ÿWPCf 6SX´–Œ-DêÆÒ>Âö ¼ƒ>“ëéßJ=)Š -ÑåR)+P0¹ûÂ<À¶3Ø\«æ=ÙêtcbÝ~ÕöNÕתƒøŒ?’1ÜT# Ƽ !\Mú\ÈdpmV{´LÞóˆú~b"z¢]U¯Ý+r™—méX¼:Þgüá)‘l÷ˆ µÅ˜Œæ‹” ¡Œê85é¬IÌ®{Yš1Ó¸L-Ý'Àf„ó8nˆK KÉv€><¨Fœ%E/•ß#âFS·Ï+ºAó»9éÕ öŸìrxÄ’ í9¹3ÐT¦·åÊ~s,ÐÂk…iöÄv­»S ì*ì榭o¸Rc÷À®+ÛŸÀ@ÅÏšàmGF8|˜Œ¥©Ïp¤âw$*Ťûú;¸à'˜*M|äíÖðùØ-ØpŒ¿ÙœA ˆ°ý̬ :¸±¥Ð¡O;?Øì‰M¿‡œÚÿ;Re¸ÑX\r‹êIž@49 Xשà_UÜT¯¶óÐ4YŒåÞ+g¥Y'ò³ò`(º@[oçn*Ê“ƒXO:)¨»Qòò¾À Ÿ2Z=ødÅsòe‹¸í\$=Ìò/ áý\ë“  0J 05`U6• 0:ËÚ  0nß ^ M 0nY D+Ç Æò 0n¸ 0(& 0nN AQ¼w 4%#É5U Nþ %L 0SRN¥§ m© 03cÀ 1u# 0w˜ 0Š 0 ™ 0´9 0Çí 0Û´ 0ï 1‰~( 72/ 0DaaaÁ¥<ÿÿ:Default ParaÔ€XXXÔÔ€XXXÔ0Iœÿÿ.headerÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÔ€ôôôÔÔ€XXXÔÑ  ÑÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÓ  Óô\  `&Times New Roman0Iœÿÿ.footerÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÔ€ôôôÔÔ€XXXÔÑ  ÑÓ°°ÀÐ (#ÓÓ  Ó8z‚ÿÿ6Plain TextÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÔ€ôôôÔÔK€<þ6X9`(Courier NewKÔÔ€XXXÔÔS€ô\  `&Times New RomanSÔÑ  ÑÓ  Ó<þ6X9`(Courier New:ÿÿ8page number'  >Centre for Refugee Studies>0Centre for Refugee Studies .   (F2CÑ$§§Ý ƒE]!ÝÔ€XprXXXÔÓ  ÓÝ  ÝN·6— (F2CÑ$©©Ý ƒE]!ÝÔ€XprXXXÔÓ  ÓÝ  Ý'ÈÈÈÈdxdƒ Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5(F2CÑ$££Ý ƒE]!ÝÔ€XprXXXÔÓ  ÓÝ  Ý(ÿÿ$””(F2CÑ$¢¢Ý ƒE]!ÝÔ€XprXXXÔÓ  ÓÝ  ÝCþÿ<< cÿÿ o¤693|P˜Dell Photo Printer 720PX,..,PX0(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(+E]$¡¡Ô€Xm:XXXÔÓ  ÓÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ(;3£$´´Ô2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  à3#37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)(Oé;$µµà0  àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0` (#(#à(b·¤$¶¶à0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#à(xir$··à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0¸ (#¸ (#à(ŒÜ$¸¸à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0h(#(#à(ŸF$¹¹à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0Àh(#h(#à(³Àô$ººà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0À(#À(#à(ǵ{$»»à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0p(#(#à !"#$%&xñ–Gaeimquy}Bullet ListBullets Listi)(F$ïïà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àà0p(#(#àÔ2#ÔÙ ÙÚ  ÚÚ  ÚÙ Ù)Ô3  Ôà0Èp(#p(#àÙ Ù ·Ý ƒ CÑ'ÝÔ€XprXXXÔÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ  Óò òÔ‡¼/»XXprÔPOLITICAL€RIGHTSÔ#†XprX»¼/e#ÔÝ ƒE]!ÝÔ€XprXXXÔÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÖ€-ÿÿÖÑ8€prXXdìdÈ8Ñò òòòII.€GENERAL€COMMENTS€AND€RECOMMENDATIONSóóó óÐ Œ ÐÌÌÓ€ ' !"#$%&(ñ–x3ÓÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£oÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXI€(Forty„eighth€session,€1996):€Right€toÐ P Ä ÐSelf-Determination,€A/51/18€(1996)€125€at€para.€9.݃3£oœÝŒÐ< °(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  àð8ðÐ ˆ(#(# Ðà0  à9.€€In€respect€of€the€self„determination€of€peoples€two€aspects€have€to€be€distinguished.€€TheÐ  t Ðright€to€self„determination€of€peoples€has€an€internal€aspect,€that€is€to€say,€the€rights€of€allÐ ì ` Ðpeoples€to€pursue€freely€their€economic,€social€and€cultural€development€without€outsideÐ ØL  Ðinterference.€€In€that€respect€there€exists€a€link€with€the€right€of€every€citizen€to€take€part€inÐ Ä8  Ðthe€conduct€of€public€affairs€at€any€level,€as€referred€to€in€article€5€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€of€the€InternationalÐ °$  ÐConvention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Racial€Discrimination.€€In€consequence,Ð œ  ÐGovernments€are€to€represent€the€whole€population€without€distinction€as€to€race,€Ô_ÔcolourÔ_Ô,Ð ˆü  Ðdescent€or€national€or€ethnic€origin.€€The€external€aspect€of€self„determination€implies€thatÐ tè  Ðall€peoples€have€the€right€to€determine€freely€their€political€status€and€their€place€in€theÐ `Ô  Ðinternational€community€based€upon€the€principle€of€equal€rights€and€exemplified€by€theÐ LÀ Ðliberation€of€peoples€from€colonialism€and€by€the€prohibition€to€subject€peoples€to€alienÐ 8¬ Ðsubjugation,€domination€and€exploitation.Ð$˜(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£nÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXIII€€(Fifty„first€session€1997):€On€the€Rights€ofÐ è\ ÐIndigenous€Peoples,€A/52/18€(1997)€122€at€para.€4(d).݃3£n›ÝŒÐÔH(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ь (#(# Ðà0  à4.€€The€Committee€calls€in€particular€upon€States€parties€to:И (#(# Ðà0  à...Єø(#(# Ðà0  àd.€€Ensure€that€members€of€indigenous€peoples€have€equal€rights€in€respect€of€effectiveÐ pä Ðparticipation€in€public€life€and€that€no€decisions€directly€relating€to€their€rights€and€interestsÐ \ Ð Ðare€taken€without€their€informed€consent...ÐH!¼(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£Ý ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€25€(Fifty„seventh€session,€1996):€Article€25:€The€Right€toÐ  $€  ÐParticipate€in€Public€Affairs,€Voting€Rights€and€the€Right€of€Equal€Access€to€Public€Service,Ð ø$l! ÐA/51/40€vol.€I€(1996)€98€at€paras.€1„27.݃3£Ý ÝŒÐä%X"(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à1.€€Article€25€of€the€Covenant€recognizes€and€protects€the€right€of€every€citizen€to€take€partÐ ¼'0!$ Ðin€the€conduct€of€public€affairs,€the€right€to€vote€and€to€be€elected€and€the€right€to€have€accessÐ ¨("% Ðto€public€service.€€Whatever€form€of€constitution€or€government€is€in€force,€the€CovenantÐ ”)#& Ðrequires€States€to€adopt€such€legislative€and€other€measures€as€may€be€necessary€to€ensureÐ €*ô#' Ðthat€citizens€have€an€effective€opportunity€to€enjoy€the€rights€it€protects.€€Article€25€lies€atÐ l+à$( Ðthe€core€of€democratic€government€based€on€the€consent€of€the€people€and€in€conformity€withÐ Œ Ðthe€principles€of€the€Covenant.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.€€The€rights€under€article€25€are€related€to,€but€distinct€from,€the€right€of€peoples€to€self„Ð P Ä Ðdetermination.€€By€virtue€of€the€rights€covered€by€article€1€(1),€peoples€have€the€right€toÐ < ° Ðfreely€determine€their€political€status€and€to€enjoy€the€right€to€choose€the€form€of€theirÐ ( œ Ðconstitution€or€government.€€Article€25€deals€with€the€right€of€individuals€to€participate€inÐ  ˆ Ðthose€processes€which€constitute€the€conduct€of€public€affairs.€€Those€rights,€as€individualÐ  t Ðrights,€can€give€rise€to€claims€under€the€first€Optional€Protocol.€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à3.€€In€contrast€with€other€rights€and€freedoms€recognized€by€the€Covenant€(which€are€ensuredÐ Ä8  Ðto€all€individuals€within€the€territory€and€subject€to€the€jurisdiction€of€the€State),€article€25Ð °$  Ðprotects€the€rights€of€"every€citizen".€€State€reports€should€outline€the€legal€provisions€whichÐ œ  Ðdefine€citizenship€in€the€context€of€the€rights€protected€by€article€25.€€No€distinctions€areÐ ˆü  Ðpermitted€between€citizens€in€the€enjoyment€of€these€rights€on€the€grounds€of€race,€Ô_ÔcolourÔ_Ô,Ð tè  Ðsex,€language,€religion,€political€or€other€opinion,€national€or€social€origin,€property,€birth€orÐ `Ô  Ðother€status.€€Distinctions€between€those€who€are€entitled€to€citizenship€by€birth€and€thoseÐ LÀ Ðwho€acquire€it€by€naturalization€may€raise€questions€of€compatibility€with€article€25.€€StateÐ 8¬ Ðreports€should€indicate€whether€any€groups,€such€as€permanent€residents,€enjoy€these€rightsÐ $˜ Ðon€a€limited€basis,€for€example,€by€having€the€right€to€vote€in€local€elections€or€to€holdÐ „ Ðparticular€public€service€positions.€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à4.€€Any€conditions€which€apply€to€the€exercise€of€the€rights€protected€by€article€25€should€beÐ ÔH Ðbased€on€objective€and€reasonable€criteria.€€For€example,€it€may€be€reasonable€to€require€aÐ À4 Ðhigher€age€for€election€or€appointment€to€particular€offices€than€for€exercising€the€right€toÐ ¬  Ðvote,€which€should€be€available€to€every€adult€citizen.