€appeal,Ð 4"¨ Ðconfirming€the€reasoning€of€the€District€Court€and€holding€that€there€were€no€indications€thatÐ  #” Ðthe€legal€provisions€applied€in€the€present€case€were€unconstitutional.€€The€change€ofÐ  $€  Ðsurname€served€the€interests€of€the€childððs€well-being,€which€prevailed€over€the€interests€ofÐ ø$l! Ðthe€natural€father.Ðä%X"(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  à6.6€€To€the€extent€that€the€author€claims,€under€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€that€he€wasÐ ¼'0!$ Ðdiscriminated€against,€in€comparison€with€the€childððs€mother€or€to€fathers€of€children€bornÐ ¨("% Ðin€wedlock,€the€Committee€notes€that€the€European€Court€declared€similar€claims€by€theÐ ”)#& Ðauthor€inadmissible€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòratione€materiaeóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€since€there€was€no€room€for€the€application€of€articleÐ €*ô#' Ð14€of€the€European€Convention,€as€his€right€to€respect€to€family€life€was€not€affected€by€theÐ l+à$( Ðdecisions€in€the€change€of€name€as€well€as€the€compensation€proceedings.€€The€CommitteeÐ Œ Ðrecalls€its€jurisprudenceÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òò17óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€that,€if€the€rights€invoked€before€the€European€Court€of€HumanÐ xì ÐRights€differ€in€substance€from€the€corresponding€Covenant€rights,€a€matter€that€has€beenÐ dØ Ðdeclared€inadmissible€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòratione€materiaeóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€has€not,€in€the€meaning€of€the€respective€reservationsÐ P Ä Ðto€article€5,€paragraph€2€(a),€been€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòconsideredóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€in€such€a€way€that€the€Committee€is€precludedÐ < ° Ðfrom€examining€it.Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.7€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€Committee€recalls€that€the€independent€right€to€equality€and€non-discrimination€inÐ  t Ðarticle€26€of€the€Covenant€provides€greater€protection€than€the€accessory€right€toÐ ì ` Ðnon-discrimination€contained€in€article€14€of€the€European€Convention.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òò18óó/€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€It€notes€that,€inÐ ØL  Ðthe€absence€of€any€independent€claim€made€under€the€Convention€or€its€relevant€Protocols,Ð Ä8  Ðthe€European€Court€could€not€have€examined€whether€the€authorððs€accessory€rights€underÐ °$  Ðarticle€14€of€the€Convention€had€been€breached.€€Consequently,€the€authorððs€claims€inÐ œ  Ðrelation€to€article€26€of€the€Covenant€have€not€been€considered€by€the€European€Court.€€ItÐ ˆü  Ðfollows€that€the€Committee€is€not€precluded€by€the€State€partyððs€reservation€to€article€5,Ð tè  Ðparagraph€2€(a),€of€the€Optional€Protocol€from€examining€this€part€of€the€communication.Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÌà0  à6.8€€The€Committee€recalls€that€not€every€distinction€made€by€the€laws€of€a€State€partyÐ 8¬ Ðamounts€to€a€discrimination€in€the€sense€of€article€26€but€only€those€that€are€not€based€onÐ $˜ Ðobjective€and€reasonable€criteria.€€The€author€has€not€substantiated,€for€purpose€ofÐ „ Ðadmissibility,€that€reasons€for€introducing€s.€1618€into€the€German€Civil€Code€(para.€2.4Ð üp Ðabove)€were€not€objective€and€reasonable.€€Likewise,€the€author€has€not€substantiated€thatÐ è\ Ðthe€denial€of€compensation€for€lost€travel€expenses€amounted€to€a€discrimination€within€theÐ ÔH Ðmeaning€of€article€26.€€Accordingly,€this€part€of€the€communication€is€inadmissible€underÐ À4 Ðarticle€2€of€the€Optional€Protocol€to€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.Ь (#(# Ðà0  à...И (#(# Ðà0  à6.10€€Insofar€as€the€author€alleges€that€he€has€been€denied€access€to€the€German€courts,€inÐ „ø Ðviolation€of€article€14€of€the€Covenant,€because,€unlike€fathers€of€children€born€in€wedlock,Ð pä Ðhe€could€not€contest€the€decision€to€change€his€sonððs€surname,€nor€claim€compensation€forÐ \ Ð Ðthe€motherððs€failure€to€comply€with€his€right€of€access€to€his€son,€the€Committee€notes€thatÐ H!¼ Ðthe€author€had€access€to€the€German€courts,€in€relation€to€both€matters,€but€that€these€courtsÐ 4"¨ Ðdismissed€his€claims.€€It€considers€that€he€has€not€sufficiently€substantiated,€for€purposes€ofÐ  #” Ðadmissibility,€that€his€claims€raise€issues€under€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant,Ð  $€  Ðwhich€could€be€raised€independently€from€article€26€and€do€not€relate€to€matters€that€haveÐ ø$l! ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôalready€been€ð ðconsideredðð,€within€the€meaning€of€the€State€partyððs€reservation,€by€theÐ ä%X" ÐEuropean€Court...€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐÐ&D #(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee€therefore€decides:Ш("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€That€the€communication€is€inadmissible€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôunder€articles€2€and€5,€paragraph€2€(a),€of€theÐ €*ô#' ÐOptional€ProtocolÔL  ÔÔM  Ô;Ðl+à$((#(# Ðà0  à...ÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐdØ(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  àòò2óó/€€Pursuant€to€section€1617€of€the€German€Civil€Code€in€force€at€the€material€time,€a€childÐ < ° Ðborn€out€of€wedlock€received€the€surname€that€the€mother€was€bearing€at€the€time€of€theÐ ( œ Ðchildððs€birth.€€A€subsequent€change€of€the€motherððs€surname€as€a€result€of€marriage€did€notÐ  ˆ Ðaffect€the€childððs€surname.€Ð t(#(# Ðà0  àà ` àSection€1618€of€the€same€Code€provided€that€the€mother€of€a€child€born€out€ofÐ ì ` Ðwedlock€and€her€husband€could€declare,€for€the€record€of€a€registrar,€that€the€child,€who€wasÐ ØL  Ðbearing€a€surname€in€accordance€with€section€1617€and€was€not€yet€married,€should€in€futureÐ Ä8  Ðbear€their€family€name.€€Similarly,€the€father€of€the€child€could€declare,€for€the€record€of€aÐ °$  Ðregistrar,€that€the€child€should€bear€his€surname.€€The€child€and€the€mother€had€to€agree€toÐ œ  Ðthe€change€of€the€surname,€in€case€that€the€father€wanted€to€give€his€surname€to€the€child.Јü (#(# Ðà0  à...Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  àòò17óó/€€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔSee€e.g.€communication€No.€441/1990,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòCasanovas€v.€FranceóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€at€para.€5.1.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò18óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔSee€communication€No.€998/2001,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòAlthammer€v.€AustriaóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€at€para.€8.4.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ8¬(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð$˜(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£¿OÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòG.€Pohl€et€al.€v.€Austria€óó(1160/2003),€ICCPR,€A/59/40€vol.€II€(9€July€2004)€378€at€paras.€2.1„Ð è\ Ð2.6€and€9.2„9.8.݃ 3£¿OìOÝŒÐÔH(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ь (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.1€€The€first€and€second€authors€jointly€own,€and€reside€on,€property€measuring€some€1,600Ð ˜  Ðsquare€metres€located€in€the€community€of€Aigen€(part€of€the€Municipality€of€Salzburg).€€TheÐ „ø Ðthird€author€formerly€owned€a€plot€of€land€of€some€2,300€square€metres,€also€located€inÐ pä ÐAigen,€adjacent€to€the€plot€owned€by€the€first€and€second€authors.€€On€15€June€1998,€theÐ \ Ð Ðfourth€author€purchased€the€plot€formerly€owned€by€the€third€author€from€a€company,€whichÐ H!¼ Ðhad€acquired€it€at€a€public€auction.€€As€the€current€owner€of€the€plot,€on€which€he€alsoÐ 4"¨ Ðresides,€the€fourth€author€is€contractually€obliged€to€reimburse€the€third€author€for€anyÐ  #” Ðexpenses€associated€with€that€plot.Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€Both€plots€of€land€are€designated€as€ð ðrural€areasðð,€in€accordance€with€the€1998€SalzburgÐ ä%X" ÐProvincial€Zoning€Law,€which€divides€real€estate€located€in€the€Province€of€Salzburg€intoÐ Ð&D # Ðð ðbuilding€landðð,€ð ðtraffic/transportation€areasðð€and€ð ðrural€areasðð.м'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€1€December€1998,€the€Municipality€of€Salzburg€informed€the€first,€second€and€thirdÐ ”)#& Ðauthors€of€a€preliminary€assessment€of€the€financial€implications€of€the€construction,€in€1997,Ð €*ô#' Ðof€a€residential€sewerage€adjacent€to€their€plots€and€gave€them€an€opportunity€to€commentÐ l+à$( Ðon€the€assessment.ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€According€to€Section€11€of€the€Salzburg€Provincial€Landownersðð€Contributions€ActÐ dØ Ð(1976),€which€regulates€financial€contributions€of€landowners€to€certain€public€services€inÐ P Ä Ðthe€Municipality€of€Salzburg,€owners€of€plots€of€land€located€adjacent€to€a€newly€constructedÐ < ° Ðsewerage€must€contribute€to€the€construction€costs;€the€contribution€is€calculated€pursuantÐ ( œ Ðto€a€formula€based€on€the€square€measure€of€a€plot,€from€which€an€abstract€ð ðlengthðð€isÐ  ˆ Ðdeducted.€€Contributions€of€landowners€in€all€other€municipalities€of€the€Province€ofÐ  t ÐSalzburg€are€regulated€by€the€Provincial€Act€on€Landownersðð€Contributions€to€theÐ ì ` ÐConstruction€of€Municipal€Sewerages€in€all€Municipalities€of€the€Province€of€Salzburg€withÐ ØL  Ðthe€Exception€of€the€City€of€Salzburg€(1962),€which€provides€that€owners€of€land,€fromÐ Ä8  Ðwhich€wastewater€is€dumped€into€the€sewerage,€are€required€to€pay€contributions€for€newlyÐ °$  Ðconstructed€sewerages,€calculated€on€the€basis€of€a€formula€that€links€the€construction€costsÐ œ  Ðto€the€living€space€of€the€dwellings€built€on€the€plots.€€The€number€of€ð ðpointsðð,€calculatedÐ ˆü  Ðon€the€basis€of€living€space€(in€square€metres),€are€multiplied€by€the€amount€to€be€paid€perÐ tè  Ðpoint€to€arrive€at€an€individual€landownerððs€contribution.€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€In€their€observations€on€the€preliminary€assessment,€the€authors€argued€that€theÐ 8¬ Ðenvisaged€calculation€of€their€contributions€based€on€the€length€of€the€plot€wasÐ $˜ Ðdiscriminatory,€if€compared€to€the€calculation€of€contributions€of€owners€of€plots€in€areasÐ „ Ðdesignated€as€ð ðbuilding€landðð,€as€it€disregarded€the€special€situation€of€plots€in€rural€areas,Ð üp Ðwhich€were€significantly€larger€than€average€parcels€in€areas€designated€as€ð ðbuilding€landðð.€Ð è\ ÐThe€calculation€method€in€all€other€municipalities€in€the€Province€of€Salzburg€was€thereforeÐ ÔH Ðbased€on€available€living€space€instead€of€the€abstract€length€criterion€so€as€to€take€suchÐ À4 Ðspecial€circumstances€into€account.€€The€authors€also€stated€that€the€existing€waste-waterÐ ¬  Ðdisposal€facilities€were€adequate.И (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€On€22€February€1999,€the€Municipality€of€the€City€of€Salzburg€issued€two€administrativeÐ pä Ðacts,€requiring€the€first€and€second€authors€to€pay€ATS€193,494.20€(ðHð14,061.77)€and€the€thirdÐ \ Ð Ðauthor€to€contribute€ATS€262,838.70€(ðHð19,101.23),€pursuant€to€Section€11€of€theÐ H!¼ ÐLandownersðð€Contribution€Act.€€It€rejected€the€third€authorððs€objection€to€his€treatment€as€aÐ 4"¨ Ðparty€to€the€proceedings€despite€the€fact€that€he€was€no€longer€the€registered€owner€of€theÐ  #” Ðplot,€stating€that€the€owner€registered€at€the€time€of€the€construction€of€the€sewerage€was€toÐ  $€  Ðbe€considered€the€obligated€party.Ðø$l!(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðä%X"(#(# Ðà0  à9.2€€The€Committee€begins€by€noting€that,€pursuant€to€article€50€of€the€Covenant,€theÐ Ð&D # Ðdelegation€of€competence€for€the€construction€and€management€of€sewage€disposal€plantsÐ ¼'0!$ Ðto€Austrian€provinces€and€municipalities€does€not€relieve€the€State€party€of€its€obligationsÐ ¨("% Ðunder€the€Covenant.òò11óó/€€Accordingly,€the€State€partyððs€responsibility€may€be€engaged€byÐ ”)#& Ðvirtue€of€the€impugned€decisions€of€the€Municipality€of€Salzburg€based€on€provincialÐ €*ô#' Ðlegislation,€which€have,€moreover,€been€confirmed€by€the€Austrian€courts.Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à9.3€€The€question€before€the€Committee€is€whether€the€relevant€legislation€regarding€theÐ Œ Ðfinancial€contributions€of€landowners€in€the€Municipality€of€Salzburg€to€the€construction€ofÐ xì Ðmunicipal€sewerages€violates€article€26€of€the€Covenant€by€first€not€distinguishing€betweenÐ dØ Ðplots€of€an€urban€character€designated€as€ð ðbuilding€landðð€and€ð ðruralðð€plots€of€land€with€aÐ P Ä Ðbuilding€site,€and€second€by€using€the€size€of€plots€of€land€(so€called€ð ðlengthðð)€as€basis€forÐ < ° Ðthe€calculation€of€the€contributions€instead€of€linking€them€to€the€size€of€living€space€as€isÐ ( œ Ðdone€in€all€other€municipalities€of€the€Province€of€Salzburg.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.4€€The€Committee€recalls€that€under€article€26,€discrimination€in€the€equal€protection€of€theÐ ì ` Ðlaw€is€prohibited€on€any€grounds€such€as€race,€colour,€sex,€language,€religion,€political€orÐ ØL  Ðother€opinion,€national€or€social€origin,€property,€birth€or€other€status.òò12óó/€€It€notes€that€anÐ Ä8  Ðindirect€discrimination€may€result€from€a€failure€to€treat€different€situations€differently,€if€theÐ °$  Ðnegative€results€of€such€failure€exclusively€or€disproportionally€affect€persons€of€a€particularÐ œ  Ðrace,€colour,€sex,€language,€religion,€political€or€other€opinion,€national€or€social€origin,Ð ˆü  Ðproperty,€birth€or€other€status.òò13óó/€€While€the€Committee€does€not€exclude€that€ð ðresidenceððÐ tè  Ðmay€be€a€ð ðstatusðð€that€prohibits€discrimination,€it€notes€that€the€alleged€failure€to€distinguishÐ `Ô  Ðbetween€ð ðurbanðð€and€ð ðruralðð€plots€of€land€is€not€linked€to€a€particular€place€of€residenceÐ LÀ Ðwithin€the€municipality€of€Salzburg€but€depends€on€their€assignment€to€a€particular€zoningÐ 8¬ Ðarea.€€The€Committee€also€takes€note€of€the€State€partyððs€explanation€that€the€degree€ofÐ $˜ Ðcontributions€for€ð ðruralðð€parcels€òòdoesóó€depend€on€how€much€of€the€plot€its€owner€sought€toÐ „ Ðhave€designated€as€an€area€where€a€building€may€be€constructed.€€The€Committee€concludesÐ üp Ðthat€the€failure€to€distinguish€between€urban€ð ðbuilding€landðð€and€ð ðruralðð€plots€of€land€withÐ è\ Ða€building€site€is€neither€discriminatory€by€reference€to€any€of€the€grounds€mentioned€inÐ ÔH Ðarticle€26€of€the€Covenant,€nor€arbitrary.ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.5€€With€regard€to€the€claim€that€the€different€treatment€of€landowners€in€the€City€ofÐ ˜  ÐSalzburg€and€landowners€elsewhere€in€the€Province€of€Salzburg,€concerning€the€calculationÐ „ø Ðof€their€landownersðð€contributions€for€the€construction€of€new€sewer€systems€for€their€plotsÐ pä Ðof€land,€is€not€based€on€objective€and€reasonable€criteria,€as€required€by€article€26€of€theÐ \ Ð ÐCovenant,€the€Committee€considers€that€the€authorsðð€argument€relating€to€the€perceived€moreÐ H!¼ Ðdynamic€increases€in€population€and€incidence€of€construction€in€other€parts€of€the€ProvinceÐ 4"¨ Ðof€Salzburg€does€not€exclude€that€the€construction€costs€for€the€sewer€network€in€the€moreÐ  #” Ðdensely€populated€Municipality€of€Salzburg€may€still€be€higher€than€in€the€rest€of€theÐ  $€  ÐProvince,€as€claimed€by€the€State€party.Ðø$l!(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.6€€In€this€connection,€the€Committee€notes€that€the€authors€admit€that€their€landownersððÐ Ð&D # Ðcontributions€would€still€be€three€to€four€times€higher,€if€compared€to€the€rest€of€theÐ ¼'0!$ ÐProvince,€even€if€the€calculation€was€based€on€the€size€of€the€living€space€of€the€dwellingÐ ¨("% Ðsituated€on€the€plot€of€land.€€It€cannot€therefore€be€concluded€that€the€different€levels€ofÐ ”)#& Ðcontributions€in€and€outside€the€City€of€Salzburg€result€exclusively€from€the€differentÐ €*ô#' Ðcalculation€methods€applied€under€the€1976€Salzburg€Provincial€Landownersðð€ContributionsÐ l+à$( ÐAct€and€the€1962€Act€applicable€to€the€other€municipalities€in€the€Province€of€Salzburg.€€TheÐ Œ ÐCommittee€therefore€considers€that€the€authors€have€failed€to€demonstrate€that€their€differentÐ xì Ðtreatment€was€not€based€on€objective€and€reasonable€criteria.