€€The€exercise€of€these€rights€byÐ ˜  Ðcitizens€may€not€be€suspended€or€excluded€except€on€grounds€which€are€established€by€lawÐ „ø Ðand€which€are€objective€and€reasonable.€€For€example,€established€mental€incapacity€may€beÐ pä Ða€ground€for€denying€a€person€the€right€to€vote€or€to€hold€office.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à5.€€The€conduct€of€public€affairs,€referred€to€in€paragraph€(a),€is€a€broad€concept€which€relatesÐ 4"¨ Ðto€the€exercise€of€political€power,€in€particular€the€exercise€of€legislative,€executive€andÐ  #” Ðadministrative€powers.€€It€covers€all€aspects€of€public€administration,€and€the€formulation€andÐ  $€  Ðimplementation€of€policy€at€international,€national,€regional€and€local€levels.€€The€allocationÐ ø$l! Ðof€powers€and€the€means€by€which€individual€citizens€exercise€the€right€to€participate€in€theÐ ä%X" Ðconduct€of€public€affairs€protected€by€article€25€should€be€established€by€the€constitution€andÐ Ð&D # Ðother€laws.м'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.€€Citizens€participate€directly€in€the€conduct€of€public€affairs€when€they€exercise€power€asÐ ”)#& Ðmembers€of€legislative€bodies€or€by€holding€executive€office.€€This€right€of€directÐ €*ô#' Ðparticipation€is€supported€by€paragraph€(b).€€Citizens€also€participate€directly€in€the€conductÐ l+à$( Ðof€public€affairs€when€they€choose€or€change€their€constitution€or€decide€public€issuesÐ Œ Ðthrough€a€referendum€or€other€electoral€process€conducted€in€accordance€with€paragraph€(b).€Ð xì ÐCitizens€may€participate€directly€by€taking€part€in€popular€assemblies€which€have€the€powerÐ dØ Ðto€make€decisions€about€local€issues€or€about€the€affairs€of€a€particular€community€and€inÐ P Ä Ðbodies€established€to€represent€citizens€in€consultation€with€government.€€Where€a€mode€ofÐ < ° Ðdirect€participation€by€citizens€is€established,€no€distinction€should€be€made€between€citizensÐ ( œ Ðas€regards€their€participation€on€the€grounds€mentioned€in€article€2,€paragraph€1,€and€noÐ  ˆ Ðunreasonable€restrictions€should€be€imposed.€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.€€Where€citizens€participate€in€the€conduct€of€public€affairs€through€freely€chosenÐ ØL  Ðrepresentatives,€it€is€implicit€in€article€25€that€those€representatives€do€in€fact€exerciseÐ Ä8  Ðgovernmental€power€and€that€they€are€accountable€through€the€electoral€process€for€theirÐ °$  Ðexercise€of€that€power.€€It€is€also€implicit€that€the€representatives€exercise€only€those€powersÐ œ  Ðwhich€are€allocated€to€them€in€accordance€with€constitutional€provisions.€€ParticipationÐ ˆü  Ðthrough€freely€chosen€representatives€is€exercised€through€voting€processes€which€must€beÐ tè  Ðestablished€by€laws€that€are€in€accordance€with€paragraph€(b).€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à8.€€Citizens€also€take€part€in€the€conduct€of€public€affairs€by€exerting€influence€throughÐ 8¬ Ðpublic€debate€and€dialogue€with€their€representatives€or€through€their€capacity€to€organizeÐ $˜ Ðthemselves.€€This€participation€is€supported€by€ensuring€freedom€of€expression,€assembly€andÐ „ Ðassociation.Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.€€Paragraph€(b)€of€article€25€sets€out€specific€provisions€dealing€with€the€right€of€citizensÐ ÔH Ðto€take€part€in€the€conduct€of€public€affairs€as€voters€or€as€candidates€for€election.€€GenuineÐ À4 Ðperiodic€elections€in€accordance€with€paragraph€(b)€are€essential€to€ensure€the€accountabilityÐ ¬  Ðof€representatives€for€the€exercise€of€the€legislative€or€executive€powers€vested€in€them.€Ð ˜  ÐSuch€elections€must€be€held€at€intervals€which€are€not€unduly€long€and€which€ensure€that€theÐ „ø Ðauthority€of€government€continues€to€be€based€on€the€free€expression€of€the€will€of€electors.€Ð pä ÐThe€rights€and€obligations€provided€for€in€paragraph€(b)€should€be€guaranteed€by€law.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€The€right€to€vote€at€elections€and€referenda€must€be€established€by€law€and€may€beÐ 4"¨ Ðsubject€only€to€reasonable€restrictions,€such€as€setting€a€minimum€age€limit€for€the€right€toÐ  #” Ðvote.€€It€is€unreasonable€to€restrict€the€right€to€vote€on€the€ground€of€physical€disability€or€toÐ  $€  Ðimpose€literacy,€educational€or€property€requirements.€€Party€membership€should€not€be€aÐ ø$l! Ðcondition€of€eligibility€to€vote,€nor€a€ground€of€disqualification.€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à11.€€States€must€take€effective€measures€to€ensure€that€all€persons€entitled€to€vote€are€able€toÐ ¼'0!$ Ðexercise€that€right.€€Where€registration€of€voters€is€required,€it€should€be€facilitated€andÐ ¨("% Ðobstacles€to€such€registration€should€not€be€imposed.€€If€residence€requirements€apply€toÐ ”)#& Ðregistration,€they€must€be€reasonable,€and€should€not€be€imposed€in€such€a€way€as€to€excludeÐ €*ô#' Ðthe€homeless€from€the€right€to€vote.€€Any€abusive€interference€with€registration€or€voting€asÐ l+à$( Ðwell€as€intimidation€or€coercion€of€voters€should€be€prohibited€by€penal€laws€and€those€lawsÐ Œ Ðshould€be€strictly€enforced.€€Voter€education€and€registration€campaigns€are€necessary€toÐ xì Ðensure€the€effective€exercise€of€article€25€rights€by€an€informed€community.€ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à12.€€Freedom€of€expression,€assembly€and€association€are€essential€conditions€for€theÐ < ° Ðeffective€exercise€of€the€right€to€vote€and€must€be€fully€protected.€€Positive€measures€shouldÐ ( œ Ðbe€taken€to€overcome€specific€difficulties,€such€as€illiteracy,€language€barriers,€poverty,€orÐ  ˆ Ðimpediments€to€freedom€of€movement€which€prevent€persons€entitled€to€vote€from€exercisingÐ  t Ðtheir€rights€effectively.€€Information€and€materials€about€voting€should€be€available€inÐ ì ` Ðminority€languages.€€Specific€methods,€such€as€photographs€and€symbols,€should€be€adoptedÐ ØL  Ðto€ensure€that€illiterate€voters€have€adequate€information€on€which€to€base€their€choice.€Ð Ä8  ÐStates€parties€should€indicate€in€their€reports€the€manner€in€which€the€difficulties€highlightedÐ °$  Ðin€this€paragraph€are€dealt€with.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à13.€€State€reports€should€describe€the€rules€governing€the€right€to€vote,€and€the€applicationÐ tè  Ðof€those€rules€in€the€period€covered€by€the€report.€€State€reports€should€also€describe€factorsÐ `Ô  Ðwhich€impede€citizens€from€exercising€the€right€to€vote€and€the€positive€measures€whichÐ LÀ Ðhave€been€adopted€to€overcome€these€factors.€Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  à14.€€In€their€reports,€States€parties€should€indicate€and€explain€the€legislative€provisionsÐ „ Ðwhich€would€deprive€citizens€of€their€right€to€vote.€€The€grounds€for€such€deprivation€shouldÐ üp Ðbe€objective€and€reasonable.€€If€conviction€for€an€offence€is€a€basis€for€suspending€the€rightÐ è\ Ðto€vote,€the€period€of€such€suspension€should€be€proportionate€to€the€offence€and€theÐ ÔH Ðsentence.€€Persons€who€are€deprived€of€liberty€but€who€have€not€been€convicted€should€notÐ À4 Ðbe€excluded€from€exercising€the€right€to€vote.€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌà0  à15.€€The€effective€implementation€of€the€right€and€the€opportunity€to€stand€for€elective€officeÐ „ø Ðensures€that€persons€entitled€to€vote€have€a€free€choice€of€candidates.€€Any€restrictions€on€theÐ pä Ðright€to€stand€for€election,€such€as€minimum€age,€must€be€justifiable€on€objective€andÐ \ Ð Ðreasonable€criteria.€€Persons€who€are€otherwise€eligible€to€stand€for€election€should€not€beÐ H!¼ Ðexcluded€by€unreasonable€or€discriminatory€requirements€such€as€education,€residence€orÐ 4"¨ Ðdescent,€or€by€reason€of€political€affiliation.