€€ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.7€€The€Committee,€moreover,€considers€that€nothing€in€the€decisions€of€the€AppealsÐ < ° ÐCommission€in€Building€Matters€of€the€Municipality€of€the€City€of€Salzburg,€dated€28€MayÐ ( œ Ðand€2€July€1999,€or€in€the€decision€of€the€Administrative€Court€of€28€April€2003€indicatesÐ  ˆ Ðthat€the€application€by€these€tribunals€of€the€relevant€provisions€of€the€LandownersððÐ  t ÐContributions€Act€(1976)€was€based€on€manifestly€arbitrary€considerations.Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.8€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€do€not€disclose€aÐ Ä8  Ðviolation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant.а$ (#(# Ðà0  à_________________М (#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóЈü (#(# Ðà0  à...Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  àòò11óó/€€See,€e.g.,€communications€Nos.€298/1988€and€299/1988,€òòLindgren€et€al.€v.€Swedenóó€andÐ `Ô  ÐòòLindquist€et€al.€v.€Swedenóó,€Views€adopted€on€9€November€1990,€at€para.€10.4.ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò12/óó€€Communication€No.€196/1983,€òòGueye€v.€France,€óóViews€adopted€on€3€April€1989,€atÐ $˜ Ðpara.€9.4.Є(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò13óó/€See,€e.g.,€communication€No.€998/2001,€òòAlthammer€v.€Austriaóó,€Views€adopted€on€8Ð è\ ÐAugust€2003,€at€para.€10.2.ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌÌÓ€ ) "#$%&'((œAxx ) "#$%&'(ÓÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£×ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòDeisl€v.€Austriaóó€(1060/2002),€ICCPR,€A/59/40€vol.€II€(27€July€2004)€283€at€paras.€11.1„11.6.݃ 3£×€ÝŒÐ„ø(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð\ Ð(#(# Ðà0  à11.1€€The€Committee€recalls,€at€the€outset,€that€the€concept€of€a€ð ðsuit€at€lawðð€in€article€14,Ð H!¼ Ðparagraph€1,€of€the€Covenant€is€based€on€the€nature€of€the€right€and€obligations€in€questionÐ 4"¨ Ðrather€than€on€the€status€of€the€parties€òò24óó/.€€It€notes€that€the€proceedings€concerning€theÐ  #” Ðauthorsðð€request€for€an€exemption€from€the€zoning€regulations,€as€well€as€the€orders€toÐ  $€  Ðdemolish€their€buildings,€relate€to€the€determination€of€their€rights€and€obligations€in€a€suitÐ ø$l! Ðat€law,€in€particular€their€right€to€freedom€from€unlawful€interference€with€their€privacy€andÐ ä%X" Ðhome,€their€rights€and€interests€relating€to€their€property,€and€their€obligation€to€comply€withÐ Ð&D # Ðthe€demolition€orders.€€It€follows€that€article€14,€paragraph€1,€is€applicable€to€theseÐ ¼'0!$ Ðproceedings.Ш("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.2€€The€Committee€further€recalls€that€the€right€to€a€fair€hearing€under€article€14,€paragraphÐ €*ô#' Ð1,€entails€a€number€of€requirements,€including€the€condition€that€the€procedure€before€theÐ l+à$( Ðnational€tribunals€must€be€conducted€expeditiously€òò25óó/.€€The€issue€before€the€Committee€isÐ Œ Ðtherefore€whether€the€delays€complained€of€violated€this€requirement,€to€the€extent€that€theyÐ xì Ðoccurred€or€continued€after€the€entry€into€force€of€the€Optional€Protocol€for€the€State€party.ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.3€€As€to€the€alleged€delay€in€examining€the€authorsðð€appeal€of€18€February€1987,€theÐ < ° ÐCommittee€notes€that€the€authors€themselves€requested€a€postponement€of€the€decision€untilÐ ( œ ÐNovember€1987.€€Although€it€thereafter€took€the€Provincial€Government€another€two€yearsÐ  ˆ Ðto€set€aside€the€impugned€decision,€of€which€20€months€coincide€with€the€period€of€timeÐ  t Ðfollowing€the€entry€into€force€of€the€Optional€Protocol€for€the€State€party,€the€CommitteeÐ ì ` Ðconsiders€that€the€authors€have€not€demonstrated€that€this€delay€was€so€unreasonable,€as€toÐ ØL  Ðamount€to€a€violation€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€taking€into€account€that:€€(a)€the€delay€hadÐ Ä8  Ðno€detrimental€effect€on€their€legal€position;€(b)€the€authors€chose€not€to€avail€themselves€ofÐ °$  Ðavailable€remedies€to€accelerate€the€proceedings;€and€(c)€the€outcome€of€the€appellateÐ œ  Ðproceedings€was€beneficial€to€them.Јü (#(# ÐÌà0  à11.4€€Regarding€the€alleged€delays€in€the€proceedings€before€the€Constitutional€Court€(16Ð `Ô  ÐNovember€1993€to€29€November€1994€and€15€January€1996€to€29€September€1998),€theÐ LÀ ÐCommittee€observes€that,€while€the€first€set€of€these€proceedings€were€conductedÐ 8¬ Ðexpeditiously,€the€second€may€have€exceeded€the€ordinary€length€of€proceedings€resultingÐ $˜ Ðin€a€complaintððs€dismissal€and€referral€to€another€court.€€However,€in€the€Committeeððs€view,Ð „ Ðthe€second€delay€is€not€so€long€as€to€constitute,€in€proceedings€before€a€constitutional€courtÐ üp Ðin€a€property-related€matter,€a€violation€of€the€concept€of€fairness€enshrined€in€article€14,Ð è\ Ðparagraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.ÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.5€€As€to€the€alleged€delays€in€the€proceedings€before€the€Administrative€Court€(29Ð ¬  ÐNovember€1994€to€12€October€1995€and€29€September€1998€to€3€November€1999),€theÐ ˜  ÐCommittee€has€noted€the€State€partyððs€uncontested€argument€that€the€authors€could€have€filedÐ „ø Ðtheir€complaints€simultaneously€with€the€Constitutional€and€Administrative€Courts,€to€avoidÐ pä Ða€loss€of€time.€€In€the€light€of€the€complexity€of€the€matter€complained€of,€as€well€as€theÐ \ Ð ÐCourtððs€detailed€legal€reasoning€in€its€decisions€of€12€October€1995€and€3€November€1999,Ð H!¼ Ðthe€Committee€does€not€consider€that€the€delays€complained€of€amount€to€a€violation€ofÐ 4"¨ Ðarticle€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.6€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€length€of€the€proceedings€as€a€whole,€counted€from€theÐ ø$l! Ðdate€of€entry€into€force€of€the€Optional€Protocol€for€Austria€(10€March€1988)€to€the€date€ofÐ ä%X" Ðthe€Administrative€Courtððs€final€decision€(3€November€1999),€totalled€11€years€and€8Ð Ð&D # Ðmonths.€€In€assessing€the€reasonableness€of€this€delay,€the€Committee€bases€itself€on€theÐ ¼'0!$ Ðfollowing€considerations:€€(a)€the€length€of€each€individual€stage€of€the€proceedings;€òò26óó/€(b)Ð ¨("% Ðthe€fact€that€the€suspensive€effect€of€the€proceedings€òòvis--visóó€the€demolition€orders€wasÐ ”)#& Ðbeneficial,€rather€than€detrimental,€to€the€authorsðð€legal€position;€(c)€the€fact€that€the€authorsÐ €*ô#' Ðdid€not€avail€themselves€of€possibilities€to€accelerate€administrative€proceedings€or€to€fileÐ l+à$( Ðcomplaints€simultaneously;€(d)€the€considerable€complexity€of€the€matter;€and€(e)€the€factÐ Œ Ðthat,€during€this€time,€the€Provincial€Government€twice,€and€the€Administrative€Court€once,Ð xì Ðset€aside€negative€decisions€on€appeal€by€the€authors.€€The€Committee€considers€that€theseÐ dØ Ðfactors€outweigh€any€detrimental€effects€which€the€legal€uncertainty€during€the€protractedÐ P Ä Ðproceedings€may€have€caused€to€the€authors.€€It€concludes,€having€regard€to€all€theÐ < ° Ðcircumstances€of€the€case,€that€their€right€to€have€their€case€determined€without€undue€delayÐ ( œ Ðhas€not€been€violated.Ð ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð t(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐì `(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐØL (#(# Ðà0  àòò24óó/€€€See€communication€No.€207/1986,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòYves€Morael€v.€FranceóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€Views€adopted€on€28€JulyÐ Ä8  Ð1989,€at€para.€9.3.а$ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò25óó/€€See€communication€No.€441/1990,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòRobert€Casanovas€v.€FranceóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€at€para.€7.3;Ð ˆü  Ðcommunication€No.€238/1987,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòFloresmilo€Bolaos€v.€EcuadoróóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€at€para.€8.4;€communicationÐ tè  ÐNo.€207/1986,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòYves€Morael€v.€FranceóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€at€para.€9.3.Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àòò26óó/€€See€above€paras.€11.4-11.6.Ð8¬(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ð$˜(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£„œÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòCzernin€v.€Czech€RepublicÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€óó(No.€823/1998),€ICCPR,€A/60/40€vol€IÔL  ÔÔM  ÔIÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€(29€March€2005)€1€atÐ è\ Ðparas.€2.1„2.7,€7.2„7.5ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€8,€9€and€Individual€Opinion€of€Ms.€Ruth€Wedgwood€(concurring),€atÐ ÔH Ð10ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.݃ 3£„œ±œÝŒÐÀ4(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...И (#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€After€the€German€occupation€of€the€border€area€of€Czechoslovakia€in€1939,€and€theÐ „ø Ðestablishment€of€the€ð ðprotectorateðð,€Eugen€and€Josefa€Czernin,€the€now€deceased€parents€ofÐ pä Ðthe€author,€were€automatically€given€German€citizenship,€under€a€German€decree€of€20€AprilÐ \ Ð Ð1939.€€After€the€Second€World€War,€their€property€was€confiscated€on€the€ground€that€theyÐ H!¼ Ðwere€German€nationals,€under€the€Benes€decrees€Nos.€12/1945€and€108/1945.€€Furthermore,Ð 4"¨ ÐBenes€decree€No.€33/1945€of€2€August€1945€deprived€them€of€their€CzechoslovakÐ  #” Ðcitizenship,€on€the€same€ground.€€However,€this€decree€allowed€persons€who€satisfied€certainÐ  $€  Ðrequirements€of€faithfulness€to€the€Czechoslovak€RepublicÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò2óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€to€apply€for€retention€ofÐ ø$l! ÐCzechoslovak€citizenship.Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€On€13€November€1945,€Eugen€and€Josefa€Czernin€aÔL  ÔÔM  Ôpplied€for€retention€of€CzechoslovakÐ ¼'0!$ Ðcitizenship,€in€accordance€with€Presidential€Decree€No.€33/1945,€and€within€the€stipulatedÐ ¨("% Ðtime€frame.€€A€ð ðCommittee€of€Inquiryðð€in€the€District€National€Committee€of€Jindð«ðchðÅðvÐ ”)#& ÐHradec,€which€examined€their€application,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€found€that€Eugen€Czernin€had€proven€hisÐ €*ô#' Ðð ðanti-Nazi€attitudeðð.€€The€Committee€then€forwarded€the€application€to€the€Ministry€of€theÐ l+à$( ÐInterior€for€a€final€decision.€€In€December€1945,€after€being€released€from€prison€where€heÐ Œ Ðwas€subjected€to€forced€labour€and€interrogated€by€the€Soviet€secret€services€NKVD€andÐ xì ÐGPðBð,€he€moved€to€Austria€with€his€wife.€€The€Ministry€did€not€decide€on€their€applications,Ð dØ Ðnor€did€it€reply€to€a€letter€sent€by€Eugen€Czernin€on€19€March€1946,€urging€the€authoritiesÐ P Ä Ðto€rule€on€his€application.€€A€note€in€each€of€their€files€from€1947€states€that€the€applicationÐ < ° Ðwas€to€be€regarded€as€irrelevant€as€the€applicants€had€voluntarily€left€for€Austria,€and€theirÐ ( œ Ðfiles€were€closed.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€After€the€regime€change€in€Czechoslovakia€in€late€1989,€the€author,€only€son€and€heirÐ ì ` Ðof€Eugen€and€Josefa€Czernin,€lodged€a€claim€for€restitution€of€their€property€under€Act€No.Ð ØL  Ð87/1991€and€Act€No.€243/1992.€€According€to€him,€the€principal€precondition€for€theÐ Ä8  Ðrestitution€of€his€property€is€the€Czechoslovak€citizenship€of€his€parents€after€the€war.а$ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€On€19€January€and€9€May€1995€respectively,€the€author€applied€for€the€resumption€ofÐ ˆü  Ðproceedings€relating€to€his€fatherððs€and€his€motherððs€application€for€retention€ofÐ tè  ÐCzechoslovak€citizenship.€€In€the€case€of€EugenÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€Czernin,€a€reply€dated€27€January€1995€fromÐ `Ô  Ðthe€Jindð«ðchðÅðv€Hradec€District€Office€informed€the€author€that€the€proceedings€could€not€beÐ LÀ Ðresumed€because€the€case€had€been€definitely€settled€by€Act€34/1953,€conferringÐ 8¬ ÐCzechoslovak€citizenship€on€German€natiÔL  ÔÔM  Ôonals€who€had€lost€their€Czechoslovak€citizenshipÐ $˜ Ðunder€Decree€33/1945€but€who€were€domiciled€in€the€Czechoslovak€Republic.òò3óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔIn€a€letterÐ „ Ðdated€13€February€1995,€the€author€insisted€that€a€determination€on€his€application€forÐ üp Ðresumption€of€proceedings€be€made.€€In€a€communication€dated€22€February€1995,€he€wasÐ è\ Ðnotified€that€it€was€not€possible€to€proceed€with€the€citizenship€case€of€a€deceased€person€andÐ ÔH Ðthat€the€case€was€regarded€as€closed.€€On€3€March€1995,€the€author€applied€to€the€MinistryÐ À4 Ðof€Interior€for€a€decision€to€be€taken€on€his€case.€€After€the€Ministry€informed€him€that€hisÐ ¬  Ðletter€had€not€arrived,€he€sent€the€same€application€again€on€13€October€1995.€€On€24€and€31Ð ˜  ÐJanuary€1996,€the€author€again€wrote€to€the€Minister€of€Interior.€€Meanwhile,€in€a€meetingÐ „ø Ðbetween€the€second€author€and€the€Minister€of€Interior,€the€latter€indicated€that€there€wereÐ pä Ðnot€only€legal€but€also€political€and€personal€reasons€for€not€deciding€on€the€case,€and€thatÐ \ Ð Ðð ðin€any€other€case€but€[his],€such€an€application€for€determination€of€nationality€would€haveÐ H!¼ Ðbeen€decided€favourably€within€two€daysðð.€€The€Minister€also€promised€that€he€wouldÐ 4"¨ Ðconvene€an€ad€hoc€committee€composed€of€independent€lawyers,€which€would€consult€withÐ  #” Ðthe€authorððs€lawyers,€but€this€committee€never€met.Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€On€22€February€1996,€the€Minister€of€Interior€wrote€to€the€author€stating€that€ð ðtheÐ ä%X" Ðdecision€on€[his]€application€was€not€favourable€to€[him]ðð.€€On€8€March€1996,€the€authorÐ Ð&D # Ðappealed€the€Ministerððs€letter€to€the€Ministry€of€Interior.€€In€a€reply€from€the€Ministry€datedÐ ¼'0!$ Ð24€April€1996,€the€author€was€informed€that€the€Ministerððs€letter€was€not€a€decision€withinÐ ¨("% Ðthe€meaning€of€section€47€of€Act€No.€71/1967€on€administrative€proceedings€and€that€it€wasÐ ”)#& Ðnot€possible€to€appeal€against€a€non-existent€decision.€€On€the€same€day,€the€author€appealedÐ €*ô#' Ðthe€letter€of€the€Minister€to€the€Supreme€Court€which€on€16€July€1996€ruled€that€the€letterÐ l+à$( Ðwas€not€a€decision€by€an€administrative€body,€that€the€absence€of€such€a€decision€was€anÐ Œ Ðinsurmountable€procedural€obstacle,€and€that€domestic€administrative€law€did€not€give€theÐ xì Ðcourts€any€power€to€intervene€against€any€failure€to€act€by€an€official€body.ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€After€yet€another€unsuccessful€appeal€to€the€Ministry€of€Interior,€the€author€filed€aÐ < ° Ðcomplaint€for€denial€of€justice€in€the€Constitutional€Court€which,€by€judgement€of€25Ð ( œ ÐSeptember€1997,€ordered€the€Ministry€of€Interior€to€cease€its€continuing€inaction€whichÐ  ˆ Ðviolated€the€complainantððs€rights.€€Further€to€this€decision,€the€author€withdrew€hisÐ  t Ðcommunication€before€the€Human€Rights€Committee.Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.7€€According€to€the€author,€the€Jindð«ðchðÅðv€Hradec€District€Office€(District€Office),€byÐ Ä8  Ðdecision€of€6€March€1998,€reinterpreted€the€essence€of€the€authorððs€application€and,Ð °$  Ðarbitrarily€characterized€it€as€an€application€for€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôconfirmation€of€citizenship.€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€DistrictÐ œ  ÐOffice€denied€the€application€on€the€ground€that€Eugen€Czernin€had€not€retained€CzechÐ ˆü  Ðcitizenship€after€being€deprived€of€it,€in€accordance€with€the€Citizenship€Act€of€1993,€whichÐ tè  Ðstipulates€that€a€decision€in€favour€of€the€plaintiff€requires,€as€a€prerequisite,€the€favourableÐ `Ô  Ðconclusion€of€a€citizenship€procedure.€€The€District€Office€did€not€process€the€authorððs€initialÐ LÀ Ðapplication€for€resumption€of€proceedings€on€retention€of€citizenship.€€Further€to€thisÐ 8¬ Ðdecision,€the€author€resubmitted€and€updated€his€communication€to€the€Committee€in€MarchÐ $˜ Ð1998.€Ð„(#(# Ðà0  à....Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  à7.2€€The€main€issue€before€the€Committee€is€whether€the€administrative€authorities€(theÐ è\ ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔDistrict€Office€in€Jindð«ðchðÅðv€Hradec€and€the€Ministry€of€Interior)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€acted€in€a€way€that€violatedÐ ÔH Ðthe€authorsðð€right,€under€article€14,€paragraph€1,€to€a€fair€hearing€by€a€competent,€independentÐ À4 Ðand€impartial€tribunal,€in€conjunction€with€the€right€to€effective€remedy€as€provided€underÐ ¬  Ðarticle€2,€paragraph€3.И (#(# ÐÌà0  à7.3€€The€Committee€notes€the€statement€of€the€authors€that€the€District€Office€and€MinistryÐ pä Ðof€Interior,€in€their€decisions€of€6€March€and€17€June€1998,€arbitrarily€reinterpreted€hisÐ \ Ð Ðapplication€on€resumption€of€proceedings€on€retention€of€citizenship€and€applied€the€StateÐ H!¼ Ðpartyððs€current€citizenship€laws€rather€than€Decree€No.€33/1945,€on€which€the€initialÐ 4"¨ Ðapplication€had€been€based.€€The€Committee€further€notes€that€the€latter€decision€wasÐ  #” Ðquashed€by€the€Prague€High€Court€and€yet€referred€back€for€a€rehearing.€€In€its€secondÐ  $€  Ðassessment€of€the€case,€the€Ministry€of€Interior€applied€Decree€No.€33/1945,€and€denied€theÐ ø$l! Ðapplication.€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.4€€The€Committee€recalls€its€jurisprudence€that€the€interpretation€and€application€ofÐ ¼'0!$ Ðdomestic€law€is€essentially€a€matter€for€the€courts€and€authorities€of€the€State€partyÐ ¨("% Ðconcerned.€€However,€in€the€pursuit€of€a€claim€under€domestic€law,€the€individual€must€haveÐ ”)#& Ðaccess€to€effective€remedies,€which€implies€that€the€administrative€authorities€must€act€inÐ €*ô#' Ðconformity€with€the€binding€decisions€of€national€courts,€as€admitted€by€the€State€party€itself.€Ð l+à$( ÐThe€Committee€notes€that€the€decision€of€the€Ministry€of€Interior€of€31€May€2002,€as€wellÐ Œ Ðas€its€confirmation€by€the€Minister€on€1€January€2003,€were€both€quashed€by€the€PragueÐ xì ÐTown€Court€on€5€May€2004.€€According€to€the€authors,€the€Town€Court€ruled€that€theÐ dØ Ðauthorities€had€taken€these€decisions€without€the€required€reasoning€and€arbitrarily,€and€thatÐ P Ä Ðthey€had€ignored€substantive€evidence€provided€by€the€applicants,€including€the€authorððsÐ < ° Ðfather,€Eugen€Czernin.€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€State€party€has€not€contested€this€partÐ ( œ Ðof€the€authorsðð€account.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.5€€The€Committee€further€notes€that€since€the€authorsðð€application€for€resumption€ofÐ ì ` Ðproceedings€in€1995,€they€have€repeatedly€been€confronted€with€the€frustration€arising€fromÐ ØL  Ðthe€administrative€authoritiesðð€refusal€to€implement€the€relevant€decisions€of€the€courts.€€TheÐ Ä8  ÐCommittee€considers€that€the€inaction€of€the€administrative€authorities€and€the€excessiveÐ °$  Ðdelays€in€implementing€the€relevant€courtsðð€decisions€are€in€violation€of€article€14,€paragraphÐ œ  Ð1,€in€conjunction€with€article€2,€paragraph€3,€which€provides€for€the€right€to€an€effectiveÐ ˆü  Ðremedy.Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à8.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€disclose€a€violationÐ LÀ Ðof€article€14,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.€€With€regard€to€the€above€finding,€the€CommitteeÐ 8¬ Ðconsiders€that€it€not€necessary€to€examine€the€claim€under€article€26€of€the€Covenant.Ð$˜(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÌà0  à9.€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€under€anÐ üp Ðobligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€effective€remedy,€including€the€requirement€that€itsÐ è\ Ðadministrative€authorities€act€in€conformity€with€the€decisions€of€the€courts.€ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóЬ (#(# Ðà0  à...И (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àòò2óó/€€Decree€33/1945,€paragraph€2€(1)€stipulates€that€persons€ð ðwho€can€prove€that€theyÐ „ø Ðremained€true€to€the€Republic€of€Czechoslovakia,€never€committed€any€acts€against€theÐ pä ÐCzech€and€Slovak€peoples€and€were€actively€involved€in€the€struggle€for€its€liberation€orÐ \ Ð Ðsuffered€under€the€National€Socialist€or€Fascist€terror€shall€retain€Czechoslovak€citizenship.ððÐH!¼(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔAct€34/1953€of€24€April€1953€ð ðWhereby€certain€persons€acquire€Czech€citizenshipÐ  #” Ðrightsðð,€paragraph€1€(1)€stipulates€that€ð ðPersons€of€German€nationality,€who€lostÐ  $€  ÐCzechoslovak€citizenship€rights€under€Decree€33/1945€and€have€on€the€day€on€which€this€lawÐ ø$l! Ðcomes€into€effect€domicile€in€the€territory€of€the€Czechoslovak€Republic€shall€become€CzechÐ ä%X" Ðcitizens,€unless€they€have€already€acquired€Czech€citizenship€rightsðð.ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  à_________________м'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòÔL  ÔÔM  ÔIndividual€Opinion€of€€Ms.€Ruth€Wedgwood€(concurring)óóД)#&(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àà ` àIn€the€first€case€of€this€series,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòSimunek€v.€The€Czech€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€No.€516/1992,€theÐ l+à$( ÐCommittee€invoked€the€norm€of€ð ðequal€protection€of€the€lawðð€as€recognized€under€article€26Ð Œ Ðof€the€Covenant.€€The€Committee€held€that€a€state€cannot€impose€arbitrary€conditions€for€theÐ xì Ðrestitution€of€confiscated€property.€€In€particular,€the€Committee€held€that€restoration€ofÐ dØ Ðprivate€property€must€be€available€even€to€persons€who€no€longer€enjoy€national€citizenshipÐ P Ä Ðand€are€no€longer€permanent€residents€-€at€least€when€the€state€party,€under€its€priorÐ < ° Ðcommunist€regime,€was€ð ðresponsible€for€the€departureðð€of€the€claimants.€€See€Views€of€theÐ ( œ ÐCommittee,€No.€516/1992,€paragraph€11.6.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  àà ` àThe€Committee€has€followed€these€views€in€subsequent€cases,€includingòò€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔAdam€v.€TheÐ ì ` ÐCzech€RepublicÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,óó€No.€586/1994;€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòBlazek€et€al.€v.€The€Czech€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€No.€857/1999;€and€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòDesÐ ØL  ÐFours€Walderode€v.€The€Czech€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€No.€747/1997.ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  àà ` àCommittee€member€Nisuke€Ando,€writing€individually€in€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòAdam€v.€The€CzechÐ œ  ÐRepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€No.€586/1994,€properly€pointed€out€that€traditionally,€private€international€law€hasÐ ˆü  Ðpermitted€states€to€restrict€the€ownership€of€immovable€properties€to€citizens.€€But€aÐ tè  Ðtotalitarian€regime€that€forces€its€political€opponents€to€flee,€presents€special€circumstances.€Ð `Ô  ÐAnd€there€is€no€showing€that€the€Czech€Republic€has,€in€regard€to€new€purchasers€of€realÐ LÀ Ðproperty,€required€either€citizenship€or€permanent€residence.€Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  àà ` àIt€is€against€this€background€that€the€Committee€is€brought€to€consider€the€case€ofÐ „ ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòCzernin€v.€The€Czech€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€No.€823/1998.€€Here,€the€Committee€has€challenged€the€stateÐ üp Ðparty€not€on€the€grounds€of€denial€of€equal€treatment,€but€on€a€question€of€process€-€findingÐ è\ Ðthat€the€administrative€authorities€of€the€state€party€had€ð ðrefuse[d]€to€carry€out€the€relevantÐ ÔH Ðdecisions€of€the€courtsðð€of€the€state€party€concerning€property€restoration.ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  àà ` àThe€authorððs€father,€accompanied€by€his€wife,€left€for€Austria€in€December€1945,Ð ˜  Ðafter€interrogation€in€prison€by€the€Soviet€secret€services€NKVD€and€GPU.€€In€1989,€after€theÐ „ø Ðfall€of€the€communist€regime€in€former€Czechoslovakia,€the€author,€as€sole€heir,€soughtÐ pä Ðrestitution€of€his€fatherððs€property,€and€in€1995,€sought€to€renew€his€parentsðð€applications€forÐ \ Ð Ðrestoration€of€Czech€citizenship.€€Since€that€time,€the€Czech€Constitutional€Court,€the€PragueÐ H!¼ ÐHigh€Court,€and€the€Prague€Town€Court€have,€respectively,€chastised€the€Czech€InteriorÐ 4"¨ ÐMinistry€for€failure€to€act€upon€the€authorððs€application,€erroneous€reliance€on€a€1993Ð  #” Ðcitizenship€law,€and€the€absence€of€ð ðnecessary€argumentationðð€concerning€his€fatherððsÐ  $€  Ðasserted€anti-Nazi€posture€(required€for€retention€of€Czech€citizenship,€under€the€post-warÐ ø$l! Ðdecree€No.€33/1945€of€Czech€president€Eduard€Benes,€in€the€case€of€ethnic€Germans).€€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  àà ` àIn€one€sense,€this€case€is€simpler€than€the€previous€cases,€since€the€issue€is€process,Ð ¼'0!$ Ðrather€than€the€limits€of€permissible€substantive€grounds.€€Nonetheless,€one€should€note€thatÐ ¨("% Ðthe€courts€of€the€Czech€Republic€have,€ultimately,€sought€to€provide€an€effective€remedy€toÐ ”)#& Ðthe€authors,€in€the€consideration€of€their€claims.€€Many€democracies€have€seen€administrativeÐ €*ô#' Ðagencies€that€are€reluctant€to€reach€certain€results,€and€the€question€is€whether€there€is€aÐ l+à$( Ðremedy€within€the€system€for€a€subordinate€agencyððs€failure€to€impartially€handle€a€claim.€Ð Œ ÐOne€could€not€adopt€any€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôper€seÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€rule€that€three€rounds€of€appellate€litigation€amounts€to€proofÐ xì Ðthat€an€applicant€has€been€deprived€of€a€right€to€a€fair€hearing€by€a€competent,€independentÐ dØ Ðand€impartial€tribunal,€especially€since€here€the€appellate€courts€have€acted€to€restrain€theÐ P Ä Ðadministrative€agency€in€question€on€its€various€grounds€of€denial€of€the€authorððs€claims.€Ð < ° ÐThe€Committee€has€not€held€that€administrative€proceedings€fall€within€the€full€compass€ofÐ ( œ Ðarticle€14.€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àà ` àEqually,€this€case€does€not€touch€upon€the€post-war€circumstances€of€the€mandatoryÐ  t Ðtransfer€of€the€Sudeten€German€population,€a€policy€undertaken€after€the€National€SocialistsððÐ ì ` Ðcatastrophic€misuse€of€the€idea€of€German€self-determination.€€Though€population€transfers,Ð ØL  Ðeven€as€part€of€a€peace€settlement,€would€not€be€easily€accepted€under€modern€human€rightsÐ Ä8  Ðlaw,€the€wreckage€of€post-war€Europe€brought€a€different€conclusion.€€Nor€has€the€authorÐ °$  Ðchallenged,€and€the€Committee€does€not€question,€the€authority€of€the€1945€presidentialÐ œ  Ðdecree,€which€required€that€ethnic€Germans€from€the€Sudetenland€who€wished€to€remain€inÐ ˆü  ÐCzechoslovakia,€had€to€demonstrate€their€wartime€opposition€to€Germanyððs€fascist€regime.€Ð tè  ÐA€new€democracy,€with€an€emerging€economy,€may€also€face€some€practical€difficulties€inÐ `Ô  Ðunravelling€the€violations€of€private€ownership€of€property€that€lasted€for€50€years.€€In€all€ofÐ LÀ Ðthese€respects,€the€State€party€is€bound€to€act€with€fidelity€to€the€Covenant,€yet€theÐ 8¬ ÐCommittee€must€also€act€with€a€sense€of€its€limits.Ð$˜(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£íÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòFernando€v.€Sri€LankaÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€óóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1189/2003)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,€A/60/40€vol.€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔII€(ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô31€March€2005)€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô226ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€at€parasÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.Ð è\ Ð2.1,€2.2,€3.1,€9.2,€10€and€11.݃ 3£í2íÝŒÐÔH(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ь (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.1€€The€author€filed€a€workers€compensation€claim€with€the€Deputy€Commissioner€ofÐ ˜  ÐWorkerððs€Compensation,€for€redress€in€respect€of€injuries€he€had€suffered.€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€According€to€theÐ „ø ÐCourt€proceedings,€the€author€was€an€employee€of€the€Young€Menððsðð€Christian€AssociationÐ pä Ð(Y.M.C.A).€€While€engaged€in€that€employment€he€suffered€injuries€as€a€result€of€a€fall.€€TheÐ \ Ð ÐDeputy€Commissioner€of€Workmenððs€Compensation€held€an€inquiry€into€the€incident.€€TheÐ H!¼ Ðauthor€and€the€Y.M.C.A€were€represented€by€lawyers.€€A€settlement€was€arrived€at€but€whenÐ 4"¨ Ðthe€matter€was€called€before€the€Deputy€Commissioner€on€9€January€1998,€the€author€refusedÐ  #” Ðto€accept€the€settlement.€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€authorððs€claim€was€thereafter€dismissed€and€following€theÐ  $€  Ðrejection€of€his€claim,€the€author€filed€four€successive€motions€in€the€Supreme€Court.€€TheÐ ø$l! Ðfirst€two€motions€concerned€alleged€violations€of€his€constitutional€rights€by€the€DeputyÐ ä%X" ÐCommissioner€of€Workerððs€Compensation.€€On€27€November€2002,€the€Supreme€CourtÐ Ð&D # Ðconsidered€these€two€motions€jointly€and€dismissed€them.€€Thereafter,€on€30€January€2003,Ð ¼'0!$ Ðthe€author€filed€a€third€motion,€claiming€that€the€first€two€motions€should€not€have€beenÐ ¨("% Ðheard€jointly,€and€that€their€consolidation€violated€his€constitutional€right€to€a€ð ðfair€trialðð.€Ð ”)#& ÐOn€14€January€2003,€this€motion€was€similarly€dismissed.€Ð€*ô#'(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ l+à$( Ðà0  à2.2€€On€5€February€2003,€the€author€filed€a€fourth€motion,€claiming€that€the€Chief€Justice€ofÐ Œ ÐSri€Lanka€and€the€two€other€judges€who€had€considered€his€third€motion€should€not€haveÐ xì Ðdone€so,€as€they€were€the€same€judges€who€had€consolidated€and€considered€the€first€twoÐ dØ Ðmotions.€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔDuring€the€hearing€of€this€motion€on€6€February€2003,€the€author€was€summarilyÐ P Ä Ðconvicted€of€contempt€of€court€and€sentenced€to€one€yearððs€ð ðrigorous€imprisonmentððÐ < ° Ð(meaning€that€he€would€be€compelled€to€perform€hard€labour).€€He€was€imprisoned€on€theÐ ( œ Ðsame€day.€€According€to€the€author,€approximately€two€weeks€later,€a€ð ðsecondðð€contemptÐ  ˆ Ðorder€was€issued€by€the€Chief€Justice,€clarifying€that,€despite€earlier€warnings,€the€author€hadÐ  t Ðpersisted€in€disturbing€court€proceedings.€€The€operative€part€of€the€Order€stated€as€follows:Ð ì ` Ðð ðThe€petitioner€was€informed€that€he€cannot€abuse€the€process€of€Court€and€keep€filingÐ ØL  Ðapplications€without€any€basis.€€At€this€stage€he€raised€his€voice€and€insisted€on€his€right€toÐ Ä8  Ðpursue€the€application.€€He€was€then€warned€that€he€would€be€dealt€with€for€contempt€ofÐ °$  ÐCourt€if€he€persists€in€disturbing€the€proceedings€of€Court.€€In€spite€of€the€warning,€heÐ œ  Ðpersists€in€disturbing€the€proceedings€of€Court.€€In€the€circumstances,€we€find€him€guilty€ofÐ ˆü  Ðthe€offence€of€contempt€of€Court€and€sentence€him€to€one€year€rigorous€imprisonment.€€TheÐ tè  ÐRegistrar€is€directed€to€remove€the€Petitioner€from€Court€and€commit€him€to€prison€on€theÐ `Ô  Ðsentence€that€is€imposedðð.€€The€Order€was€based€on€article€105€(3)€of€the€Sri€LankanÐ LÀ ÐConstitution,€which€confers€on€the€Supreme€Court€ð ðthe€power€to€punish€for€contempt€ofÐ 8¬ Ðitself,€whether€committed€in€the€court€itself€or€elsewhere,€with€imprisonment€or€fine€or€bothÐ $˜ Ðas€the€court€may€deem€fitð8ðððÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò1óó/.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€According€to€the€author,€neither€the€Constitution€nor€anyÐ „ Ðother€statutory€provisions€regulate€the€procedure€for€informing€the€person€in€contempt€of€theÐ üp Ðcharges€against€him,€so€as€to€enable€him€to€consult€a€lawyer€or€appeal€against€the€order€ofÐ è\ Ðthe€Supreme€Court,€nor€does€it€specify€the€sentence€that€may€be€imposed€in€cases€ofÐ ÔH Ðcontempt.ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  à...Ь (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à3.1€€The€author€claims€violations€of€his€rights€under€article€14,€paragraphs€1,€2,€and€3€(a),€(b),Ð ˜  Ð(c)€and€(e),€and€5,€in€that:€€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôhe€was€denied€a€hearing€on€the€question€of€contempt,€having€beenÐ „ø Ðconvicted€summarilyÔL  ÔÔM  Ô;€conviction€and€sentence€were€handed€down€by€the€same€judges€whoÐ pä Ðhad€considered€his€previous€three€motions,òò2óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€he€had€not€been€informed€of€the€charges€againstÐ \ Ð Ðhim,€nor€given€adequate€time€for€the€preparation€of€his€defence,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò3óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€the€appeal€was€heard€byÐ H!