€€No€person€should€suffer€discrimination€orÐ  #” Ðdisadvantage€of€any€kind€because€of€that€person's€candidacy.€€States€parties€should€indicateÐ  $€  Ðand€explain€the€legislative€provisions€which€exclude€any€group€or€category€of€persons€fromÐ ø$l! Ðelective€office.€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à16.€€Conditions€relating€to€nomination€dates,€fees€or€deposits€should€be€reasonable€and€notÐ ¼'0!$ Ðdiscriminatory.€€If€there€are€reasonable€grounds€for€regarding€certain€elective€offices€asÐ ¨("% Ðincompatible€with€tenure€of€specific€positions€(e.g.€the€judiciary,€high„ranking€military€office,Ð ”)#& Ðpublic€service),€measures€to€avoid€any€conflicts€of€interest€should€not€unduly€limit€the€rightsÐ €*ô#' Ðprotected€by€paragraph€(b).€€The€grounds€for€the€removal€of€elected€office€holders€should€beÐ l+à$( Ðestablished€by€laws€based€on€objective€and€reasonable€criteria€and€incorporating€fairÐ Œ Ðprocedures.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à17.€€The€right€of€persons€to€stand€for€election€should€not€be€limited€unreasonably€byÐ P Ä Ðrequiring€candidates€to€be€members€of€parties€or€of€specific€parties.€€If€a€candidate€is€requiredÐ < ° Ðto€have€a€minimum€number€of€supporters€for€nomination€this€requirement€should€beÐ ( œ Ðreasonable€and€not€act€as€a€barrier€to€candidacy.€€Without€prejudice€to€paragraph€(1)€of€articleÐ  ˆ Ð5€of€the€Covenant,€political€opinion€may€not€be€used€as€a€ground€to€deprive€any€person€of€theÐ  t Ðright€to€stand€for€election.€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à18.€€State€reports€should€describe€the€legal€provisions€which€establish€the€conditions€forÐ Ä8  Ðholding€elective€public€office,€and€any€limitations€and€qualifications€which€apply€toÐ °$  Ðparticular€offices.€€Reports€should€describe€conditions€for€nomination,€e.g.€age€limits,€andÐ œ  Ðany€other€qualifications€or€restrictions.€€State€reports€should€indicate€whether€there€areÐ ˆü  Ðrestrictions€which€preclude€persons€in€public„service€positions€(including€positions€in€theÐ tè  Ðpolice€or€armed€services)€from€being€elected€to€particular€public€offices.€€The€legal€groundsÐ `Ô  Ðand€procedures€for€the€removal€of€elected€office€holders€should€be€described.€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à19.€€In€conformity€with€paragraph€(b),€elections€must€be€conducted€fairly€and€freely€on€aÐ $˜ Ðperiodic€basis€within€a€framework€of€laws€guaranteeing€the€effective€exercise€of€votingÐ „ Ðrights.€€Persons€entitled€to€vote€must€be€free€to€vote€for€any€candidate€for€election€and€for€orÐ üp Ðagainst€any€proposal€submitted€to€referendum€or€plebiscite,€and€free€to€support€or€to€opposeÐ è\ Ðgovernment,€without€undue€influence€or€coercion€of€any€kind€which€may€distort€or€inhibitÐ ÔH Ðthe€free€expression€of€the€elector's€will.€€Voters€should€be€able€to€form€opinionsÐ À4 Ðindependently,€free€of€violence€or€threat€of€violence,€compulsion,€inducement€orÐ ¬  Ðmanipulative€interference€of€any€kind.€€Reasonable€limitations€on€campaign€expenditure€mayÐ ˜  Ðbe€justified€where€this€is€necessary€to€ensure€that€the€free€choice€of€voters€is€not€underminedÐ „ø Ðor€the€democratic€pÔ_ÔrocessÔ_Ô€distorted€by€the€disproportionate€expenditure€on€behalf€of€anyÐ pä Ðcandidate€or€party.€€The€results€of€genuine€elections€should€be€respected€and€implemented.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à20.€€An€independent€electoral€authority€should€be€established€to€supervise€the€electoralÐ 4"¨ Ðprocess€and€to€ensure€that€it€is€conducted€fairly,€impartially€and€in€accordance€withÐ  #” Ðestablished€laws€which€are€compatible€with€the€Covenant.€€States€should€take€measures€toÐ  $€  Ðguarantee€the€requirement€of€the€secrecy€of€the€vote€during€elections,€including€absenteeÐ ø$l! Ðvoting,€where€such€a€system€exists.€€This€implies€that€voters€should€be€protected€from€anyÐ ä%X" Ðform€of€coercion€or€compulsion€to€disclose€how€they€intend€to€vote€or€how€they€voted,€andÐ Ð&D # Ðfrom€any€unlawful€or€arbitrary€interference€with€the€voting€process.€€Waiver€of€these€rightsÐ ¼'0!$ Ðis€incompatible€with€article€25€of€the€Covenant.€€The€security€of€ballot€boxes€must€beÐ ¨("% Ðguaranteed€and€votes€should€be€counted€in€the€presence€of€the€candidates€or€their€agents.€Ð ”)#& ÐThere€should€be€independent€scrutiny€of€the€voting€and€counting€process€and€access€toÐ €*ô#' Ðjudicial€review€or€other€equivalent€process€so€that€electors€have€confidence€in€the€securityÐ l+à$( Ðof€the€ballot€and€the€counting€of€the€votes.€€Assistance€provided€to€the€disabled,€blind€orÐ Œ Ðilliterate€should€be€independent.€€Electors€should€be€fully€informed€of€these€guarantees.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à21.€€Although€the€Covenant€does€not€impose€any€particular€electoral€system,€any€systemÐ P Ä Ðoperating€in€a€State€party€must€be€compatible€with€the€rights€protected€by€article€25€and€mustÐ < ° Ðguarantee€and€give€effect€to€the€free€expression€of€the€will€of€the€electors.€€The€principle€ofÐ ( œ Ðone€person,€one€vote,€must€apply,€and€within€the€framework€of€each€State's€electoral€system,Ð  ˆ Ðthe€vote€of€one€elector€should€be€equal€to€the€vote€of€another.€€The€drawing€of€electoralÐ  t Ðboundaries€and€the€method€of€allocating€votes€should€not€distort€the€distribution€of€votersÐ ì ` Ðor€discriminate€against€any€group€and€should€not€exclude€or€restrict€unreasonably€the€rightÐ ØL  Ðof€citizens€to€choose€their€representatives€freely.€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à22.€€State€reports€should€indicate€what€measures€they€have€adopted€to€guarantee€genuine,€freeÐ œ  Ðand€periodic€elections€and€how€their€electoral€system€or€systems€guarantee€and€give€effectÐ ˆü  Ðto€the€free€expression€of€the€will€of€the€electors.€€Reports€should€describe€the€electoral€systemÐ tè  Ðand€explain€how€the€different€political€views€in€the€community€are€represented€in€electedÐ `Ô  Ðbodies.€€Reports€should€also€describe€the€laws€and€procedures€which€ensure€that€the€right€toÐ LÀ Ðvote€can€in€fact€be€freely€exercised€by€all€citizens€and€indicate€how€the€secrecy,€security€andÐ 8¬ Ðvalidity€of€the€voting€process€are€guaranteed€by€law.€€The€practical€implementation€of€theseÐ $˜ Ðguarantees€in€the€period€covered€by€the€report€should€be€explained.€Ð„(#(# ÐÌà0  à23.€€Subparagraph€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€of€article€25€deals€with€the€right€and€the€opportunity€of€citizens€to€haveÐ è\ Ðaccess€on€general€terms€of€equality€to€public€service€positions.€€To€ensure€access€on€generalÐ ÔH Ðterms€of€equality,€the€criteria€and€processes€for€appointment,€promotion,€suspension€andÐ À4 Ðdismissal€must€be€objective€and€reasonable.€€Affirmative€measures€may€be€taken€inÐ ¬  Ðappropriate€cases€to€ensure€that€there€is€equal€access€to€public€sÔ_ÔerviceÔ_Ô€for€all€citizens.€€Ð ˜  ÐBasing€access€to€public€service€on€equal€opportunity€and€general€principles€of€merit,€andÐ „ø Ðproviding€secured€tenure,€ensures€that€persons€holding€public€service€positions€are€free€fromÐ pä Ðpolitical€interference€or€pressures.€€It€is€of€particular€importance€to€ensure€that€persons€do€notÐ \ Ð Ðsuffer€discrimination€in€the€exercise€of€their€rights€under€article€25,€subparagraph€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô),€on€anyÐ H!¼ Ðof€the€grounds€set€out€in€article€2,€paragraph€1.€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à24.€€State€reports€should€describe€the€conditions€for€access€to€public€service€positions,€anyÐ  $€  Ðrestrictions€which€apply€and€the€processes€for€appointment,€promotion,€suspension€andÐ ø$l! Ðdismissal€or€removal€from€office€as€well€as€the€judicial€or€other€review€mechanisms€whichÐ ä%X" Ðapply€to€these€processes.