¼ Ðthe€same€Supreme€Court€judges€who€had€previously€considered€the€matter;€there€was€noÐ 4"¨ Ðproof€that€he€had€committed€contempt€of€court€or€that€ð ða€deliberate€intentionðð€to€commitÐ  #” Ðcontempt,€required€under€domestic€law,€had€been€establishedÔL  ÔÔM  Ô;€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôthe€term€of€one€yearÐ  $€  Ðimprisonment€was€grossly€disproportionate€to€the€offence€which€he€was€found€to€haveÐ ø$l! Ðcommitted.€Ðä%X"(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô9.2€€The€Committee€notes€that€courts€notably€in€Common€Law€jurisdictions€haveÐ ¼'0!$ Ðtraditionally€enjoyed€authority€to€maintain€order€and€dignity€in€court€debates€by€the€exerciseÐ ¨("% Ðof€a€summary€power€to€impose€penalties€for€ð ðcontempt€of€court.ðð€But€here,€the€onlyÐ ”)#& Ðdisruption€indicated€by€the€State€party€is€the€repetitious€filing€of€motions€by€the€author,€forÐ €*ô#' Ðwhich€an€imposition€of€financial€penalties€would€have€evidently€been€sufficient,€and€oneÐ l+à$( Ðinstance€of€ð ðrais[ing]€his€voiceðð€in€the€presence€of€the€court€and€refusing€thereafter€toÐ Œ Ðapologize.€€The€penalty€imposed€was€a€one€year€term€of€ð ðRigorous€Imprisonmentðð.€€NoÐ xì Ðreasoned€explanation€has€been€provided€by€the€court€or€the€State€party€as€to€why€such€aÐ dØ Ðsevere€and€summary€penalty€was€warranted,€in€the€exercise€of€a€courtððs€power€to€maintainÐ P Ä Ðorderly€proceedings.€€Article€9,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant€forbids€any€ð ðarbitraryððÐ < ° Ðdeprivation€of€liberty.€€The€imposition€of€a€draconian€penalty€without€adequate€explanationÐ ( œ Ðand€without€independent€procedural€safeguards€falls€within€that€prohibition.€€The€fact€thatÐ  ˆ Ðan€act€constituting€a€violation€of€article€9,€paragraph€1€is€committed€by€the€judicial€branchÐ  t Ðof€government€cannot€prevent€the€engagement€of€the€responsibility€of€the€State€party€as€aÐ ì ` Ðwhole.€€The€Committee€concludes€that€the€authorððs€detention€was€arbitrary,€in€violation€ofÐ ØL  Ðarticle€9,€paragraph€1.€€In€the€light€of€this€finding€in€the€present€case,€the€Committee€does€notÐ Ä8  Ðneed€to€consider€the€question€whether€provisions€of€article€14€may€have€any€application€toÐ °$  Ðthe€exercise€of€the€power€of€criminal€contempt.€€Similarly,€the€Committee€does€not€need€toÐ œ  Ðconsider€whether€or€not€there€was€a€violation€of€article€19.Јü (#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€State€party€has€violated€articlesÐ `Ô  Ð9,€paragraph€1,€of€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à11.€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€underÐ $˜ Ðan€obligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€adequate€remedy,€including€compensation,€andÐ „ Ðto€make€such€legislative€changes€as€are€necessary€to€avoid€similar€violations€in€the€future.€Ð üp ÐThe€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€to€avoid€similar€violations€in€the€future.€€Ðè\(#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àòò1óó/€€ð ðArticle€105€(3),€provides€that€ð ðThe€Supreme€Court€of€the€Republic€of€Sri€Lanka€and€theÐ ˜  ÐCourt€of€Appeal€of€the€Republic€of€Sri€Lanka€shall€each€be€a€superior€court€of€record€andÐ „ø Ðshall€have€all€the€powers€of€such€court€including€the€power€to€punish€for€contempt€of€itself,Ð pä Ðwhether€committed€in€the€court€itself€or€elsewhere,€with€imprisonment€or€fine€or€both€as€theÐ \ Ð Ðcourt€may€deem€fit.€€The€power€of€the€Court€of€Appeal€shall€include€the€power€to€punish€forÐ H!¼ Ðcontempt€of€any€other€court,€tribunal€or€institution€referred€to€in€paragraph€(1)€(c)€of€thisÐ 4"¨ Ðarticle,€whether€committed€in€the€presence€of€such€court€or€elsewhere:€€Provided€that€theÐ  #” Ðpreceding€provisions€of€this€article€shall€not€prejudice€or€affect€the€rights€now€or€hereafterÐ  $€  Ðvested€by€any€law€in€such€other€court,€tribunal€or€institution€or€punishment€for€contempt€ofÐ ø$l! Ðitself.ððÐä%X"(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àòò2óó/€€The€author€refers€to€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòKarttunen€v.€FinlandóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€case€No.€387/1989€and€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòGonzalez€del€Rio€v.Ð ¼'0!$ ÐPeruóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôcase€No.€263/1987.€€He€also€distinguishes€the€current€case€from€that€of€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòRogerson€v.Ð ¨("% ÐAustraliaóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôcase€No.€802/1998€and€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòCollins€v.€JamaicaóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôcase€No.€240/1987.Д)#&(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€He€refers€to€a€press€release€of€17€February€2003,€in€which€it€is€stated€that€the€UnitedÐ l+à$( ÐNations€Special€Rapporteur€on€the€independence€of€the€judges€and€lawyers€and€the€SriÐ Œ ÐLankan€Legal€Profession,€are€of€the€view€that€contempt€of€court€cases€are€not€an€exceptionÐ xì Ðto€the€right€of€an€accused€to€present€a€defence.ÐdØ(#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£ZÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòKaratsis€v.€CyprusÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€óóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(1182/2003ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,€A/60/40€vol.€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔII€(ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô25€July€2005)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€378ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€at€parasÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.€2.1„2.6,Ð  ˆ Ð3.1€and€6.3„6.5.݃ 3£Z‡ÝŒÐ t(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐØL (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.1€€On€11€January€1994,€the€author€was€appointed€to€the€post€of€Family€Court€judge,€aÐ Ä8  Ðposition€that€he€continues€to€hold€until€today.€€In€June€2000,€he€applied€for€a€vacant€post€ofÐ °$  ÐDistrict€Court€judge€offering€better€promotion€opportunities,€a€higher€salary€scale€and€higherÐ œ  Ðpension€benefits.€€On€12€July€2000,€the€Supreme€Council€of€Judicature€(ð ðthe€SupremeÐ ˆü  ÐCouncilðð),€a€panel€responsible€for€the€appointment€and€promotion€of€judges€under€theÐ tè  ÐAdministration€of€Justice€Law€(1964),€whose€13€members€also€sit€as€Supreme€Court€ofÐ `Ô  ÐCyprus,€selected€the€author€for€a€temporary€post€as€District€Court€judge€for€a€period€of€oneÐ LÀ Ðyear€from€1€October€2000,€subject€to€the€condition€that€he€would€resign€from€his€post€ofÐ 8¬ ÐFamily€Court€judge€before€taking€up€his€function€at€the€District€Court.€€At€the€end€of€thatÐ $˜ Ðperiod,€the€Supreme€Council€would€decide€about€his€appointment€as€permanent€judge€andÐ „ Ðcivil€servant.Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€On€14€July€2000,€acting€on€instructions€from€the€Supreme€Court,€the€Chief€RegistrarÐ ÔH Ðcommunicated€with€the€author.€€After€the€author€had€accepted€the€conditions€of€appointment,Ð À4 Ðincluding€his€prior€resignation€from€the€post€of€Family€Court€judge,€the€Chief€registrar€sentÐ ¬  Ðhim€an€offer€of€appointment€to€the€post€of€District€Court€judge€(with€the€starting€salary€of€theÐ ˜  Ðscale€for€District€Court€judges)€and€advertised€the€authorððs€post€of€Family€Court€judge.€€ByÐ „ø Ðletter€of€19€July€2000,€the€author€accepted€the€written€offer€of€appointment,€which€did€notÐ pä Ðcontain€a€proviso€on€his€resignation€from€the€post€as€Family€Court€judge.Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.3€€On€26€September€2000,€the€Chief€Registrar€sent€the€author€the€following€letter€togetherÐ 4"¨ Ðwith€the€document€of€his€appointment€to€the€temporary€post€of€District€Court€judge:Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àð ðFurther€to€the€letter€offering€appointment€dated€13€July€2000€and€its€acceptance€byÐ ø$l! Ðyou€by€your€letter€dated€19€July€2000,€I€forward€to€you€the€relevant€document€of€yourÐ ä%X" Ðappointment€to€the€post€of€temporary€district€judge.ÐÐ&D #` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#à1.€€It€is€noted€that,€as€you€have€been€informed,€a€prerequisite€to€your€appointment€isÐ ¨("% Ðyour€resignation€from€the€post€of€judge€of€the€Family€Court€before€the€assumptionÐ ”)#& Ðof€your€duties.Ѐ*ô#'` (#` (# ÐÐ l+à$( Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à2.€€Provided€the€above€[is]€observed,€you€will€take€the€judicial€oath€and€will€give€theÐ Œ Ðaffirmation€to€the€Republic€for€the€post€of€temporary€district€judge€next€Monday,€2Ð xì ÐOctober€2000,€at€8.00€a.m.€at€the€Supreme€Court.ððÐdØ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€On€2€October€2000,€the€author€objected€to€the€condition€of€prior€resignation€from€hisÐ < ° Ðpost€as€Family€Court€judge,€which€he€believed€to€have€been€dropped,€as€it€had€not€beenÐ ( œ Ðincluded€in€the€written€offer€of€appointment.€€He€argued€that€such€resignation€would€resultÐ  ˆ Ðin€a€reduction€of€his€annual€salary€by€CYPð ð€10,000.00,€loss€of€benefit€of€his€more€than€sixÐ  t Ðyears€of€service€in€the€Family€Court,€including€loss€of€his€pension€benefits,€and€uncertaintyÐ ì ` Ðof€tenure€as€it€was€not€sure€whether€he€would€be€permanently€appointed€at€the€end€of€theÐ ØL  Ðone-year€period.€€He€would€only€accept€the€ð ðnew€conditionðð€of€prior€resignation€in€the€eventÐ Ä8  Ðof€permanent€appointment€to€the€post€of€District€Court€judge€on€a€scale€which€correspondsÐ °$  Ðto€the€salary€of€a€Family€Court€judge€with€more€than€six€yearsðð€service€and€if€any€acquiredÐ œ  Ðrights€were€preserved.Јü (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€On€the€same€day,€the€Chief€Registrar€informed€the€author€that€his€appointment€had€beenÐ `Ô  Ðrevoked,€as€he€did€not€accept€the€conditions€of€such€appointment.€€On€4€December€2000,€theÐ LÀ Ðauthor€filed€a€complaint€with€the€Supreme€Court,€challenging€the€Supreme€CouncilððsÐ 8¬ Ðnotification€of€26€September€2000€on€the€basis€that€it€purported€unilaterally€to€change€theÐ $˜ Ðterms€of€his€employment€contract.€€The€author€also€challenged€the€Councilððs€decision€of€2Ð „ ÐOctober€2000€revoking€his€appointment.€€The€case€was€first€referred€to€a€single€judge€of€theÐ üp ÐCourt€but€later€assigned€to€the€full€Supreme€Court€by€the€Chief€Registrar.€€On€23€JanuaryÐ è\ Ð2001,€the€author,€by€reference€to€article€153€(9)€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò2óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€of€the€Constitution€of€Cyprus,€applied€forÐ ÔH Ðhis€case€to€be€heard€by€a€different€bench,€arguing€that€the€13€judges€of€the€Supreme€CourtÐ À4 Ðwere€the€very€authors€of€the€impugned€decisions,€which€they€had€taken€in€their€capacity€asÐ ¬  Ðmembers€of€the€Supreme€Council.И (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€By€judgement€of€15€March€2001,€the€Supreme€Court€dismissed€the€case€for€want€ofÐ pä Ðjurisdiction€without€addressing€the€issue€of€impartiality€òò3óó/.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€It€held€that€the€appointment€ofÐ \ Ð Ðjudges€is€an€exercise€of€the€judicial€rather€than€the€executive€or€administrative€power,€thusÐ H!¼ Ðfalling€within€the€exclusive€competence€of€the€Supreme€Council€and€outside€the€SupremeÐ 4"¨ ÐCourtððs€jurisdiction€under€article€146€of€the€Constitution€of€Cyprus€òò4óó/.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ #”(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô...Ð $€ (#(# Ðà0  à3.1€€The€author€claims€that€the€fact€that€the€Supreme€Courtððs€decision€not€to€hear€his€caseÐ ø$l! Ðwas€taken€by€the€same€judges€who,€in€their€capacity€as€members€of€the€Supreme€Council,€hadÐ ä%X" Ðrevoked€his€temporary€appointment€as€District€Court€judge€deprived€him€of€his€rights€to€aÐ Ð&D # Ðfair€and€public€hearing€before€an€impartial€tribunal€and€to€an€effective€remedy,€in€violationÐ ¼'0!$ Ðof€article€14,€paragraph€1,€read€alone€and€in€conjunction€with€article€2,€paragraph€3,€of€theÐ ¨("% ÐCovenant.Д)#&(#(# Ðà0  à...Ѐ*ô#'(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à6.3€€As€to€the€authorððs€claim€under€article€14,€paragraph€1,€the€Committee€observes€that,€inÐ l+à$( Ðcontrast€to€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòCasanovas€v.€FranceóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€and€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòChira€Vargas€v.€PeruóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€the€present€case€concerns€theÐ Œ Ðrevocation€of€an€appointment€to€another€post€within€the€judiciary€rather€than€the€dismissalÐ xì Ðfrom€public€service.€€The€Committee€recalls€that€the€concept€of€ð ðsuit€at€lawðð€under€articleÐ dØ Ð14,€paragraph€1,€is€based€on€the€nature€of€the€rights€in€question€rather€than€the€status€of€oneÐ P Ä Ðof€the€parties€òò12óó/.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔIt€also€recalls€that€that€the€procedure€of€appointing€judges,€albeit€subjectÐ < ° Ðto€the€right€in€article€25€(c)€to€access€to€public€service€on€general€terms€of€equality,€as€wellÐ ( œ Ðas€the€right€in€article2,€paragraph€3,€to€an€effective€remedy,€does€not€as€such€come€within€theÐ  ˆ Ðpurview€of€a€determination€of€rights€and€obligations€in€a€suit€at€law€within€the€meaning€ofÐ  t Ðarticle€14,€paragraph€1.Ðì `(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à6.4€€The€issue€before€the€Committee€is€therefore€whether€the€proceedings€initiated€by€theÐ Ä8  Ðauthor€to€challenge€the€revocation€of€his€appointment€to€the€post€of€District€Court€judgeÐ °$  Ðconstituted€a€determination€of€his€rights€and€obligations€in€a€suit€at€law.€€The€CommitteeÐ œ  Ðrecalls€that€the€author€chose€not€to€resign€from€his€post€as€Family€Court€judge€to€prevent€aÐ ˆü  Ðsubstantial€reduction€in€his€annual€salary,€exclusion€of€his€years€of€service€at€the€FamilyÐ tè  ÐCourt€from€the€calculation€of€his€pension€benefits,€as€well€as€uncertainty€of€tenure.€€It€notesÐ `Ô  Ðthat€the€author€entirely€preserved€these€acquired€rights€and€considers€that€his€claimÐ LÀ Ðconcerning€the€loss€of€career€prospects€and€possible€increases€in€salary€and€pension€benefitsÐ 8¬ Ðcaused€by€the€revocation€of€his€appointment€is€merely€hypothetical.€€Similarly,€he€has€failedÐ $˜ Ðto€substantiate€any€violation€of€his€right€under€article€25€(c)€to€equal€access€to€publicÐ „ Ðservice...The€author€has€therefore€not€substantiated€that€the€proceedings€initiated€by€himÐ üp Ðconstituted€a€determination€of€his€rights€and€obligations€in€a€suit€at€law€within€the€meaningÐ è\ Ðof€article€14,€paragraph€1.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.5€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔWhile€the€revocation€of€appointments€within€the€judiciary€must€not€necessarily€beÐ ¬  Ðdetermined€by€a€court€or€tribunal,€the€Committee€recalls€that€whenever€a€judicial€body€isÐ ˜  Ðentrusted€under€national€law€with€the€task€of€deciding€on€such€matters,€it€must€respect€theÐ „ø Ðguarantee€of€equality€of€all€persons€before€the€courts€and€tribunals€as€enshrined€in€article€14,Ð pä Ðparagraph€1,€and€the€principles€of€impartiality,€fairness€and€equality€of€arms€implicit€in€thisÐ \ Ð Ðguarantee€òò14óó/.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€However,€the€author€has€not€rebutted€the€State€partyððs€argument€that€theÐ H!¼ ÐSupreme€Courtððs€judgement€in€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòKourris€v.€The€Supreme€Council€of€JudicatureóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€was€a€bindingÐ 4"¨ Ðprecedent€to€the€effect€that€the€Supreme€Councilððs€exercise€of€powers€is€not€subject€toÐ  #” Ðjudicial€review€and€falls€outside€the€Supreme€Courtððs€jurisdiction€under€article€146€of€theÐ  $€  ÐConstitution.€€Accordingly,€the€Committee€considers€that€the€Supreme€Court€did€not€violateÐ ø$l! Ðthe€guarantees€of€article€14,€paragraph€1,€when€it€declared€itself€incompetent€to€deal€with€theÐ ä%X" Ðauthorððs€case,€given€that€Cypriot€law€explicitly€excluded€the€Courtððs€jurisdiction€toÐ Ð&D # Ðadjudicate€the€matter.€€The€initiation€of€proceedings€before€a€judicial€body€that€manifestlyÐ ¼'0!$ Ðlacks€jurisdiction€to€deal€with€a€matter€cannot€trigger€the€guarantees€of€article€14,€paragraphÐ ¨("% Ð1.€€The€Committee€concludes€that€this€part€of€the€communication€is€therefore€inadmissibleÐ ”)#& ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòòratione€materiaeóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€under€article€3€of€the€Optional€Protocol.