€€Reports€should€also€indicate€how€the€requirement€for€equal€accessÐ Ð&D # Ðis€met,€and€whether€affirmative€measures€have€been€introduced€and,€if€so,€to€what€extent.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à25.€€In€order€to€ensure€the€full€enjoyment€of€rights€protected€by€article€25,€the€freeÐ ”)#& Ðcommunication€of€information€and€ideas€about€public€and€political€issues€between€citizens,Ð €*ô#' Ðcandidates€and€elected€representatives€is€essential.€€This€implies€a€free€press€and€other€mediaÐ l+à$( Ðable€to€comment€on€public€issues€without€censorship€or€restraint€and€to€inform€publicÐ Œ Ðopinion.€€It€requires€the€full€enjoyment€and€respect€for€the€rights€guaranteed€in€articles€19,Ð xì Ð21€and€22€of€the€Covenant,€including€freedom€to€engage€in€political€activity€individually€orÐ dØ Ðthrough€political€parties€and€other€organizations,€freedom€to€debate€public€affairs,€to€holdÐ P Ä Ðpeaceful€demonstrations€and€meetings,€to€criticize€and€oppose,€to€publish€political€material,Ð < ° Ðto€campaign€for€election€and€to€advertise€political€ideas.€Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à26.€€The€right€to€freedom€of€association,€including€the€right€to€form€and€join€organizationsÐ  t Ðand€associations€concerned€with€political€and€public€affairs,€is€an€essential€adjunct€to€theÐ ì ` Ðrights€protected€by€article€25.€€Political€parties€and€membership€in€parties€play€a€significantÐ ØL  Ðrole€in€the€conduct€of€public€affairs€and€the€election€process.€€States€should€ensure€that,€inÐ Ä8  Ðtheir€internal€management,€political€parties€respect€the€applicable€provisions€of€article€25€inÐ °$  Ðorder€to€enable€citizens€to€exercise€their€rights€thereunder.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à27.€€Having€regard€to€the€provision€of€article€5,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant,€any€rightsÐ tè  Ðrecognized€and€protected€by€article€25€may€not€be€interpreted€as€implying€a€right€to€act€or€asÐ `Ô  Ðvalidating€any€act€aimed€at€the€destruction€or€limitation€of€the€rights€and€freedoms€protectedÐ LÀ Ðby€the€Covenant€to€a€greater€extent€than€what€is€provided€for€in€the€present€Covenant.€Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£yeÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICESCRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€15€(Twenty„ninth€session,€2002):€The€Right€to€Water€(arts.€11Ð üp Ðand€12€of€the€Covenant),€E/2003/22€(2002)€120€€at€para.€48.݃3£ye¦eÝŒÐè\(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐÀ4(#(# Ðà0  à48.€€€The€formulation€and€implementation€of€national€water€strategies€and€plans€of€actionÐ ¬  Ðshould€respect,òò€inter€aliaóó,€the€principles€of€non„discrimination€and€people's€participation.€TheÐ ˜  Ðright€of€individuals€and€groups€to€participate€in€decision„making€processes€that€may€affectÐ „ø Ðtheir€exercise€of€the€right€to€€water€must€be€an€integral€part€of€any€policy,€Ô_ÔprogrammeÔ_Ô€orÐ pä Ðstrategy€concerning€water.€Individuals€and€groups€should€be€given€full€and€equal€access€toÐ \ Ð Ðinformation€concerning€water,€water€services€and€the€environment,€held€by€public€authoritiesÐ H!¼ Ðor€third€parties.Ð4"¨(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð #”(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£VjÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€21€(Thirteenth€session,€1994):€Equality€in€Marriage€andÐ ä%X" ÐFamily€Relations,€A/49/38€(1994)€1€at€para.€6.€Ýƒ3£VjƒjÝŒÐÐ&D #(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...Ш("%(#(# Ðà0  à6.€€Nationality€is€critical€to€full€participation€in€society.€€In€general,€States€confer€nationalityÐ ”)#& Ðon€those€who€are€born€in€that€country.€€Nationality€can€also€be€acquired€by€reason€ofÐ €*ô#' Ðsettlement€or€granted€for€humanitarian€reasons€such€as€statelessness.€€Without€status€asÐ l+à$( Ðnationals€or€citizens,€women€are€deprived€of€the€right€to€vote€or€to€stand€for€public€office€andÐ Œ Ðmay€be€denied€access€to€public€benefits€and€a€choice€of€residence.€€Nationality€should€beÐ xì Ðcapable€of€change€by€an€adult€woman€and€should€not€be€arbitrarily€removed€because€ofÐ dØ Ðmarriage€or€dissolution€of€marriage€or€because€her€husband€or€father€changes€his€nationality.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£oÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€23€(Sixteenth€session,€1997):€Women€in€Public€Life,Ð  ˆ ÐA/52/38/Rev.1€Part€II€(1997)€61€at€paras.€1„50.݃3£oGo݌Рt(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐØL (#(# Ðà0  àòòBackgroundóóÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à1.€€The€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Discrimination€against€Women€placesÐ œ  Ðspecial€importance€on€the€participation€of€women€in€the€public€life€of€their€countries.€€TheÐ ˆü  Ðpreamble€to€the€Convention€states€in€part:€Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à"Recalling€that€discrimination€against€women€violates€the€principles€of€equality€of€rights€andÐ LÀ Ðrespect€for€human€dignity,€is€an€obstacle€to€the€participation€of€women,€on€equal€terms€withÐ 8¬ Ðmen,€in€the€political,€social,€economic€and€cultural€life€of€their€countries,€hampers€the€growthÐ $˜ Ðof€the€prosperity€of€society€and€the€family€and€makes€more€difficult€the€full€development€ofÐ „ Ðthe€potentialities€of€women€in€the€service€of€their€countries€and€of€humanity".€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à2.€€The€Convention€further€reiterates€in€its€preamble€the€importance€of€women's€participationÐ ÔH Ðin€decision„making€as€follows:€ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à"Convinced€that€the€full€and€complete€development€of€a€country,€the€welfare€of€the€worldÐ ˜  Ðand€the€cause€of€peace€require€the€maximum€participation€of€women€on€equal€terms€withÐ „ø Ðmen€in€all€fields".€Ðpä(#(# ÐÌà0  à3.€€Moreover,€in€article€1€of€the€Convention,€the€term€"discrimination€against€women"€isÐ H!¼ Ðinterpreted€to€mean:€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à"any€distinction,€exclusion€or€restriction€made€on€the€basis€of€sex€which€has€the€effect€orÐ  $€  Ðpurpose€of€impairing€or€nullifying€the€recognition,€enjoyment€or€exercise€by€women,Ð ø$l! Ðirrespective€of€their€marital€status,€on€a€basis€of€equality€of€men€and€women,€of€human€rightsÐ ä%X" Ðand€fundamental€freedoms€in€the€political,€economic,€social,€cultural,€civil€or€any€otherÐ Ð&D # Ðfield".€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à4.€€Other€conventions,€dÔ_ÔeclarationsÔ_Ô€and€international€analyses€place€great€importance€on€theÐ ”)#& Ðparticipation€of€women€in€public€life€and€have€set€a€framework€of€international€standards€ofÐ €*ô#' Ðequality.€€These€include€the€Universal€Declaration€of€Human€Rights,€òò1óó/€the€InternationalÐ l+à$( ÐCovenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights,€òò2óó/€the€Convention€on€the€Political€Rights€of€Women,Ð Œ Ðòò3óó/€the€Vienna€Declaration,€òò4óó/€paragraph€13€of€the€Beijing€Declaration€and€Platform€forÐ xì ÐAction,€òò5óó/€general€recommendations€5€and€8€under€the€Convention,€òò6óó/€general€comment€25Ð dØ Ðadopted€by€the€Human€Rights€Committee,€òò7óó/€the€recommendation€adopted€by€the€CouncilÐ P Ä Ðof€the€European€Union€on€balanced€participation€of€women€and€men€in€the€decision„makingÐ < ° Ðprocess€òò8óó/€and€the€European€Commission's€"How€to€Create€a€Gender€Balance€in€PoliticalÐ ( œ ÐDecision„making".€òò9óó/€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à5.€€Article€7€obliges€States€parties€to€take€all€appropriate€measures€to€eliminateÐ ì ` Ðdiscrimination€against€women€in€political€and€public€life€and€to€ensure€that€they€enjoyÐ ØL  Ðequality€with€men€in€political€and€public€life.