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔЀ*ô#'(#(# Ðà0  à_________________Ðl+à$((#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐŒ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò2óó/€€Article€153€(9)€of€the€Constitution€of€Cyprus€reads:€€ð ðIn€the€case€of€temporary€absenceÐ dØ Ðor€incapacity€of€the€President€of€the€High€Court€or€of€one€of€the€Greek€judges€or€of€theÐ P Ä ÐTurkish€judge€thereof,€the€President€of€the€Supreme€Constitutional€Court€or€the€Greek€judgeÐ < ° Ðof€the€Turkish€judge€thereof,€respectively,€shall€act€in€his€place€during€such€temporaryÐ ( œ Ðabsence€of€incapacity.€€Provided€that€it€is€impracticable€or€inconvenient€for€the€Greek€or€theÐ  ˆ ÐTurkish€judge€of€the€Supreme€Constitutional€Court€to€act,€the€senior€in€office€Greek€orÐ  t ÐTurkish€judge€in€the€judicial€service€of€the€Republic€shall€so€act€respectively.ððÐì `(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò3óó/€€The€Court€recalled€that€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôð ð[i]t€is€up€to€the€court,€which€is€legally€competent€under€the€law,Ð Ä8  Ðto€decide€whether€the€subject€matter€of€an€application€comes€under€its€jurisdiction.€€ThisÐ °$  Ðmatter€takes€precedence€over€any€other.€Once€it€is€considered€that€the€court€has€jurisdictionÐ œ  Ðto€deal€with€the€subject€matter€of€an€application,€then€the€question€of€excluding€judges€whoÐ ˆü  Ðwill€exercise€the€courtððs€jurisdiction€is€examined.ðð€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔSupreme€Court€of€Cyprus,€case€No.Ð tè  Ð1547/2000,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòSavvas€Karatsis€v.€The€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€Judgement€of€15€March€2001.Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  àòò4óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔThe€Supreme€Court€referred€to€its€previous€judgement€in€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòAntonios€Kourris€v.€TheÐ 8¬ ÐSupreme€Council€of€JudicatureóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€(1972)€3€CLR,€390.Ð$˜(#(# Ðà0  à...Є(#(# Ðà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò12óó/€€Communication€No.€112/1981,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòY.L.€v.€CanadaóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€decision€on€admissibility€adopted€on€8Ð üp ÐApril€1986,€at€para.€9.2;€communication€No.€441/1990,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòCasanovas€v.€FranceóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€at€para.€5.2.Ðè\(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  àòò14óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔCf.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€communication€No.€1015/2001,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòPerterer€v.€AustriaóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€Views€adopted€on€20€July€2004,Ð À4 Ðat€para.€9.2.Ь (#(# Ðà0  à_________________И (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£&VÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòCalvet€v.€Spain€óóÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(1333/2004)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,€A/60/40€vol.€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔII€(25€July€2005ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€459€at€paras.€2.1,€2.2€andÐ \ Ð Ð6.4.݃ 3£&VSVÝŒÐH!¼(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô...Ð #”(#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€The€author€and€his€wife€concluded€an€agreement€dissolving€their€marriage,€and€this€wasÐ  $€  Ðapproved€by€the€court€in€February€1990.€€Following€submission€of€an€application€for€divorceÐ ø$l! Ðby€the€authorððs€ex-wife,€court€No.€4€in€Vilanova€i€la€Geltr,€in€a€ruling€dated€7€March€1992,Ð ä%X" Ðawarded€the€mother€care€and€custody€of€the€coupleððs€minor€daughter€and€ordered€the€authorÐ Ð&D # Ðto€pay€his€ex-wife€the€sum€of€25,000€pesetas€(150.28€euros)€per€month€in€maintenance.€€OnÐ ¼'0!$ Ð27€October€1995,€the€authorððs€ex-wife€submitted€to€examining€magistrate€No.€6€in€VilanovaÐ ¨("% Ði€la€Geltr€a€claim€for€recovery€of€three€monthly€payments€outstanding€from€1993,€two€fromÐ ”)#& Ð1994€and€all€payments€from€1995.Ѐ*ô#'(#(# ÐÐ l+à$( Ðà0  à2.2€€On€14€March€2001,€criminal€court€No.€12€in€Barcelona€found€the€author€guilty€of€theÐ Œ Ðoffence€of€abandonment€of€the€family€under€article€227€of€the€Spanish€Criminal€Code€andÐ xì Ðsentenced€him€to€eight€weekendsðð€imprisonment€and€reimbursement€of€the€sums€owed€to€hisÐ dØ Ðex-wife.ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à...Ð< °(#(# Ðà0  à6.4€€With€regard€to€the€alleged€violation€of€article€11€of€the€Covenant€by€the€imposition€ofÐ ( œ Ða€custodial€sentence€for€failure€to€pay€maintenance,€the€Committee€notes€that€the€caseÐ  ˆ Ðconcerns€a€failure€to€meet€not€a€contractual€obligation€but€a€legal€obligation,€as€provided€inÐ  t Ðarticle€227€of€the€Spanish€Criminal€Code.€€The€obligation€to€pay€maintenance€is€one€derivingÐ ì ` Ðfrom€Spanish€law€and€not€from€the€separation€or€divorce€agreement€signed€by€the€author€andÐ ØL  Ðhis€ex-wife.€€Consequently,€the€Committee€finds€the€communication€incompatible€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòrationeÐ Ä8  ÐmateriaeóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€with€article€11€of€the€Covenant€and€thus€inadmissible€under€article€3€of€theÐ °$  ÐOptional€Protocol.М (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£Ý`ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòMarik€v.€Czech€RepublicÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôóó(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô945/2000ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô),€ICCPR,€A/60/40€volÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€IÔL  ÔÔM  ÔIÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô26€July€2005ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô)€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô54€at€paras.€2.1„Ð `Ô  Ð2.4,€6.2„6.5,€7€and€8.€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô݃ 3£Ý` aÝŒÐLÀ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ$˜(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.1€€In€1969,€the€author€emigrated€from€Czechoslovakia€to€the€United€States€with€his€family.€Ð „ ÐHe€later€became€a€United€States€citizen.€€In€1972,€he€was€convicted€of€fleeing€the€country€byÐ üp Ðthe€Plzen€District€Court;€his€property€was€confiscated,€òòinter€aliaóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôhis€two€houses€in€LetkovÐ è\ Ðand€in€Plzen.ÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€On€23€April€1990,€the€Czech€and€Slovak€Republic€passed€Act€No.€119/1990€Coll.€onÐ ¬  ÐJudicial€Rehabilitation,€which€rendered€null€and€void€all€sentences€handed€down€byÐ ˜  ÐCommunist€courts€for€political€reasons.€€Persons€whose€property€had€been€confiscated€were,Ð „ø Ðunder€section€23.2€of€the€Act,€eligible€to€recover€their€property,€subject€to€conditions€to€beÐ pä Ðspelled€out€in€a€separate€restitution€law.€€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€1€February€1991,€Act€87/1991€on€Extra-Judicial€Rehabilitation€was€adopted.€€UnderÐ 4"¨ Ðit,€a€person€claiming€restitution€of€property€had€to€(a)€be€a€Czech-Slovak€citizen€and€(b)€beÐ  #” Ða€permanent€resident€in€the€Czech€Republic€to€claim€entitlement€to€regain€his€or€her€property.€Ð  $€  ÐIn€addition,€according€to€the€Act,€(c)€the€claimant€has€a€burden€for€proving€the€unlawfulnessÐ ø$l! Ðof€the€acquisition€by€the€current€owner€of€the€property€in€question.€€The€first€twoÐ ä%X" Ðrequirements€had€to€be€fulfilled€during€the€time€period€in€which€restitution€claims€could€beÐ Ð&D # Ðfiled,€between€1€April€and€1€October€1991.€€A€judgement€of€the€Czech€Constitutional€CourtÐ ¼'0!$ Ðof€12€July€1994€(No.€164/1994),€however,€annulled€the€condition€of€permanent€residence€andÐ ¨("% Ðestablished€a€new€time€frame€for€the€submission€of€restitution€claims€by€persons€who€hadÐ ”)#& Ðthereby€become€entitled€persons,€running€from€1€November€1994€to€1€May€1995.€€AccordingÐ €*ô#' Ðto€the€author,€this€judgement€established€a€right€to€restitution€which€could€be€exercised€byÐ l+à$( Ðthose€who€did€not€have€permanent€residence€in€the€country€and€met€the€citizenship€conditionÐ Œ Ðin€the€new€time€period.€€However,€the€Supreme€Court€and€the€Constitutional€Court€supportedÐ xì Ðan€interpretation€to€the€effect€that€the€newly€entitled€persons€were€persons€who,€during€theÐ dØ Ðoriginal€period€of€time€(1€April€to€1€October€1991),€had€met€all€the€other€conditions,Ð P Ä Ðincluding€the€citizenship€condition,€with€the€exception€of€permanent€residence.€€AlthoughÐ < ° Ðthe€author€claims€that€he€never€lost€Czech€citizenship,€he€formally€became€Czech€citizenÐ ( œ Ðagain€in€May€1993.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€In€1994,€the€author€filed€two€separate€restitution€claims€with€regard€to€his€houses€inÐ ì ` ÐLetkov€and€Plzen.€€In€the€first€case€(the€Letkov€property),€the€Plzen-mesto€District€CourtÐ ØL  Ðrefused€the€restitution€claim€on€13€November€1995,€because€the€author€did€not€fulfil€theÐ Ä8  Ðcitizenship€requirement€during€the€initial€period€open€for€restitution€claims,€i.e.€1€OctoberÐ °$  Ð1991€at€the€latest.€€It€also€found€that€the€third€requirement€for€restitution,€concerning€theÐ œ  Ðunlawfulness€of€the€current€owners€acquisition,€was€not€met€in€the€case.€€This€decision€wasÐ ˆü  Ðconfirmed€by€the€Plzen€Regional€Court€on€25€March€1996.€€The€authorððs€appeal€to€theÐ tè  ÐSupreme€Court€was€dismissed€on€20€August€1997€on€the€ground€that€he€did€not€fulfil€theÐ `Ô  Ðprecondition€of€citizenship€in€1991.€€The€judgement€confirmed€that€the€new€established€timeÐ LÀ Ðframe€did€not€change€this€original€requirement€but€gave€non-residents€additional€time€toÐ 8¬ Ðlodge€their€restitution€claims.€€It€did€not€consider€the€other€requirements.€€A€further€appealÐ $˜ Ðto€the€Constitutional€Court€was€rejected€on€12€May€1998.Є(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðüp(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à6.2€€The€issue€before€the€Committee€is€whether€the€application€to€the€author€of€Act€87/1991Ð è\ Ðamounted€to€a€violation€of€his€right€to€equality€before€the€law€and€to€equal€protection€of€theÐ ÔH Ðlaw,€contrary€to€article€26€of€the€Covenant.ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.3€€The€Committee€reiterates€its€jurisprudence€that€not€all€differentiations€in€treatment€canÐ ˜  Ðbe€deemed€to€be€discriminatory€under€article€26.€€A€differentiation€which€is€compatible€withÐ „ø Ðthe€provisions€of€the€Covenant€and€is€based€on€objective€and€reasonable€grounds€does€notÐ pä Ðamount€to€prohibited€discrimination€within€the€meaning€of€article€26€òò6óó/.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€Whereas€theÐ \ Ð Ðcitizenship€criterion€is€objective,€the€Committee€must€determine€whether€its€application€toÐ H!¼ Ðthe€author€was€reasonable€in€the€circumstances€of€the€case.Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.4€€The€Committee€recalls€its€Views€in€the€cases€of€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòSimunekóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòAdamóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòBlazek€óóÔL  ÔÔM  ÔandÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òòDes€FoursÐ  $€  ÐWalderodeÔL  ÔóóÔM  Ô,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò7óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€where€it€held€that€article€26€of€the€Covenant€had€been€violatedÔL  ÔÔM  Ô:€€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôð ðthe€authorsÐ ø$l! Ðin€that€case€and€many€others€in€analogous€situations€had€left€Czechoslovakia€because€of€theirÐ ä%X" Ðpolitical€opinions€and€had€sought€refuge€from€political€persecution€in€other€countries,€whereÐ Ð&D # Ðthey€eventually€established€permanent€residence€and€obtained€a€new€citizenship.€€Taking€intoÐ ¼'0!$ Ðaccount€that€the€State€party€itself€is€responsible€for€the€authorððs...departure,€it€would€beÐ ¨("% Ðincompatible€with€the€Covenant€to€require€the€authorð8ðto€obtain€Czech€citizenship€as€aÐ ”)#& Ðprerequisite€for€the€restitution€of€[his]€property€or,€alternatively,€for€the€payment€ofÐ €*ô#' Ðappropriate€compensationðð€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò8óó/.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€The€Committee€further€recalls€its€jurisprudenceÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òò9óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€that€theÐ l+à$( Ðcitizenship€requirement€in€these€circumstances€is€unreasonable.€€In€addition,€the€State€partyððsÐ Œ Ðargument€that€the€citizenship€condition€was€included€in€the€law€to€incite€owners€to€take€goodÐ xì Ðcare€of€the€property€after€the€privatization€process€has€not€been€substantiated.ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.5€€The€Committee€considers€that€the€precedent€established€in€the€above€cases€also€appliesÐ < ° Ðto€the€author€of€the€present€communication.€€The€Committee€notes€that€in€the€case€of€theÐ ( œ ÐLetkov€property,€the€State€party€argues€that€the€author€did€not€fulfil€the€third€requirement,€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôi.e.Ð  ˆ ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôproving€that€the€property€was€acquired€unlawfully€by€the€present€owners.€€However,€theÐ  t ÐCommittee€further€notes€that€although€the€lower€courts€took€this€element€into€consideration,Ð ì ` Ðthe€Supreme€Court€based€its€decision€only€on€the€non-fulfilment€of€the€citizenshipÐ ØL  Ðprecondition.€€In€the€light€of€these€considerations,€the€Committee€concludes€that€theÐ Ä8  Ðapplication€to€the€author€of€Act€87/1991,€which€lays€down€a€citizenship€requirement€for€theÐ °$  Ðrestitution€of€confiscated€property,€violated€his€rights€under€article€26€of€the€Covenant.М (#(# ÐÌà0  à7.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€disclose€a€violationÐ tè  Ðof€article€26€of€the€International€Covenant.Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à8.€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€under€anÐ 8¬ Ðobligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€effective€remedy,€which€may€be€compensation,€andÐ $˜ Ðin€the€case€of€the€Plzen€property,€restitution,€or,€in€the€alternative€compensation.€€TheÐ „ ÐCommittee€reiterates€that€the€State€party€should€review€its€legislation€to€ensure€that€allÐ üp Ðpersons€enjoy€both€equality€before€the€law€and€equal€protection€of€the€law.Ðè\(#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  à...Ь (#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  àòò6óó/€€See€communication€No.€182/1984,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòZwaan-de€Vries€v.€The€NetherlandsóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔViews€adoptedÐ ˜  Ðon€9€April€1987,€para.€13.Єø(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò7óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔSee€footnote€8.Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò8óó/€€See€communication€No.€586/1994,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòAdam€v.€The€Czech€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€Views€adopted€on€23Ð 4"¨ ÐJuly€1996,€para.€12.6€and€communication€No.€857/1999,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòBlazek€v.€The€Czech€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,Ð  #” ÐViews€adopted€on€12€July€2001,€para.€5.8.Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò9óó/€€See€communication€No.€516/1992,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòSimunek€v.€The€Czech€RepublicóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€Views€adopted€on€19Ð ä%X" ÐJuly€1995,€para.€11.6.ÐÐ&D #(#(# Ðà0  à_________________м'0!$(#(# ÐÌÌÌÐ l+à$( ЇÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£«‹ÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòÔL  ÔÔM  ÔFijalkovska€v.€PolandÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€óóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô1061/2002)ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€ICCPR,€A/60/40€vol.€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔII€(ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô26€July€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô2005)€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô103ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€at€parasÔL  ÔÔM  Ô.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô2.1„Ð Œ Ð2.6,€4.4,€4.5,€8.2„8.5,€9€and€10.݃ 3£«‹Ø‹ÝŒÐxì(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à2.1€€The€author€has€been€suffering€from€schizophrenic€paranoia€since€1986.€€On€12€FebruaryÐ < ° Ð1998,€she€was€committed€to€the€Provincial€Psychiatric€Therapeutic€Centre€(hereinafter€theÐ ( œ Ðð ðpsychiatric€institutionðð)€in€Torun.€€She€was€committed€under€article€29€of€the€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔLaw€onÐ  ˆ ÐPsychiatric€Health€ProtectionÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€by€order€of€the€Torun€District€Court€of€5€February€1998.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ t(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÌà0  à2.2€€On€29€April€1998,€the€author€was€permitted€to€leave€the€psychiatric€institution,€butÐ ØL  Ðcontinued€her€treatment€as€an€outpatient;€treatment€was€completed€on€22€July€1998.ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€On€1€June€1998,€the€author€went€to€the€court€registry€to€examine€her€case€file€andÐ œ  Ðrequested€copies€of€the€transcript€of€the€court€hearing€and€decision€of€5€February€1998.€€SheÐ ˆü  Ðreceived€a€copy€of€the€decision€on€18€June€1998€at€the€psychiatric€institution.€€On€24€JuneÐ tè  Ð1998,€she€lodged€an€appeal€against€the€Torun€District€Courtððs€decision€of€5€February€1998.€Ð `Ô  ÐOn€26€June€1998,€the€Regional€Court€dismissed€her€appeal€as€she€had€missed€the€statutoryÐ LÀ Ðdeadline.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ôòò1óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐ8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€On€1€July€1998,€the€author€applied€to€the€Regional€Court€to€establish€a€new€time€limitÐ „ Ðfor€lodging€her€appeal.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔOn€16€September€1998,€the€Regional€Court€refused€her€request.€€OnÐ üp Ð19€October€1998,€the€Torun€Provincial€Court€similarly€rejected€the€authorððs€appeal€againstÐ è\ Ðthe€decision€of€the€Regional€Court.€€The€decision€contained€instructions€on€how€to€appealÐ ÔH Ðto€the€Supreme€Court.ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€On€24€November€1998€and€following€a€decision€of€the€Provincial€Court€of€20€OctoberÐ ˜  Ð1998,€the€author€was€assigned€a€legal€aid€lawyer€to€prepare€her€appeal€to€the€Supreme€Court.€Ð „ø ÐOn€21€April€1999,€the€Supreme€Court€rejected€the€authorððs€appeal.Ðpä(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€On€1€September€1999,€the€Supreme€Court€rejected,€for€lack€of€competence,€the€authorððsÐ H!¼ Ðrequest€to€review€the€constitutionality€of€the€provisions€of€the€Law€on€Psychiatric€HealthÐ 4"¨ ÐProtection.Ð #”(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð $€ (#(# Ðà0  à4.4€€On€17€December€1997,€and€in€order€to€corroborate€the€evidence€submitted€by€theÐ ø$l! Ðauthorððs€sister,€the€Torun€District€Court€ordered€that€the€author€be€independently€examined.€Ð ä%X" ÐOn€22€December€1997,€the€court-appointed€medical€expert€informed€the€court€that€the€authorÐ Ð&D # Ðhad€not€appeared€when€summoned€for€the€examination.€€On€the€same€day,€the€court€orderedÐ ¼'0!$ Ðthe€author€to€appear€for€an€examination€on€30€December€1997.€€The€author€again€ignored€theÐ ¨("% Ðsummons.€€The€court€scheduled€another€psychiatric€examination€for€12€January€1998;€on€thatÐ ”)#& Ðday,€the€author€was€escorted€to€the€examination€by€the€police.Ѐ*ô#'(#(# ÐÔ_ÔÐ l+à$( Ðà0  à4.5€€The€expert€who€conducted€the€examination€concluded€that€the€author€needed€treatmentÐ Œ Ðin€a€psychiatric€institution.€€On€5€February€1998€and€on€the€basis€of€this€evidence,€the€Ô_ÔTorunÔ_ÔÐ xì ÐDistrict€Court€ordered€the€authorððs€committal.€€The€author€failed€to€appear€in€court.€€Thus,Ð dØ Ðthe€State€party€argued€that€there€were€serious€grounds€for€subjecting€the€author€to€compulsoryÐ P Ä Ðtreatment€and€the€decision€was€taken€in€accordance€with€the€relevant€provisions€of€PolishÐ < ° Ðlaw.€€It€concluded€that€the€author€has€not€submitted€any€reliable€arguments€in€support€of€herÐ ( œ Ðsubmission€concerning€allegedly€cruel,€inhuman€or€degrading€treatment.Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à...Ð t(#(# Ðà0  à8.2€€As€to€whether€the€State€party€violated€article€9€of€the€Covenant€by€committing€the€authorÐ ì ` Ðto€a€psychiatric€institution,€the€Committee€notes€its€prior€jurisprudence€that€treatment€in€aÐ ØL  Ðpsychiatric€institution€against€the€will€of€the€patient€constitutes€a€form€of€deprivation€ofÐ Ä8  Ðliberty€that€falls€under€the€terms€of€article€9€of€the€Covenant.ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€òò5óó/ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô€€As€to€whether€the€committalÐ °$  Ðwas€lawful,€the€Committee€notes€that€it€was€carried€out€in€accordance€with€the€relevantÐ œ  Ðarticles€of€the€Mental€Health€Protection€Act€and€was,€thus,€lawfully€carried€out.Јü (#(# ÐÌà0  à8.3€€Concerning€the€possible€arbitrary€nature€of€the€authorððs€committal,€the€Committee€findsÐ `Ô  Ðit€difficult€to€reconcile€the€State€partyððs€view€that€although€the€author€was€recognized,€inÐ LÀ Ðaccordance€with€the€Act,€to€suffer€from€deteriorating€mental€health€and€inability€to€provideÐ 8¬ Ðfor€her€basic€needs,€she€was€at€the€same€time€considered€to€be€legally€capable€of€acting€onÐ $˜ Ðher€own€behalf.€€As€to€the€State€partyððs€argument€that€ð ðmental€illness€cannot€be€equated€toÐ „ Ða€lack€of€legal€capacityðð,€the€Committee€considers€that€confinement€of€an€individual€to€aÐ üp Ðpsychiatric€institution€amounts€to€an€acknowledgement€of€that€individualððs€diminishedÐ è\ Ðcapacity,€legal€and€otherwise.€€The€Committee€considers€that€the€State€party€has€a€particularÐ ÔH Ðobligation€to€protect€vulnerable€persons€within€its€jurisdiction,€including€the€mentallyÐ À4 Ðimpaired.€€It€considers€that€as€the€author€suffered€from€diminished€capacity€that€might€haveÐ ¬  Ðaffected€her€ability€to€take€part€effectively€in€the€proceedings€herself,€the€court€should€haveÐ ˜  Ðbeen€in€a€position€to€ensure€that€she€was€assisted€or€represented€in€a€way€sufficient€toÐ „ø Ðsafeguard€her€rights€throughout€the€proceedings.€€The€Committee€considers€that€the€authorððsÐ pä Ðsister€was€not€in€a€position€to€provide€such€assistance€or€representation,€as€she€had€herselfÐ \ Ð Ðrequested€the€committal€order€in€the€first€place.€€The€Committee€acknowledges€thatÐ H!¼ Ðcircumstances€may€arise€in€which€an€individualððs€mental€health€is€so€impaired€that€so€as€toÐ 4"¨ Ðavoid€harm€to€the€individual€or€others,€the€issuance€of€a€committal€order,€without€assistanceÐ  #” Ðor€representation€sufficient€to€safeguard€her€rights,€may€be€unavoidable.€€In€the€present€case,Ð  $€  Ðno€such€special€circumstances€have€been€advanced.€€For€these€reasons,€the€Committee€findsÐ ø$l! Ðthat€the€authorððs€committal€was€arbitrary€under€article€9,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant.Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à8.4€€The€Committee€further€notes€that€although€a€committal€order€may€be€appealed€to€a€court,Ð ¼'0!$ Ðthereby€allowing€the€individual€to€challenge€the€order,€in€this€case,€the€author,€who€had€notÐ ¨("% Ðeven€been€served€with€a€copy€of€the€order,€nor€been€assisted€or€represented€by€anyone€duringÐ ”)#& Ðthe€hearing€who€could€have€informed€her€of€such€a€possibility,€had€to€wait€until€after€herÐ €*ô#' Ðrelease€before€becoming€aware€of€the€possibility€of,€and€actually€pursuing,€such€an€appeal.€Ð l+à$( ÐHer€appeal€was€ultimately€dismissed€as€having€been€filed€outside€the€statutory€deadline.€€InÐ Œ Ðthe€Committeeððs€view,€the€authorððs€right€to€challenge€her€detention€was€rendered€ineffectiveÐ xì Ðby€the€State€partyððs€failure€to€serve€the€committal€order€on€her€prior€to€the€deadline€to€lodgeÐ dØ Ðan€appeal.€€Therefore,€in€the€circumstances€of€the€case,€the€Committee,€finds€a€violation€ofÐ P Ä Ðarticle€9,€paragraph€4,€of€the€Covenant.Ð< °(#(# ÐÌà0  à8.5€€In€light€of€a€finding€of€a€violation€of€article€9,€the€Committee€need€not€consider€whetherÐ  ˆ Ðthere€was€also€a€violation€of€article€14€of€the€Covenant.Ð t(#(# ÐÌÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à9.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€State€party€has€violated€article€9,Ð ØL  Ðparagraphs€1€and€4,€of€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€In€accordance€with€article€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€is€underÐ œ  Ðan€obligation€to€provide€the€author€with€an€adequate€remedy,€including€compensation,€andÐ ˆü  Ðto€make€such€legislative€changes€as€are€necessary€to€avoid€similar€violations€in€the€future.€Ð tè  ÐThe€State€party€is€under€an€obligation€to€avoid€similar€violations€in€the€future.Ð`Ô (#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐLÀ(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐ8¬(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÌà0  àòò1óó/€€According€to€the€decision,€dated€26€June€1998,€of€the€Regional€Court,€the€statutoryÐ „ Ðdeadline€was€ÔL  ÔÔM  Ô26€February€1998.ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÐüp(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðè\(#(# Ðà0  àòò5óó/€€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔCommunication€No.€754/1997,€ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòA.€v.€New€ZealandóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô,€Views€adopted€on€15€July€1999.ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  à_________________ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌÌòòò òÔ_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ôó óóóÐ „ø ÐÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚ 3£áµÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝòòA.€T.€v.€Hungary€óó(2/2003),€Ô_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ô,€A/60/38€part€I€(26€January€2005)€80€at€paras.€2.1,€2.2,Ð \ Ð Ð2.4,€2.5,€3.1,€9.2„9.4€and€9.6.݃ 3£áµ¶ÝŒÐH!¼(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ð #”(#(# Ðà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô2.1€€The€author€states€that€for€the€past€four€years€she€has€been€subjected€to€regular€severeÐ  $€  Ðdomestic€violence€and€serious€threats€by€her€common€law€husband,€L.€F.,€father€of€her€twoÐ ø$l! Ðchildren,€one€of€whom€is€severely€brain„damaged...Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€In€March€1999,€L.€F.€moved€out€of€the€family€apartment.€His€subsequent€visits€allegedlyÐ ¼'0!$ Ðtypically€included€battering€and/or€loud€shouting,€aggravated€by€his€being€in€a€drunken€state.Ð ¨("% ÐIn€March€2000,€L.€F.€reportedly€moved€in€with€a€new€female€partner€and€left€the€familyÐ ”)#& Ðhome,€taking€most€of€the€furniture€and€household€items€with€him.€The€author€claims€that€heÐ €*ô#' Ðdid€not€pay€child€support€for€three€years,€which€forced€her€to€claim€the€support€by€going€toÐ l+à$( Ðthe€court€and€to€the€police,€and€that€he€has€used€this€form€of€financial€abuse€as€a€violent€tacticÐ Œ Ðin€addition€to€continuing€to€threaten€her€physically.€Hoping€to€protect€herself€and€theÐ xì Ðchildren,€the€author€states€that€she€changed€the€lock€on€the€door€of€the€familyððs€apartment€onÐ dØ Ð11€March€2000.€On€14€and€26€March€2000,€L.€F.€filled€the€lock€with€glue€and€on€28€MarchÐ P Ä Ð2000,€he€kicked€in€a€part€of€the€door€when€the€author€refused€to€allow€him€to€enter€theÐ < ° Ðapartment.€The€author€further€states€that,€on€27€July€2001,€L.€F.€broke€into€the€apartmentÐ ( œ Ðusing€violence.€Ð ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð t(#(# Ðà0  à2.4€€The€author€states€that€there€have€been€civil€proceedings€regarding€L.€F.ððs€access€to€theÐ ì ` Ðfamilyððs€residence,€a€2€and€a€half€room€apartment€(of€54€by€56€square€metres)€jointly€ownedÐ ØL  Ðby€L.€F.€and€the€author.€Decisions€by€the€court€of€the€first€instance,€the€Pest€Central€DistrictÐ Ä8  ÐCourt€(ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòÔ_ÔPestiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔKzpontiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔKerletiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBrð;ðsgÔ_ÔóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô),€were€rendered€on€9€March€2001€and€13€SeptemberÐ °$  Ð2002€(supplementary€decision).€On€4€September€2003,€the€Budapest€Regional€CourtÐ œ  Ð(ÔL  ÔÔM  ÔòòÔ_ÔFð£ðrvð[ðrosiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBrð;ðsgÔ_ÔóóÔL  ÔÔM  Ô)€issued€a€final€decision€authorizing€L.€F.€to€return€and€use€the€apartment.Ð ˆü  ÐThe€judges€reportedly€based€their€decision€on€the€following€grounds:€(a)€lack€ofÐ tè  Ðsubstantiation€of€the€claim€that€L.€F.€regularly€battered€the€author;€and€(b)€that€L.€F.ððs€rightÐ `Ô  Ðto€the€property,€including€possession,€could€not€be€restricted.€Since€that€date,€and€on€the€basisÐ LÀ Ðof€the€earlier€attacks€and€verbal€threats€by€her€former€partner,€the€author€claims€that€herÐ 8¬ Ðphysical€integrity,€physical€and€mental€health€and€life€have€been€at€serious€risk€and€that€sheÐ $˜ Ðlives€in€constant€fear.€The€author€reportedly€submitted€to€the€Supreme€Court€a€petition€forÐ „ Ðreview€of€the€4€September€2003€decision,€which€was€pending€at€the€time€of€her€submissionÐ üp Ðof€supplementary€information€to€the€Committee€on€2€January€2004.Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€€The€author€states€that€she€also€initiated€civil€proceedings€regarding€division€of€theÐ À4 Ðproperty,€which€have€been€suspended.€She€claims€that€L.€F.€refused€her€offer€to€beÐ ¬  Ðcompensated€for€half€of€the€value€of€the€aÔ_ÔpartmentÔ_Ô€and€turn€over€ownership€to€her.€In€theseÐ ˜  Ðproceedings€the€author€reportedly€submitted€a€motion€for€injunctive€relief€(for€her€exclusiveÐ „ø Ðright€to€use€the€apartment),€which€was€rejected€on€25€July€2000.Ðpä(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð\ Ð(#(# Ðà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  Ô3.1€€The€author€alleges€that€she€is€a€victim€of€violations€by€Hungary€of€articles€2(a),€(b)€andÐ H!¼ Ð(e),€5€(a)€and€16€of€the€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Discrimination€againstÐ 4"¨ ÐWomen€for€its€failure€to€provide€effective€protection€from€her€former€common€law€husband.Ð  #” ÐShe€claims€that€the€State€party€passively€neglected€its€ð ðpositiveðð€obligations€under€theÐ  $€  ÐConvention€and€supported€the€continuation€of€a€situation€of€domestic€violence€against€her.€Ðø$l!(#(# ÐÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ôà0  à...Ðä%X"(#(# Ðà0  àÔL  ÔÔM  ÔÔL  ÔÔM  Ô9.2€€The€Committee€recalls€its€general€recommendation€No.€19€on€violence€against€women,Ð Ð&D # Ðwhich€states€that€ð ð...[Ô_ÔT]heÔ_Ô€definition€of€discrimination€includes€gender„based€violenceðð€andÐ ¼'0!$ Ðthat€ð ð[Ô_ÔG]enderÔ_Ô„based€violence€may€breach€specific€provisions€of€the€Convention,€regardlessÐ ¨("% Ðof€whether€those€provisions€expressly€mention€violenceðð.€Furthermore,€the€generalÐ ”)#& Ðrecommendation€addresses€the€question€of€whether€States€parties€can€be€held€accountableÐ €*ô#' Ðfor€the€conduct€of€non„State€actors€in€stating€that€ð ð...discrimination€under€the€Convention€isÐ l+à$( Ðnot€restricted€to€action€by€or€on€behalf€of€Governments...ðð€and€ð ð[Ô_ÔU]nderÔ_Ô€general€internationalÐ Œ Ðlaw€and€specific€human€rights€covenants,€States€may€also€be€responsible€for€private€acts€ifÐ xì Ðthey€fail€to€act€with€due€diligence€to€prevent€violations€of€rights€or€to€investigate€and€punishÐ dØ Ðacts€of€violence,€and€for€providing€compensationðð.€Against€this€backdrop,€the€immediateÐ P Ä Ðissue€facing€the€Committee€is€whether€the€author€of€the€communication€is€the€victim€of€aÐ < ° Ðviolation€of€articles€2€(a),€(b)€and€(e),€5€(a)€and€16€of€the€Convention€because,€as€she€alleges,Ð ( œ Ðfor€the€past€four€years€the€State€party€has€failed€in€its€duty€to€provide€her€with€effectiveÐ  ˆ Ðprotection€from€the€serious€risk€to€her€physical€integrity,€physical€and€mental€health€and€herÐ  t Ðlife€from€her€former€common€law€husband.€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.3€€With€regard€to€article€2€(a),€(b),€and€(e),€the€Committee€notes€that€the€State€party€hasÐ Ä8  Ðadmitted€that€the€remedies€pursued€by€the€author€were€not€capable€of€providing€immediateÐ °$  Ðprotection€to€her€against€ill„treatment€by€her€former€partner€and,€furthermore,€that€legal€andÐ œ  Ðinstitutional€arrangements€in€the€State€party€are€not€yet€ready€to€ensure€the€internationallyÐ ˆü  Ðexpected,€coordinated,€comprehensive€and€effective€protection€and€support€for€the€victimsÐ tè  Ðof€domestic€violence.