€€The€obligation€specified€in€article€7€extendsÐ Ä8  Ðto€all€areas€of€public€and€political€life€and€is€not€limited€to€those€areas€specified€inÐ °$  Ðsubparagraphs€(a),€(b)€and€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô).€€The€political€and€public€life€of€a€country€is€a€broad€concept.Ð œ  ÐIt€refers€to€the€exercise€of€political€power,€in€particular€the€exercise€of€legislative,€judicial,Ð ˆü  Ðexecutive€and€administrative€powers.€€The€term€covers€all€aspects€of€public€administrationÐ tè  Ðand€the€formulation€and€implementation€of€policy€at€the€international,€national,€regional€andÐ `Ô  Ðlocal€levels.€€The€concept€also€includes€many€aspects€of€civil€society,€including€public€boardsÐ LÀ Ðand€local€councils€and€the€activities€of€organizations€such€as€political€parties,€trade€unions,Ð 8¬ Ðprofessional€or€industry€associations,€women's€organizations,€community„basedÐ $˜ Ðorganizations€and€other€organizations€concerned€with€public€and€political€life.€Ð„(#(# ÐÌà0  à6.€€The€Convention€envisages€that,€to€be€effective,€this€equality€must€be€achieved€within€theÐ è\ Ðframework€of€a€political€system€in€which€each€citizen€enjoys€the€right€to€vote€and€be€electedÐ ÔH Ðat€genuine€periodic€elections€held€on€the€basis€of€universal€suffrage€and€by€secret€ballot,€inÐ À4 Ðsuch€a€way€as€to€guarantee€the€free€expression€of€the€will€of€the€electorate,€as€provided€forÐ ¬  Ðunder€international€hÔ_ÔumanÔ_Ô€rights€instruments,€such€as€article€21€of€the€Universal€DeclarationÐ ˜  Ðof€Human€Rights€and€article€25€of€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.€Ð„ø(#(# ÐÌà0  à7.€€The€Convention's€emphasis€on€the€importance€of€equality€of€opportunity€and€ofÐ \ Ð Ðparticipation€in€public€life€and€decision„making€has€led€the€Committee€to€review€article€7€andÐ H!¼ Ðto€suggest€to€States€parties€that€in€reviewing€their€laws€and€policies€and€in€reporting€underÐ 4"¨ Ðthe€Convention,€they€should€take€into€account€the€comments€and€recommendations€set€outÐ  #” Ðbelow.€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòCommentsóó€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  à8.€€Public€and€private€spheres€of€human€activity€have€always€been€considered€distinct,€andÐ ¼'0!$ Ðhave€been€regulated€accordingly.€€Invariably,€women€have€been€assigned€to€the€private€orÐ ¨("% Ðdomestic€sphere,€associated€with€reproduction€and€the€raising€of€children,€and€in€all€societiesÐ ”)#& Ðthese€activities€have€been€treated€as€inferior.€€By€contrast,€public€life,€which€is€respected€andÐ €*ô#' ÐÔ_ÔhonouredÔ_Ô,€extends€to€a€broad€range€of€activity€outside€the€private€and€domestic€sphere.€€MenÐ l+à$( Ðhistorically€have€both€dominated€public€life€and€exercised€the€power€to€confine€andÐ Œ Ðsubordinate€women€within€the€private€sphere.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  à9.€€Despite€women's€central€role€in€sustaining€the€family€and€society€and€their€contributionÐ P Ä Ðto€development,€they€have€been€excluded€from€political€life€and€the€decision„making€process,Ð < ° Ðwhich€nonetheless€determine€the€pattern€of€their€daily€lives€and€the€future€of€societies.€Ð ( œ ÐParticularly€in€times€of€crisis,€this€exclusion€has€silenced€women's€voices€and€renderedÐ  ˆ Ðinvisible€their€contribution€and€experiences.€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  à10.€€In€all€nations,€the€most€significant€factors€inhibiting€women's€ability€to€participate€inÐ ØL  Ðpublic€life€have€been€the€cultural€framework€of€values€and€religious€beliefs,€the€lack€ofÐ Ä8  Ðservices€and€men's€failure€to€share€the€tasks€associated€with€the€organization€of€the€householdÐ °$  Ðand€with€the€care€and€raising€of€children.€€In€all€nations,€cultural€traditions€and€religiousÐ œ  Ðbeliefs€have€played€a€part€in€confining€women€to€the€private€spheres€of€activity€and€excludingÐ ˆü  Ðthem€from€active€participation€in€public€life.€Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à11.€€Relieving€women€of€some€of€the€burdens€of€domestic€work€would€allow€them€to€engageÐ LÀ Ðmore€fully€in€the€life€of€their€communities.€€Women's€economic€dependence€on€men€oftenÐ 8¬ Ðprevents€them€from€making€important€political€decisions€and€from€participating€actively€inÐ $˜ Ðpublic€life.€€Their€double€burden€of€work€and€their€economic€dependence,€coupled€with€theÐ „ Ðlong€or€inflexible€hours€of€both€public€and€political€work,€prevent€women€from€being€moreÐ üp Ðactive.€Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  à12.€€Stereotyping,€including€that€perpetrated€by€the€media,€confines€women€in€political€lifeÐ À4 Ðto€issues€such€as€the€environment,€children€and€health,€and€excludes€them€from€responsibilityÐ ¬  Ðfor€finance,€budgetary€control€and€conflict€resolution.€€The€low€involvement€of€women€in€theÐ ˜  Ðprofessions€from€which€politicians€are€recruited€can€create€another€obstacle.€€In€countriesÐ „ø Ðwhere€women€leaders€do€assume€power€this€can€be€the€result€of€the€influence€of€their€fathers,Ð pä Ðhusbands€or€male€relatives€rather€than€electoral€success€in€their€own€right.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòPolitical€systemsóó€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à13.€€The€principle€of€equality€of€women€and€men€has€been€affirmed€in€the€constitutions€andÐ  $€  Ðlaws€of€most€countries€and€in€all€international€instruments.€€Nonetheless,€in€the€last€50€years,Ð ø$l! Ðwomen€have€not€achieved€equality,€and€their€inequality€has€been€reinforced€by€their€low€levelÐ ä%X" Ðof€participation€in€public€and€political€life.€€Policies€developed€and€decisions€made€by€menÐ Ð&D # Ðalone€reflect€only€part€of€human€experience€and€potential.€€The€just€and€effectiveÐ ¼'0!$ Ðorganization€of€society€demands€the€inclusion€and€participation€of€all€its€members.€Ð¨("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à14.€€No€political€system€has€conferred€on€women€both€the€right€to€and€the€benefit€of€full€andÐ €*ô#' Ðequal€participation.€€While€democratic€systems€have€improved€women's€opportunities€forÐ l+à$( Ðinvolvement€in€political€life,€the€many€economic,€social€and€cultural€barriers€they€continueÐ Œ Ðto€face€have€seriously€limited€their€participation.€€Even€historically€stable€democracies€haveÐ xì Ðfailed€to€integrate€fully€and€equally€the€opinions€and€interests€of€the€female€half€of€theÐ dØ Ðpopulation.€€Societies€in€which€women€are€excluded€from€public€life€and€decision„makingÐ P Ä Ðcannot€be€described€as€democratic.€€The€concept€of€democracy€will€have€real€and€dynamicÐ < ° Ðmeaning€and€lasting€effect€only€when€political€decision„making€is€shared€by€women€and€menÐ ( œ Ðand€takes€equal€account€of€the€interests€of€both.€€The€examination€of€States€parties'€reportsÐ  ˆ Ðshows€that€where€there€is€full€and€equal€participation€of€women€in€public€life€and€decision„Ð  t Ðmaking,€the€implementation€of€their€rights€and€compliance€with€the€Convention€improves.€Ð ì ` ÐÐ (#(# Ðà0  àòòTemporary€special€measuresóó€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à15.€€While€removal€of€òòde€jureóó€barriers€is€necessary,€it€is€not€sufficient.€Failure€to€achieve€fullÐ œ  Ðand€equal€participation€of€women€can€be€unintentional€and€the€result€of€outmoded€practicesÐ ˆü  Ðand€procedures€which€inadvertently€promote€men.€€Under€article€4,€the€ConventionÐ tè  Ðencourages€the€use€of€temporary€special€measures€in€order€to€give€full€effect€to€articles€7€andÐ `Ô  Ð8.€€Where€countries€have€developed€effective€temporary€strategies€in€an€attempt€to€achieveÐ LÀ Ðequality€of€participation,€a€wide€range€of€measures€has€been€implemented,€includingÐ 8¬ Ðrecruiting,€financially€assisting€and€training€women€candidates,€amending€electoralÐ $˜ Ðprocedures,€developing€campaigns€directed€at€equal€participation,€setting€numerical€goals€andÐ „ Ðquotas€and€targeting€women€for€appointment€to€public€positions€such€as€the€judiciary€or€otherÐ üp Ðprofessional€groups€that€play€an€essential€part€in€the€everyday€life€of€all€societies.€€The€formalÐ è\ Ðremoval€of€barriers€and€the€introduction€of€temporary€special€measures€to€encourage€theÐ ÔH Ðequal€participation€of€both€men€and€women€in€the€public€life€of€their€societies€are€essentialÐ À4 Ðprerequisites€to€true€equality€in€political€life.€€In€order,€however,€to€overcome€centuries€ofÐ ¬  Ðmale€domination€of€the€public€sphere,€women€also€require€the€encouragement€and€supportÐ ˜  Ðof€all€sectors€of€society€to€achieve€full€and€effective€participation,€encouragement€which€mustÐ „ø Ðbe€led€by€States€parties€to€the€Convention,€as€well€as€by€political€parties€and€public€officials.€Ð pä ÐStates€parties€have€an€obligation€to€ensure€that€temporary€special€measures€are€clearlyÐ \ Ð Ðdesigned€to€support€the€principle€of€equality€and€therefore€comply€with€constitutionalÐ H!¼ Ðprinciples€which€guarantee€equality€to€all€citizens.€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòSummaryóó€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à16.€€The€critical€issue,€emphasized€in€the€Beijing€Platform€for€Action,€òò5óó/€is€the€gap€betweenÐ ä%X" Ðthe€òòde€jureóó€and€òòde€factoóó,€or€the€right€as€against€the€reality€of€women's€participation€in€politicsÐ Ð&D # Ðand€public€life€generally.€€Research€demonstrates€that€if€women's€participation€reaches€30€toÐ ¼'0!$ Ð35€per€cent€(generally€termed€a€"critical€mass"),€there€is€a€real€impact€on€political€style€andÐ ¨("% Ðthe€content€of€decisions,€and€political€life€is€revitalized.€Ð”)#&(#(# ÐÌà0  à17.€€In€order€to€achieve€broad€representation€in€public€life,€women€must€have€full€equalityÐ l+à$( Ðin€the€exercise€of€political€and€economic€power;€they€must€be€fully€and€equally€involved€inÐ Œ Ðdecision„making€at€all€levels,€both€nationally€and€internationally,€so€that€they€may€make€theirÐ xì Ðcontribution€to€the€goals€of€equality,€development€and€the€achievement€of€peace.€€A€genderÐ dØ Ðperspective€is€critical€if€these€goals€are€to€be€met€and€if€true€democracy€is€to€be€assured.€€ForÐ P Ä Ðthese€reasons,€it€is€essential€to€involve€women€in€public€life€to€take€advantage€of€theirÐ < ° Ðcontribution,€to€assure€their€interests€are€protected€and€to€fulfil€the€guarantee€that€theÐ ( œ Ðenjoyment€of€human€rights€is€for€all€people€regardless€of€gender.€€Women's€full€participationÐ  ˆ Ðis€essential€not€only€for€their€empowerment€but€also€for€the€advancement€of€society€as€aÐ  t Ðwhole.€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticle€7(a)€(The€right€to€vote€and€to€be€elected)óóÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à18.€€The€Convention€obliges€States€parties€in€constitutions€or€legislation€to€take€appropriateÐ œ  Ðsteps€to€ensure€that€women,€on€the€basis€of€equality€with€men,€enjoy€the€right€to€vote€in€allÐ ˆü  Ðelections€and€referendums,€and€to€be€elected.€€These€rights€must€be€enjoyed€both€òòde€jureóó€andÐ tè  Ðòòde€factoóó.€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à19.€€The€examination€of€the€reports€of€States€parties€demonstrates€that,€while€almost€all€haveÐ 8¬ Ðadopted€constitutional€or€other€legal€provisions€that€grant€to€both€women€and€men€the€equalÐ $˜ Ðright€to€vote€in€all€elections€and€public€referendums,€in€many€nations€women€continue€toÐ „ Ðexperience€difficulties€in€exercising€this€right.€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  à20.€€Factors€which€impede€these€rights€include€the€following:€ÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Women€frequently€have€less€access€than€men€to€information€about€candidates€and€aboutÐ ¬  Ðparty€political€platforms€and€voting€procedures,€information€which€Governments€andÐ ˜  Ðpolitical€parties€have€failed€to€provide.€€Other€important€factors€that€inhibit€women's€full€andÐ „ø Ðequal€exercise€of€their€right€to€vote€include€their€illiteracy,€their€lack€of€knowledge€andÐ pä Ðunderstanding€of€political€systems€or€about€the€impact€that€political€initiatives€and€policiesÐ \ Ð Ðwill€have€upon€their€lives.€€Failure€to€understand€the€rights,€responsibilities€and€opportunitiesÐ H!¼ Ðfor€change€conferred€by€franchise€also€means€that€women€are€not€always€registered€to€vote;€Ð4"¨(#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Women's€double€burden€of€work,€as€well€as€financial€constraints,€will€limit€women'sÐ  $€  Ðtime€or€opportunity€to€follow€electoral€campaigns€and€to€have€the€full€freedom€to€exerciseÐ ø$l! Ðtheir€vote;€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€€In€many€nations,€traditions€and€social€and€cultural€stereotypes€discourage€women€fromÐ ¼'0!$ Ðexercising€their€right€to€vote.€€Many€men€influence€or€control€the€votes€of€women€byÐ ¨("% Ðpersuasion€or€direct€action,€including€voting€on€their€behalf.€€Any€such€practices€should€beÐ ”)#& Ðprevented;€Ð€*ô#'(#(# ÐÐ l+à$( Ðà0  à(d)€€Other€factors€that€in€some€countries€inhibit€women's€involvement€in€the€public€orÐ Œ Ðpolitical€lives€of€their€communities€include€restrictions€on€their€freedom€of€movement€orÐ xì Ðright€to€participate,€prevailing€negative€attitudes€towards€women's€political€participation,€orÐ dØ Ða€lack€of€confidence€in€and€support€for€female€candidates€by€the€electorate.€€In€addition,€someÐ P Ä Ðwomen€consider€involvement€in€politics€to€be€distasteful€and€avoid€participation€in€politicalÐ < ° Ðcampaigns.€Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à21.€€These€factors€at€least€partially€explain€the€paradox€that€women,€who€represent€half€ofÐ  t Ðall€electorates,€do€not€wield€their€political€power€or€form€blocs€which€would€promote€theirÐ ì ` Ðinterests€or€change€government,€or€eliminate€discriminatory€policies.€ÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  à22.€€The€system€of€balloting,€the€distribution€of€seats€in€Parliament,€the€choice€of€district,€allÐ °$  Ðhave€a€significant€impact€on€the€proportion€of€women€elected€to€Parliament.€€Political€partiesÐ œ  Ðmust€embrace€the€principles€of€equal€opportunity€and€democracy€and€Ô_ÔendeavourÔ_Ô€to€balanceÐ ˆü  Ðthe€number€of€male€and€female€candidates.€Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à23.€€The€enjoyment€of€the€right€to€vote€by€women€should€not€be€subject€to€restrictions€orÐ LÀ Ðconditions€that€do€not€apply€to€men€or€that€have€a€disproportionate€impact€on€women.€€ForÐ 8¬ Ðexample,€limiting€the€right€to€vote€to€persons€who€have€a€specified€level€of€education,€whoÐ $˜ Ðpossess€a€minimum€property€qualification€or€who€are€literate€is€not€only€unreasonable,€it€mayÐ „ Ðviolate€the€universal€guarantee€of€human€rights.€€It€is€also€likely€to€have€a€disproportionateÐ üp Ðimpact€on€women,€thereby€contravening€the€provisions€of€the€Convention.€Ðè\(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticle€7(b)€(The€right€to€participate€in€formulation€of€government€policy)óó€ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à24.€€The€participation€of€women€in€government€at€the€policy€level€continues€to€be€low€inÐ ˜  Ðgeneral.€€Although€significant€progress€has€been€made€and€in€some€countries€equality€hasÐ „ø Ðbeen€achieved,€in€many€countries€women's€participation€has€actually€been€reduced.€Ðpä(#(# ÐÌà0  à25.€€Article€7€(b)€also€requires€States€parties€to€ensure€that€women€have€the€right€toÐ H!¼ Ðparticipate€fully€in€and€be€represented€in€public€policy€formulation€in€all€sectors€and€at€allÐ 4"¨ Ðlevels.€€This€would€facilitate€the€Ô_ÔmainstreamingÔ_Ô€of€gender€issues€and€contribute€a€genderÐ  #” Ðperspective€to€public€policy„making.€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à26.€€States€parties€have€a€responsibility,€where€it€is€within€their€control,€both€to€appointÐ ä%X" Ðwomen€to€senior€decision„making€roles€and,€as€a€matter€of€course,€to€consult€and€incorporateÐ Ð&D # Ðthe€advice€of€groups€which€are€broadly€representative€of€women's€views€and€interests.