€While€appreciating€the€State€partyððs€efforts€at€instituting€aÐ `Ô  Ðcomprehensive€action€programme€against€domestic€violence€and€the€legal€and€otherÐ LÀ Ðmeasures€envisioned,€the€Committee€believes€that€these€have€yet€to€benefit€the€author€andÐ 8¬ Ðaddress€her€persistent€situation€of€insecurity.€The€Committee€further€notes€the€State€partyððsÐ $˜ Ðgeneral€assessment€that€domestic€violence€cases€as€such€do€not€enjoy€high€priority€in€courtÐ „ Ðproceedings.€The€Committee€is€of€the€opinion€that€the€description€provided€of€theÐ üp Ðproceedings€resorted€to€in€the€present€case,€both€the€civil€and€criminal€proceedings,€coincidesÐ è\ Ðwith€this€general€assessment.€Womenððs€human€rights€to€life€and€to€physical€and€mentalÐ ÔH Ðintegrity€cannot€be€superseded€by€other€rights,€including€the€right€to€property€and€the€rightÐ À4 Ðto€privacy.€The€Committee€also€takes€note€that€the€State€party€does€not€offer€information€asÐ ¬  Ðto€the€existence€of€alternative€avenues€that€the€author€might€have€pursued€that€would€haveÐ ˜  Ðprovided€sufficient€protection€or€security€from€the€danger€of€continued€violence.€In€thisÐ „ø Ðconnection,€the€Committee€recalls€its€concluding€comments€from€August€2002€on€the€StateÐ pä Ðpartyððs€combined€fourth€and€fifth€periodic€report,€which€state€ð ð...[Ô_ÔT]heÔ_Ô€Committee€isÐ \ Ð Ðconcerned€about€the€prevalence€of€violence€against€women€and€girls,€including€domesticÐ H!¼ Ðviolence.€It€is€particularly€concerned€that€no€specific€legislation€has€been€enacted€to€combatÐ 4"¨ Ðdomestic€violence€and€sexual€harassment€and€that€no€protection€or€exclusion€orders€orÐ  #” Ðshelters€exist€for€the€immediate€protection€of€women€victims€of€domestic€violenceðð.€BearingÐ  $€  Ðthis€in€mind,€the€Committee€concludes€that€the€obligations€of€the€State€party€set€out€in€articleÐ ø$l! Ð2€(a),€(b)€and€(e)€of€the€Convention€extend€to€the€prevention€of€and€protection€from€violenceÐ ä%X" Ðagainst€women,€which€obligations€in€the€present€case,€remain€unfulfilled€and€constitute€aÐ Ð&D # Ðviolation€of€the€authorððs€human€rights€and€fundamental€freedoms,€particularly€her€right€toÐ ¼'0!$ Ðsecurity€of€person.Ш("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.4€€The€Committee€addressed€articles€5€and€16€together€in€its€general€recommendation€No.Ð €*ô#' Ð19€in€dealing€with€family€violence.€In€its€general€recommendation€No.€21,€the€CommitteeÐ l+à$( Ðstressed€that€ð ðthe€provisions€of€general€recommendation€19...concerning€violence€againstÐ Œ Ðwomen€have€great€significance€for€womenððs€abilities€to€enjoy€rights€and€freedoms€on€anÐ xì Ðequal€basis€with€menðð.€It€has€stated€on€many€occasions€that€traditional€attitudes€by€whichÐ dØ Ðwomen€are€regarded€as€subordinate€to€men€contribute€to€violence€against€them.€TheÐ P Ä ÐCommittee€recognized€those€very€attitudes€when€it€considered€the€combined€fourth€and€fifthÐ < ° Ðperiodic€report€of€Hungary€in€2002.€At€that€time€it€was€concerned€about€the€ð ðpersistence€ofÐ ( œ Ðentrenched€traditional€stereotypes€regarding€the€role€and€responsibilities€of€women€and€menÐ  ˆ Ðin€the€family...ðð.€In€respect€of€the€case€now€before€the€Committee,€the€facts€of€theÐ  t Ðcommunication€reveal€aspects€of€the€relationships€between€the€sexes€and€attitudes€towardsÐ ì ` Ðwomen€that€the€Committee€recognized€òòvis„„vis€óóthe€country€as€a€whole.€For€four€years€andÐ ØL  Ðcontinuing€to€the€present€day,€the€author€has€felt€threatened€by€her€former€common€lawÐ Ä8  Ðhusband,€the€father€of€her€two€children.€The€author€has€been€battered€by€this€same€man,€herÐ °$  Ðformer€common€law€husband.€She€has€been€unsuccessful,€either€through€civil€or€criminalÐ œ  Ðproceedings,€to€temporarily€or€permanently€bar€L.€F.€from€the€apartment€where€she€and€herÐ ˆü  Ðchildren€have€continued€to€reside.€The€author€could€not€have€asked€for€a€restraining€orÐ tè  Ðprotection€order€since€neither€option€currently€exists€in€the€State€party.€She€has€been€unableÐ `Ô  Ðto€flee€to€a€shelter€because€none€are€equipped€to€accept€her€together€with€her€children,€oneÐ LÀ Ðof€whom€is€fully€disabled.€None€of€these€facts€have€been€disputed€by€the€State€party€and,Ð 8¬ Ðconsidered€together,€they€indicate€that€the€rights€of€the€author€under€articles€5€(a)€and€16€ofÐ $˜ Ðthe€Convention€have€been€violated.Є(#(# Ðà0  à...Ðüp(#(# Ðà0  à9.6€€Acting€under€article€7,€paragraph€3,€of€the€Optional€Protocol€to€the€Convention€on€theÐ è\ ÐElimination€of€All€Forms€of€Discrimination€against€Women,€the€Committee€is€of€the€viewÐ ÔH Ðthat€the€State€party€has€failed€to€fulfil€its€obligations€and€has€thereby€violated€the€rights€ofÐ À4 Ðthe€author€under€article€2€(a),€(b)€and€(e)€and€article€5€(a)€in€conjunction€with€article€16€of€theÐ ¬  ÐConvention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Discrimination€against€Women,€and€makesÐ ˜  Ðthe€following€recommendations€to€the€State€party:Єø(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòI.€Concerning€the€author€of€the€communicationóóÐ\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Take€immediate€and€effective€measures€to€guarantee€the€physical€and€mental€integrityÐ 4"¨ Ðof€A.€T.€and€her€family;Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Ensure€that€A.€T.€is€given€a€safe€home€in€which€to€live€with€her€children,€receivesÐ ø$l! Ðappropriate€child€support€and€legal€assistance€as€well€as€reparation€proportionate€to€theÐ ä%X" Ðphysical€and€mental€harm€undergone€and€to€the€gravity€of€the€violations€of€her€rights;ÐÐ&D #(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòII.€€GeneralóóШ("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Respect,€protect,€promote€and€fulfil€womenððs€human€rights,€including€their€right€to€beÐ €*ô#' Ðfree€from€all€forms€of€domestic€violence,€including€intimidation€and€threats€of€violence;Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à(b)€€Assure€victims€of€domestic€violence€the€maximum€protection€of€the€law€by€acting€withÐ Œ Ðdue€diligence€to€prevent€and€respond€to€such€violence€against€women;Ðxì(#(# Ðà0  à...ÐdØ(#(# Ðà0  à(e)€€Implement€expeditiously€and€without€delay€the€Committeeððs€concluding€comments€ofÐ P Ä ÐAugust€2002€on€the€combined€fourth€and€fifth€periodic€report€of€Hungary€in€respect€ofÐ < ° Ðviolence€against€women€and€girls,€in€particular€the€Committeeððs€recommendation€that€aÐ ( œ Ðspecific€law€be€introduced€prohibiting€domestic€violence€against€women,€which€wouldÐ  ˆ Ðprovide€for€protection€and€exclusion€orders€as€well€as€support€services,€including€shelters;€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  à(f)€€Investigate€promptly,€thoroughly,€impartially€and€seriously€all€allegations€of€domesticÐ ØL  Ðviolence€and€bring€the€offenders€to€justice€in€accordance€with€international€standards;ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à(g)€€Provide€victims€of€domestic€violence€with€safe€and€prompt€access€to€justice,€includingÐ œ  Ðfree€legal€aid€where€necessary,€in€order€to€ensure€them€available,€effective€and€sufficientÐ ˆü  Ðremedies€and€rehabilitation;€Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  à...Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌÌò òòòCATóóó óÐ $˜ ÐÌÝ"‚ 3£"ÝÝ  ÝòòÝ‚ 3£8óÝÔ2œAÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔHajriziÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔDzemajlÔ_Ô€et€al.€v.€Serbia€and€Montenegroóó€(161/2000),€CAT,€A/58/44€(21€NovemberÐ üp Ð2002)€85€(CAT/C/29/D/161/2000)€at€paras.€2.1„2.24,€9.2„9.6,€10,€11€and€Individual€OpinionÐ è\ Ðby€Mr.€Fernando€Ô_ÔMarioÔ_Ô€and€Mr.€Ô_ÔAlejandroÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGonzlezÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPobleteÔ_Ô€(concurring),€97.݃ 3£8óhóÝŒÐÔH(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ь (#(# Ðà0  à2.1€€On€14€April€1995€at€around€10€p.m.,€the€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€Police€Department€received€aÐ ˜  Ðreport€indicating€that€two€Romani€minors€had€raped€Ô_ÔS.B.Ô_Ô,€a€minor€ethnic€Ô_ÔMontenegrinÔ_Ô€girl.Ð „ø ÐIn€response€to€this€report,€around€midnight,€the€police€entered€and€searched€a€number€ofÐ pä Ðhouses€in€the€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€Roma€settlement€and€brought€into€custody€all€of€the€youngÐ \ Ð Ðmale€Romani€men€present€in€the€settlement€(all€of€them€presently€among€the€complainantsÐ H!¼ Ðto€this€Committee).€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.2€€The€same€day,€around€midnight,€two€hundred€ethnic€Ô_ÔMontenegrinsÔ_Ô,€led€by€relatives€andÐ  $€  Ðneighbours€of€the€raped€girl,€assembled€in€front€of€the€police€station€and€publicly€demandedÐ ø$l! Ðthat€the€Municipal€Assembly€adopt€a€decision€expelling€all€Roma€from€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô.€TheÐ ä%X" Ðcrowd€shouted€slogans€addressed€to€the€Roma,€threatening€to€"exterminate"€them€and€"burnÐ Ð&D # Ðdown"€their€houses.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.3€€Later,€two€Romani€minors€confessed€under€duress.€On€15€April,€between€4€and€5€a.m.,Ð ”)#& Ðall€of€the€detainees€except€those€who€confessed€were€released€from€police€custody.€BeforeÐ €*ô#' Ðtheir€release,€they€were€warned€by€the€police€to€leave€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€immediately€with€theirÐ l+à$( Ðfamilies€because€they€would€be€at€risk€of€being€lynched€by€their€non„Roma€neighbours.€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.4€€At€the€same€time,€police€officer€Ô_ÔLjuboÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔRadovicÔ_Ô€came€to€the€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€RomaÐ dØ Ðsettlement€and€told€the€Romani€residents€of€the€settlement€that€they€must€evacuate€theÐ P Ä Ðsettlement€immediately.€The€officer's€announcement€caused€panic.€Most€residents€of€theÐ < ° Ðsettlement€fled€towards€a€nearby€highway,€where€they€could€take€buses€for€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô.€OnlyÐ ( œ Ða€few€men€and€women€remained€in€the€settlement€to€safeguard€their€homes€and€livestock.€AtÐ  ˆ Ðapproximately€5€a.m.,€police€officer€Ô_ÔLjuboÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔRadovicÔ_Ô€returned€to€the€settlement,€accompaniedÐ  t Ðby€police€inspector€Ô_ÔBrankoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔMicanovicÔ_Ô.€The€officers€told€the€remaining€Roma€still€in€theirÐ ì ` Ðhomes€(including€some€of€the€complainants)€to€leave€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€immediately,€as€no€oneÐ ØL  Ðcould€guarantee€their€safety€or€provide€them€with€protection.€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.5€At€around€8€a.m.€the€same€day,€a€group€of€non„Roma€residents€of€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€enteredÐ œ  Ðthe€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€Roma€settlement,€hurling€stones€and€breaking€windows€of€houses€ownedÐ ˆü  Ðby€the€complainants.€Those€Roma€who€had€still€not€left€the€settlement€(all€of€them€presentlyÐ tè  Ðamong€the€complainants)€hid€in€the€cellar€of€one€of€the€houses€from€which€they€eventuallyÐ `Ô  Ðmanaged€to€flee€through€the€fields€and€woods€towards€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô.€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.6€€In€the€course€of€the€morning€of€15€April,€a€police€car€repeatedly€patrolled€the€desertedÐ $˜ ÐÔ_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€settlement.€Groups€of€non„Roma€residents€of€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€gathered€inÐ „ Ðdifferent€locations€in€the€town€and€in€the€surrounding€villages.€Around€2€p.m.€the€non„RomaÐ üp Ðcrowd€arrived€in€the€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€settlement€„€in€cars€and€on€foot.€Soon€a€crowd€of€atÐ è\ Ðleast€several€hundred€non„Roma€(according€to€different€sources,€between€400€and€3,000Ð ÔH Ðpersons€were€present)€assembled€in€the€then€deserted€Roma€settlement.€ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.7€€...Shortly€after€3€p.m.,€the€demolition€of€the€settlement€began.€The€mob,€with€stones€andÐ ˜  Ðother€objects,€first€broke€windows€of€cars€and€houses€belonging€to€Roma€and€then€set€themÐ „ø Ðon€fire.€The€crowd€also€destroyed€and€set€fire€to€the€haystacks,€farming€and€other€machines,Ð pä Ðanimal€feed€sheds,€stables,€as€well€as€all€other€objects€belonging€to€the€Roma.€They€hurledÐ \ Ð Ðexplosive€devices€and€"Molotov"€cocktails€that€they€had€prepared€beforehand,€and€threwÐ H!¼ Ðburning€cloths€and€foam€rubbers€into€houses€through€the€broken€windows.€Shots€andÐ 4"¨ Ðexplosions€could€be€heard€amid€the€sounds€of€destruction.€At€the€same€time,€valuables€wereÐ  #” Ðlooted€and€cattle€slaughtered.€The€devastation€endured€unhindered€for€hours.€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.8€€Throughout€the€course€of€the€destruction,€the€police€officers€present€failed€to€act€inÐ ä%X" Ðaccordance€with€their€legal€obligations.€Shortly€after€the€attack€began,€rather€than€interveningÐ Ð&D # Ðto€halt€the€violence,€these€officers€simply€moved€their€police€car€to€a€safe€distance€andÐ ¼'0!$ Ðreported€to€their€superior€officer.€As€the€violence€and€destruction€unfolded,€police€officersÐ ¨("% Ðdid€no€more€than€feebly€seek€to€persuade€some€of€the€attackers€to€calm€down€pending€a€finalÐ ”)#& Ðdecision€of€the€Municipal€Assembly€with€respect€to€a€popular€request€to€evict€Roma€fromÐ €*ô#' Ðthe€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€settlement.€Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à2.9€€The€outcome€of€the€anti„Roma€rage€was€the€levelling€of€the€entire€settlement€and€theÐ Œ Ðburning€or€complete€destruction€of€all€properties€belonging€to€its€Roma€residents.€€AlthoughÐ xì Ðthe€police€did€nothing€to€halt€the€destruction€of€the€Roma€settlement,€they€did€ensure€that€theÐ dØ Ðfire€did€not€spread€to€any€of€the€surrounding€buildings,€which€belonged€to€the€non„Roma.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.10€The€police€and€the€investigating€magistrate€of€the€Basic€Court€in€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_ÔÐ ( œ Ðsubsequently€drew€up€an€on„site€investigation€report€regarding€the€damage€caused€by€thoseÐ  ˆ Ðwho€took€part€in€the€attack.€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.11€Official€police€documents,€as€well€as€statements€given€by€a€number€of€police€officersÐ ØL  Ðand€other€witnesses€alike,€both€before€the€court€and€in€the€initial€stage€of€the€investigation,Ð Ä8  Ðindicate€that€the€following€non„Roma€residents€of€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€were€among€those€who€tookÐ °$  Ðpart€in€the€destruction€of€the€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€Roma€settlement:€Ô_ÔVeselinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPopovicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔDragisaÔ_ÔÐ œ  ÐÔ_ÔMakocevicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔGojkoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPopovicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔBoskoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔMitrovicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔJoksimÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBobicicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔDarkoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔJanjusevicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔVlatkoÔ_ÔÐ ˆü  ÐÔ_ÔCacicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔRadojicaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔMakocevicÔ_Ô.€Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.12€Moreover,€there€is€evidence€that€police€officers€Ô_ÔMiladinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔDragasÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔRajkoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔRadulovicÔ_Ô,Ð LÀ ÐÔ_ÔDraganÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBuricÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔDjordjijeÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔStankovicÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔVukÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔRadovicÔ_Ô€were€all€present€as€the€violenceÐ 8¬ Ðunfolded€and€did€nothing€or€not€enough€to€protect€the€Roma€residents€of€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€orÐ $˜ Ðtheir€property.