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à27.€€States€parties€have€a€further€obligation€to€ensure€that€barriers€to€women's€fullÐ ”)#& Ðparticipation€in€the€formulation€of€government€policy€are€identified€and€overcome.€€TheseÐ €*ô#' Ðbarriers€include€complacency€when€token€women€are€appointed,€and€traditional€andÐ l+à$( Ðcustomary€attitudes€that€discourage€women's€participation.€€When€women€are€not€broadlyÐ Œ Ðrepresented€in€the€senior€levels€of€government€or€are€inadequately€or€not€consulted€at€all,Ð xì Ðgovernment€policy€will€not€be€comprehensive€and€effective.€ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à28.€€While€States€parties€generally€hold€the€power€to€appoint€women€to€senior€cabinet€andÐ < ° Ðadministrative€positions,€political€parties€also€have€a€responsibility€to€ensure€that€women€areÐ ( œ Ðincluded€in€party€lists€and€nominated€for€election€in€areas€where€they€have€a€likelihood€ofÐ  ˆ Ðelectoral€success.€€States€parties€should€also€Ô_ÔendeavourÔ_Ô€to€ensure€that€women€are€appointedÐ  t Ðto€government€advisory€bodies€on€an€equal€basis€with€men€and€that€these€bodies€take€intoÐ ì ` Ðaccount,€as€appropriate,€the€views€of€representative€women's€groups.€€It€is€the€Government'sÐ ØL  Ðfundamental€responsibility€to€encourage€these€initiatives€to€lead€and€guide€public€opinion€andÐ Ä8  Ðchange€attitudes€that€discriminate€against€women€or€discourage€women's€involvement€inÐ °$  Ðpolitical€and€public€life.€Ðœ (#(# ÐÌà0  à29.€€Measures€that€have€been€adopted€by€a€number€of€States€parties€in€order€to€ensure€equalÐ tè  Ðparticipation€by€women€in€senior€cabinet€and€administrative€positions€and€as€members€ofÐ `Ô  Ðgovernment€advisory€bodies€include:€adoption€of€a€rule€whereby,€when€potential€appointeesÐ LÀ Ðare€equally€qualified,€preference€will€be€given€to€a€woman€nominee;€the€adoption€of€a€ruleÐ 8¬ Ðthat€neither€sex€should€constitute€less€than€40€per€cent€of€the€members€of€a€public€body;€aÐ $˜ Ðquota€for€women€members€of€cabinet€and€for€appointment€to€public€office;€and€consultationÐ „ Ðwith€women's€organizations€to€ensure€that€qualified€women€are€nominated€for€membershipÐ üp Ðin€public€bodies€and€offices€and€the€development€and€maintenance€of€registers€of€suchÐ è\ Ðwomen€in€order€to€facilitate€the€nomination€of€women€for€appointment€to€public€bodies€andÐ ÔH Ðposts.€€Where€members€are€appointed€to€advisory€bodies€upon€the€nomination€of€privateÐ À4 Ðorganizations,€States€parties€should€encourage€these€organizations€to€nominate€qualified€andÐ ¬  Ðsuitable€women€for€membership€in€these€bodies.€Ð˜ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticle€7(b)€(The€right€to€hold€public€office€and€to€perform€all€public€functions)óóÐpä(#(# ÐÌà0  à30.€€The€examination€of€the€reports€of€States€parties€demonstrates€that€women€are€excludedÐ H!¼ Ðfrom€top„ranking€positions€in€cabinets,€the€civil€service€and€in€public€administration,€in€theÐ 4"¨ Ðjudiciary€and€in€justice€systems.€€Women€are€rarely€appointed€to€these€senior€or€influentialÐ  #” Ðpositions€and€while€their€numbers€may€in€some€States€be€increasing€at€the€lower€levels€andÐ  $€  Ðin€posts€usually€associated€with€the€home€or€the€family,€they€form€only€a€tiny€minority€inÐ ø$l! Ðdecision„making€positions€concerned€with€economic€policy€or€development,€political€affairs,Ð ä%X" ÐÔ_ÔdefenceÔ_Ô,€peacemaking€missions,€conflict€resolution€or€constitutional€interpretation€andÐ Ð&D # Ðdetermination.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à31.€€Examination€of€the€reports€of€States€parties€also€demonstrates€that€in€certain€cases€theÐ ”)#& Ðlaw€excludes€women€from€exercising€royal€powers,€from€serving€as€judges€in€religious€orÐ €*ô#' Ðtraditional€tribunals€vested€with€jurisdiction€on€behalf€of€the€State€or€from€full€participationÐ l+à$( Ðin€the€military.€€These€provisions€discriminate€against€women,€deny€to€society€the€advantagesÐ Œ Ðof€their€involvement€and€skills€in€these€areas€of€the€life€of€their€communities€and€contraveneÐ xì Ðthe€principles€of€the€Convention.€ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticle€7Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€(The€right€to€participate€in€non„governmental€and€public€and€politicalÐ < ° Ðorganizations)óó€Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à32.€€An€examination€of€the€reports€of€States€parties€demonstrates€that,€on€the€few€occasionsÐ  t Ðwhen€information€concerning€political€parties€is€provided,€women€are€Ô_ÔunderrepresentedÔ_Ô€orÐ ì ` Ðconcentrated€in€less€influential€roles€than€men.€€As€political€parties€are€an€important€vehicleÐ ØL  Ðin€decision„making€roles,€Governments€should€encourage€political€parties€to€examine€theÐ Ä8  Ðextent€to€which€women€are€full€and€equal€participants€in€their€activities€and,€where€this€is€notÐ °$  Ðthe€case,€should€identify€the€reasons€for€this.€€Political€parties€should€be€encouraged€to€adoptÐ œ  Ðeffective€measures,€including€the€provision€of€information,€financial€and€other€resources,€toÐ ˆü  Ðovercome€obstacles€to€women's€full€participation€and€representation€and€ensure€that€womenÐ tè  Ðhave€an€equal€opportunity€in€practice€to€serve€as€party€officials€and€to€be€nominated€asÐ `Ô  Ðcandidates€for€election.€ÐLÀ(#(# ÐÌà0  à33.€€Measures€that€have€been€adopted€by€some€political€parties€include€setting€aside€forÐ $˜ Ðwomen€a€certain€minimum€number€or€percentage€of€positions€on€their€executive€bodies,Ð „ Ðensuring€that€there€is€a€balance€between€the€number€of€male€and€female€candidatesÐ üp Ðnominated€for€election,€and€ensuring€that€women€are€not€consistently€assigned€to€lessÐ è\ ÐÔ_ÔfavourableÔ_Ô€constituencies€or€to€the€least€advantageous€positions€on€a€party€list.€€States€partiesÐ ÔH Ðshould€ensure€that€such€temporary€special€measures€are€specifically€permitted€under€anti„Ð À4 Ðdiscrimination€legislation€or€other€constitutional€guarantees€of€equality.€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌà0  à34.€€Other€organizations€such€as€trade€unions€and€political€parties€have€an€obligation€toÐ „ø Ðdemonstrate€their€commitment€to€the€principle€of€gender€equality€in€their€constitutions,€inÐ pä Ðthe€application€of€those€rules€and€in€the€composition€of€their€memberships€with€gender„Ð \ Ð Ðbalanced€representation€on€their€executive€boards€so€that€these€bodies€may€benefit€from€theÐ H!¼ Ðfull€and€equal€participation€of€all€sectors€of€society€and€from€contributions€made€by€bothÐ 4"¨ Ðsexes.€€These€organizations€also€provide€a€valuable€training€ground€for€women€in€politicalÐ  #” Ðskills,€participation€and€leadership,€as€do€non„governmental€organizations€(Ô_ÔNGOsÔ_Ô).Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticle€8óóÐä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  àStates€Parties€shall€take€all€appropriate€measures€to€ensure€to€women,€on€equal€terms€withÐ ¼'0!$ Ðmen€and€without€any€discrimination,€the€opportunity€to€represent€their€Governments€at€theÐ ¨("% Ðinternational€level€and€to€participate€in€the€work€of€international€organizations.€Ð”)#&(#(# ÐÌÐ l+à$( Ðà0  àòòCommentsóó€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à35.€€Under€article€8,€Governments€are€obliged€to€ensure€the€presence€of€women€at€all€levelsÐ dØ Ðand€in€all€areas€of€international€affairs.€€This€requires€that€they€be€included€in€economic€andÐ P Ä Ðmilitary€matters,€in€both€multilateral€and€bilateral€diplomacy,€and€in€official€delegations€toÐ < ° Ðinternational€and€regional€conferences.€Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  à36.€€From€an€examination€of€the€reports€of€States€parties,€it€is€evident€that€women€are€grosslyÐ  t Ðunder„represented€in€the€diplomatic€and€foreign€services€of€most€Governments,€andÐ ì ` Ðparticularly€at€the€highest€ranks.