€Ð„(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.13€Several€days€following€the€incident,€the€debris€of€the€Roma€settlement€was€completelyÐ è\ Ðcleared€away€by€heavy€construction€machines€of€the€Public€Utility€Company.€All€traces€ofÐ ÔH Ðthe€existence€of€the€Roma€in€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€were€obliterated.€ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.14€Following€the€attack,€and€pursuant€to€the€relevant€domestic€legislation,€on€17€AprilÐ ˜  Ð1995,€the€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô€Police€Department€filed€a€criminal€complaint€with€the€Basic€PublicÐ „ø ÐProsecutor's€Office€in€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô.€The€complaint€alleged€that€a€number€of€unknownÐ pä Ðperpetrators€had€committed€the€criminal€offence€of€causing€public€danger€under€article€164Ð \ Ð Ðof€the€Ô_ÔMontenegrinÔ_Ô€Criminal€Code€and,€òòinter€aliaóó,€explicitly€stated€that€there€are€"reasonableÐ H!¼ Ðgrounds€to€believe€that,€in€an€organized€manner€and€by€using€open€flames€ð8ð€they€caused€aÐ 4"¨ Ðfire€to€break€out€...€on€15€April€1995€ð8ð€which€completely€consumed€dwellings€ð8ð€and€otherÐ  #” ÐÔ_Ôpropert[iesÔ_Ô]€belonging€to€persons€who€used€to€reside€in€ð8ð€[the€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô]€settlement".€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.15€On€17€April€1995€the€police€brought€in€20€individuals€for€questioning.€On€18€AprilÐ ä%X" Ð1995,€a€memorandum€was€drawn€up€by€the€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô€Police€Department€which€quoted€theÐ Ð&D # Ðstatement€of€Ô_ÔVeselinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPopovicÔ_Ô€as€follows:€"...€I€noticed€flames€in€a€hut€which€led€me€toÐ ¼'0!$ Ðconclude€that€the€crowd€had€started€setting€fire€to€huts€so€I€found€several€pieces€of€foamÐ ¨("% Ðrubber€which€I€lit€with€a€lighter€I€had€on€me€and€threw€them,€alight,€into€two€huts,€one€ofÐ ”)#& Ðwhich€caught€fire."€Ð€*ô#'(#(# ÐÐ l+à$( Ðà0  à2.16€On€the€basis€of€this€testimony€and€the€official€police€memorandum,€the€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_ÔÐ Œ ÐPolice€Department€ordered,€on€18€April€1995,€that€Ô_ÔVeselinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPopovicÔ_Ô€be€remanded€intoÐ xì Ðcustody,€on€the€grounds€that€there€were€reasons€to€believe€that€he€had€committed€the€criminalÐ dØ Ðoffence€of€causing€public€danger€in€the€sense€of€article€164€of€the€Ô_ÔMontenegrinÔ_Ô€CriminalÐ P Ä ÐCode.€Ð< °(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.17€On€25€April€1995,€and€with€respect€to€the€incident€at€the€origin€of€this€complaint,€theÐ  ˆ ÐPublic€Prosecutor€instituted€proceedings€against€one€person€only€„€Ô_ÔVeselinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPopovicÔ_Ô.€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.18€Ô_ÔVeselinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPopovicÔ_Ô€was€charged€under€article€164€of€the€Ô_ÔMontenegrinÔ_Ô€Criminal€Code.€TheÐ ØL  Ðsame€indictment€charged€Ô_ÔDragisaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔMakocevicÔ_Ô€with€illegally€obtaining€firearms€in€1993€„€anÐ Ä8  Ðoffence€unrelated€to€the€incident€at€issue€notwithstanding€the€evidence€implicating€him€in€theÐ °$  Ðdestruction€of€the€Roma€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€settlement.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à2.19€Throughout€the€investigation,€the€investigating€magistrate€of€the€Basic€Court€ofÐ tè  ÐÔ_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€heard€a€number€of€witnesses€all€of€whom€stated€that€they€had€been€present€asÐ `Ô  Ðthe€violence€unfolded€but€were€not€able€to€identify€a€single€perpetrator.€On€22€June€1995,€theÐ LÀ Ðinvestigating€magistrate€of€the€Basic€Court€of€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€heard€officer€Ô_ÔMiladinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔDragasÔ_Ô.Ð 8¬ ÐContrary€to€the€official€memorandum€he€had€personally€drawn€up€on€16€April€1995,€officerÐ $˜ ÐÔ_ÔDragasÔ_Ô€now€stated€that€he€had€not€seen€anyone€throwing€an€inflammable€device,€nor€couldÐ „ Ðhe€identify€any€of€the€individuals€involved.€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.20€On€25€October€1995,€the€Basic€Public€Prosecutor€in€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô€requested€that€theÐ ÔH Ðinvestigating€magistrate€of€the€Basic€Court€of€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€undertake€additional€investigationÐ À4 Ðinto€the€facts€of€the€case.€Specifically,€the€prosecutor€proposed€that€new€witnesses€be€heard,Ð ¬  Ðincluding€officers€from€the€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€Police€Department€who€had€been€entrusted€withÐ ˜  Ðprotecting€the€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€Roma€settlement.€The€investigating€magistrate€of€the€BasicÐ „ø ÐCourt€of€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€then€heard€the€additional€witnesses,€all€of€whom€stated€that€they€hadÐ pä Ðseen€none€of€the€individuals€who€had€caused€the€fire.€The€investigating€magistrate€took€noÐ \ Ð Ðfurther€action.€ÐH!¼(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.21€Due€to€the€"lack€of€evidence",€the€Basic€Public€Prosecutor€in€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô€dropped€allÐ  #” Ðcharges€against€Ô_ÔVeselinÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPopovicÔ_Ô€on€23€January€1996.€On€8€February€1996,€the€investigatingÐ  $€  Ðmagistrate€of€the€Basic€Court€of€Ô_ÔDanilovgradÔ_Ô€issued€a€decision€to€discontinue€theÐ ø$l! Ðinvestigation.€From€February€1996€up€to€and€including€the€date€of€filing€of€this€complaint,Ð ä%X" Ðthe€authorities€took€no€further€steps€to€identify€and/or€punish€those€individuals€responsibleÐ Ð&D # Ðfor€the€incident€at€issue€„€"civilians"€and€police€officers€alike.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.22€In€violation€of€domestic€legislation,€the€complainants€were€not€served€with€the€courtÐ ”)#& Ðdecision€of€8€February€1996€to€discontinue€the€investigation.€They€were€thus€prevented€fromÐ €*ô#' Ðassuming€the€capacity€of€a€private€prosecutor€and€to€continue€with€the€prosecution€of€theÐ l+à$( Ðcase.€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.23€Even€prior€to€the€closing€of€the€proceedings,€on€18€and€21€September€1995,€theÐ dØ Ðinvestigating€magistrate,€while€hearing€witnesses€(among€them€a€number€of€theÐ P Ä Ðcomplainants),€failed€to€advise€them€of€their€right€to€assume€the€prosecution€of€the€case€inÐ < ° Ðthe€event€that€the€Public€Prosecutor€should€decide€to€drop€the€charges.€This€contravenedÐ ( œ Ðdomestic€legislation€which€explicitly€provides€that€the€Court€is€under€an€obligation€to€adviseÐ  ˆ Ðignorant€parties€of€avenues€of€legal€redress€available€for€the€protection€of€their€interests.€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.24€On€6€September€1996,€all€71€complainants€filed€a€civil€claim€for€damages,€pecuniaryÐ ØL  Ðand€non„pecuniary,€with€the€first€instance€court€in€Ô_ÔPodgoricaÔ_Ô€„€each€plaintiff€claimingÐ Ä8  Ðapproximately€US$€100,000.€The€pecuniary€damages€claim€was€based€on€the€completeÐ °$  Ðdestruction€of€all€properties€belonging€to€the€plaintiffs,€while€the€non„pecuniary€damagesÐ œ  Ðclaim€was€based€on€the€pain€and€suffering€of€the€plaintiffs€associated€with€the€fear€they€wereÐ ˆü  Ðsubjected€to,€and€the€violation€of€their€honour,€reputation,€freedom€of€movement€and€theÐ tè  Ðright€to€choose€their€own€place€of€residence.€The€plaintiffs€addressed€these€claims€against€theÐ `Ô  ÐRepublic€of€Montenegro€and€cited€articles€154,€180€(1),€200,€and€203€of€the€Federal€Law€onÐ LÀ ÐObligations.€More€than€five€years€after€the€submission€of€their€claim,€the€civil€proceedingsÐ 8¬ Ðfor€damages€are€still€pending.€Ð$˜(#(# Ðà0  à...Є(#(# Ðà0  à9.2€€As€to€the€legal€qualification€of€the€facts€that€have€occurred€on€15€April€1995,€as€theyÐ üp Ðwere€described€by€the€complainants,€the€Committee€first€considers€that€the€burning€andÐ è\ Ðdestruction€of€houses€constitute,€in€the€circumstances,€acts€of€cruel,€inhuman€or€degradingÐ ÔH Ðtreatment€or€punishment.€The€nature€of€these€acts€is€further€aggravated€by€the€fact€that€someÐ À4 Ðof€the€complainants€were€still€hidden€in€the€settlement€when€the€houses€were€burnt€andÐ ¬  Ðdestroyed,€the€particular€vulnerability€of€the€alleged€victims€and€the€fact€that€the€acts€wereÐ ˜  Ðcommitted€with€a€significant€level€of€racial€motivation.€Moreover,€the€Committee€considersÐ „ø Ðthat€the€complainants€have€sufficiently€demonstrated€that€the€police€(public€officials),Ð pä Ðalthough€they€had€been€informed€of€the€immediate€risk€that€the€complainants€were€facing€andÐ \ Ð Ðhad€been€present€at€the€scene€of€the€events,€did€not€take€any€appropriate€steps€in€order€toÐ H!¼ Ðprotect€the€complainants,€thus€implying€"acquiescence"€in€the€sense€of€article€16€of€theÐ 4"¨ ÐConvention.€In€this€respect,€the€Committee€has€reiterated€on€many€instances€its€concernsÐ  #” Ðabout€"inaction€by€police€and€law„enforcement€officials€who€fail€to€provide€adequateÐ  $€  Ðprotection€against€racially€motivated€attacks€when€such€groups€have€been€threatened"€...€Ð ø$l! ÐAlthough€the€acts€referred€to€by€the€complainants€were€not€committed€by€public€officialsÐ ä%X" Ðthemselves,€the€Committee€considers€that€they€were€committed€with€their€acquiescence€andÐ Ð&D # Ðconstitute€therefore€a€violation€of€article€16,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Convention€by€the€StateÐ ¼'0!$ Ðparty.€Ð¨("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.3€€Having€considered€that€the€facts€described€by€the€complainants€constitute€acts€within€theÐ €*ô#' Ðmeaning€of€article€16,€paragraph€1€of€the€Convention,€the€Committee€will€analyse€otherÐ l+à$( Ðalleged€violations€in€the€light€of€that€finding.€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.4€€Concerning€the€alleged€violation€of€article€12€of€the€Convention,€the€Committee,€as€itÐ dØ Ðhas€underlined€in€previous€cases€(see€òòinter€alia,óó€òòÔ_ÔEncarnacionÔ_Ô€Blanco€Ô_ÔAbadÔ_Ô€v.€Spainóó,€CaseÐ P Ä ÐNo.€59/1996,€decided€on€14€May€1998),€is€of€the€opinion€that€a€criminal€investigation€mustÐ < ° Ðseek€both€to€determine€the€nature€and€circumstances€of€the€alleged€acts€and€to€establish€theÐ ( œ Ðidentity€of€any€person€who€might€have€been€involved€therein.€In€the€present€case,€theÐ  ˆ ÐCommittee€notes€that,€despite€the€participation€of€at€least€several€hundred€non„Roma€in€theÐ  t Ðevents€of€15€April€1995€and€the€presence€of€a€number€of€police€officers€both€at€the€time€andÐ ì ` Ðat€the€scene€of€those€events,€no€person€nor€any€member€of€the€police€forces€has€been€triedÐ ØL  Ðby€the€courts€of€the€State€party.€In€these€circumstances,€the€Committee€is€of€the€view€that€theÐ Ä8  Ðinvestigation€conducted€by€the€authorities€of€the€State€party€did€not€satisfy€the€requirementsÐ °$  Ðof€article€12€of€the€Convention.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à9.5€€Concerning€the€alleged€violation€of€article€13€of€the€Convention,€the€CommitteeÐ tè  Ðconsiders€that€the€absence€of€an€investigation€as€described€in€the€previous€paragraph€alsoÐ `Ô  Ðconstitutes€a€violation€of€article€13€of€the€Convention.€Moreover,€the€Committee€is€of€theÐ LÀ Ðview€that€the€State€party's€failure€to€inform€the€complainants€of€the€results€of€theÐ 8¬ Ðinvestigation€by,€òòinter€aliaóó,€not€serving€on€them€the€decision€to€discontinue€the€investigation,Ð $˜ Ðeffectively€prevented€them€from€assuming€"private€prosecution"€of€their€case.€In€theÐ „ Ðcircumstances,€the€Committee€finds€that€this€constitutes€a€further€violation€of€article€13€ofÐ üp Ðthe€Convention.€Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.6€€Concerning€the€alleged€violation€of€article€14€of€the€Convention,€the€Committee€notesÐ À4 Ðthat€the€scope€of€application€of€the€said€provision€only€refers€to€torture€in€the€sense€of€articleÐ ¬  Ð1€of€the€Convention€and€does€not€cover€other€forms€of€ill„treatment.€Moreover,€article€16,Ð ˜  Ðparagraph€1,€of€the€Convention€while€specifically€referring€to€articles€10,€11,€12,€and€13,€doesÐ „ø Ðnot€mention€article€14€of€the€Convention.€Nevertheless,€article€14€of€the€Convention€does€notÐ pä Ðmean€that€the€State€party€is€not€obliged€to€grant€redress€and€fair€and€adequate€compensationÐ \ Ð Ðto€the€victim€of€an€act€in€breach€of€article€16€of€the€Convention.€The€positive€obligations€thatÐ H!¼ Ðflow€from€the€first€sentence€of€article€16€of€the€Convention€include€an€obligation€to€grantÐ 4"¨ Ðredress€and€compensate€the€victims€of€an€act€in€breach€of€that€provision.€The€Committee€isÐ  #” Ðtherefore€of€the€view€that€the€State€party€has€failed€to€observe€its€obligations€under€article€16Ð  $€  Ðof€the€Convention€by€failing€to€enable€the€complainants€to€obtain€redress€and€to€provide€themÐ ø$l! Ðwith€fair€and€adequate€compensation.€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€The€Committee...is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€disclose€a€violation€of€articles€16,Ð ¼'0!$ Ðparagraph€1,€12€and€13€of€the€Convention€against€Torture€and€Other€Cruel,€Inhuman€orÐ ¨("% ÐDegrading€Treatment€or€Punishment.€Ð”)#&(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.€€In€pursuance€of€rule€111,€paragraph€5,€of€its€rules€of€procedure,€the€Committee€urges€theÐ l+à$( ÐState€party€to€conduct€a€proper€investigation€into€the€facts€that€occurred€on€15€April€1995,Ð Œ Ðprosecute€and€punish€the€persons€responsible€for€those€acts€and€provide€the€complainantsÐ xì Ðwith€redress,€including€fair€and€adequate€compensation€and€to€inform€it,€within€90€days€fromÐ dØ Ðthe€date€of€the€transmittal€of€this€decision,€of€the€steps€it€has€taken€in€response€to€the€viewsÐ P Ä Ðexpressed€above.€Ð< °(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòIndividual€Opinion€by€Mr.€Fernando€Ô_ÔMarioÔ_Ô€and€Mr.€Ô_ÔAlejandroÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGonzlezÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPobleteÔ_ÔóóÐ ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  àWe€are€issuing€this€opinion€to€emphasize€that,€in€our€judgement,€the€illegal€incidents€forÐ ì ` Ðwhich€the€Yugoslav€State€is€responsible€constitute€"torture"€within€the€meaning€of€article€1,Ð ØL  Ðparagraph€1,€of€the€Convention,€not€merely€"cruel,€inhuman€or€degrading€treatment"€asÐ Ä8  Ðcovered€by€article€16.€The€failure€of€the€State€authorities€to€react€to€violent€evictions,€forcedÐ °$  Ðdisplacement€and€the€destruction€of€homes€and€property€by€individuals€amounts€to€unlawfulÐ œ  Ðacquiescence€which,€in€our€judgement,€violates€article€1,€paragraph€1,€particularly€when€readÐ ˆü  Ðin€conjunction€with€article€2,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Convention.€Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  àWe€believe€that,€in€fact,€the€suffering€visited€upon€the€victims€was€severe€enough€to€qualifyÐ LÀ Ðas€"torture",€because:€Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€The€inhabitants€of€the€Ô_ÔBozovaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGlavicaÔ_Ô€settlement€were€forced€to€abandon€their€homesÐ „ Ðin€haste€given€the€risk€of€severe€personal€and€material€harm;€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Their€settlement€and€homes€were€completely€destroyed.€Basic€necessities€were€alsoÐ ÔH Ðdestroyed;€ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ_Ô(c)Ô_Ô€€Not€only€did€the€resulting€forced€displacement€prevent€them€from€returning€to€theirÐ ˜  Ðoriginal€settlement,€but€many€members€of€the€group€were€forced€to€live€poorly,€without€jobsÐ „ø Ðor€fixed€places€of€abode;€Ðpä(#(# ÐÌà0  à(d)€€Thus€displaced€and€wronged,€these€Yugoslav€nationals€have€still€not€received€anyÐ H!¼ Ðcompensation,€seven€years€after€the€fact,€although€they€have€approached€the€domesticÐ 4"¨ Ðauthorities;€Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  à(e)€€All€the€inhabitants€who€were€violently€displaced€belong€to€the€Romani€ethnic€group,Ð ø$l! Ðwhich€is€known€to€be€especially€vulnerable€in€many€parts€of€Europe.€In€view€of€this,€StatesÐ ä%X" Ðmust€afford€them€greater€protection;€ÐÐ&D #(#(# ÐÌà0  àThe€above€amounts€to€a€presumption€of€"severe€suffering",€certainly€"mental"€but€alsoÐ ¨("% Ðinescapably€"physical"€in€nature€even€if€the€victims€were€not€subjected€to€direct€physicalÐ ”)#& Ðaggression.€Ð€*ô#'(#(# ÐÐ l+à$( ÐÔ_ Ôà0  àWe€thus€consider€that€the€incidents€at€issue€should€have€been€categorized€as€"torture".ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