€€Women€tend€to€be€assigned€to€embassies€of€lesserÐ ØL  Ðimportance€to€the€country's€foreign€relations€and€in€some€cases€women€are€discriminatedÐ Ä8  Ðagainst€in€terms€of€their€appointments€by€restrictions€pertaining€to€their€marital€status.€€InÐ °$  Ðother€instances€Ô_ÔspousalÔ_Ô€and€family€benefits€accorded€to€male€diplomats€are€not€available€toÐ œ  Ðwomen€in€parallel€positions.€€Opportunities€for€women€to€engage€in€international€work€areÐ ˆü  Ðoften€denied€because€of€assumptions€about€their€domestic€responsibilities,€including€that€theÐ tè  Ðcare€of€family€dependants€will€prevent€them€accepting€appointment.€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à37.€€Many€permanent€missions€to€the€United€Nations€and€to€other€international€organizationsÐ 8¬ Ðhave€no€women€among€their€diplomats€and€very€few€at€senior€levels.€€The€situation€is€similarÐ $˜ Ðat€expert€meetings€and€conferences€that€establish€international€and€global€goals,€agendas€andÐ „ Ðpriorities.€€Organizations€of€the€United€Nations€system€and€various€economic,€political€andÐ üp Ðmilitary€structures€at€the€regional€level€have€become€important€international€publicÐ è\ Ðemployers,€but€here,€too,€women€have€remained€a€minority€concentrated€in€lower„levelÐ ÔH Ðpositions.€ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à38.€€There€are€few€opportunities€for€women€and€men,€on€equal€terms,€to€representÐ ˜  ÐGovernments€at€the€international€level€and€to€participate€in€the€work€of€internationalÐ „ø Ðorganizations.€€This€is€frequently€the€result€of€an€absence€of€objective€criteria€and€processesÐ pä Ðfor€appointment€and€promotion€to€relevant€positions€and€official€delegations.€Ð\ Ð(#(# ÐÌà0  à39.€€The€globalization€of€the€contemporary€world€makes€the€inclusion€of€women€and€theirÐ 4"¨ Ðparticipation€in€international€organizations,€on€equal€terms€with€men,€increasingly€important.€Ð  #” ÐThe€integration€of€a€gender€perspective€and€women's€human€rights€into€the€agenda€of€allÐ  $€  Ðinternational€bodies€is€a€government€imperative.€€Many€crucial€decisions€on€global€issues,Ð ø$l! Ðsuch€as€peacemaking€and€conflict€resolution,€military€expenditure€and€nuclear€disarmament,Ð ä%X" Ðdevelopment€and€the€environment,€foreign€aid€and€economic€restructuring,€are€taken€withÐ Ð&D # Ðlimited€participation€of€women.€€This€is€in€stark€contrast€to€their€participation€in€these€areasÐ ¼'0!$ Ðat€the€non„governmental€level.€Ð¨("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à40.€€The€inclusion€of€a€critical€mass€of€women€in€international€negotiations,€peacekeepingÐ €*ô#' Ðactivities,€all€levels€of€preventive€diplomacy,€mediation,€humanitarian€assistance,€socialÐ l+à$( Ðreconciliation,€peace€negotiations€and€the€international€criminal€justice€system€will€make€aÐ Œ Ðdifference.€€In€addressing€armed€or€other€conflicts,€a€gender€perspective€and€analysis€isÐ xì Ðnecessary€to€understand€their€differing€effects€on€women€and€men.€òò10óó/€ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòRecommendationsóóÐ< °(#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticles€7€and€8óó€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à41.€€States€parties€should€ensure€that€their€constitutions€and€legislation€comply€with€theÐ ì ` Ðprinciples€of€the€Convention,€and€in€particular€with€articles€7€and€8.€ÐØL (#(# ÐÌà0  à42.€€States€parties€are€under€an€obligation€to€take€all€appropriate€measures,€including€theÐ °$  Ðenactment€of€appropriate€legislation€that€complies€with€their€Constitution,€to€ensure€thatÐ œ  Ðorganizations€such€as€political€parties€and€trade€unions,€which€may€not€be€subject€directlyÐ ˆü  Ðto€obligations€under€the€Convention,€do€not€discriminate€against€women€and€respect€theÐ tè  Ðprinciples€contained€in€articles€7€and€8.€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à43.€€States€parties€should€identify€and€implement€temporary€special€measures€to€ensure€theÐ 8¬ Ðequal€representation€of€women€in€all€fields€covered€by€articles€7€and€8.€Ð$˜(#(# ÐÌà0  à44.€€States€parties€should€explain€the€reason€for,€and€effect€of,€any€reservations€to€articles€7Ð üp Ðor€8€and€indicate€where€the€reservations€reflect€traditional,€customary€or€stereotyped€attitudesÐ è\ Ðtowards€women's€roles€in€society,€as€well€as€the€steps€being€taken€by€the€States€parties€toÐ ÔH Ðchange€those€attitudes.€€States€parties€should€keep€the€necessity€for€such€reservations€underÐ À4 Ðclose€review€and€in€their€reports€include€a€timetable€for€their€removal.€Ð¬ (#(# ÐÌà0  àòòArticle€7óó€Ð„ø(#(# ÐÌà0  à45.€€Measures€that€should€be€identified,€implemented€and€monitored€for€effectivenessÐ \ Ð Ðinclude,€under€article€7,€paragraph€(a),€those€designed€to:€ÐH!¼(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Achieve€a€balance€between€women€and€men€holding€publicly€elected€positions;€Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Ensure€that€women€understand€their€right€to€vote,€the€importance€of€this€right€and€howÐ ø$l! Ðto€exercise€it;€Ðä%X"(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€€Ensure€that€barriers€to€equality€are€overcome,€including€those€resulting€from€illiteracy,Ð ¼'0!$ Ðlanguage,€poverty€and€impediments€to€women's€freedom€of€movement;€Ð¨("%(#(# ÐÌà0  à(d)€€Assist€women€experiencing€such€disadvantages€to€exercise€their€right€to€vote€and€to€beÐ €*ô#' Ðelected.€Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  à46.€€Under€article€7,€paragraph€(b),€such€measures€include€those€designed€to€ensure:€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Equality€of€representation€of€women€in€the€formulation€of€government€policy;€ÐdØ(#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Women's€enjoyment€in€practice€of€the€equal€right€to€hold€public€office;€Ð< °(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€€Recruiting€processes€directed€at€women€that€are€open€and€subject€to€appeal.€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à47.€€Under€article€7,€paragraph€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô),€such€measures€include€those€designed€to:€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Ensure€that€effective€legislation€is€enacted€prohibiting€discrimination€against€women;€ÐÄ8 (#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Encourage€non„governmental€organizations€and€public€and€political€associations€to€adoptÐ œ  Ðstrategies€that€encourage€women's€representation€and€participation€in€their€work.€Ðˆü (#(# ÐÌà0  à48.€€When€reporting€under€article€7,€States€parties€should:€Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Describe€the€legal€provisions€that€give€effect€to€the€rights€contained€in€article€7;€Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Provide€details€of€any€restrictions€to€those€rights,€whether€arising€from€legal€provisionsÐ „ Ðor€from€traditional,€religious€or€cultural€practices;€Ðüp(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€€Describe€the€measures€introduced€and€designed€to€overcome€barriers€to€the€exercise€ofÐ ÔH Ðthose€rights;€ÐÀ4(#(# ÐÌà0  à(d)€€Include€statistical€data,€Ô_ÔdisaggregatedÔ_Ô€by€sex,€showing€the€percentage€of€women€relativeÐ ˜  Ðto€men€who€enjoy€those€rights;€Ð„ø(#(# ÐÌà0  à(e)€€Describe€the€types€of€policy€formulation,€including€that€associated€with€developmentÐ \ Ð ÐÔ_ÔprogrammesÔ_Ô,€in€which€women€participate€and€the€level€and€extent€of€their€participation;€ÐH!¼(#(# ÐÌà0  à(f)€€Under€article€7,€paragraph€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô),€describe€the€extent€to€which€women€participate€in€non„Ð  #” Ðgovernmental€organizations€in€their€countries,€including€in€women's€organizations;€Ð $€ (#(# ÐÌà0  à(g)€€Ô_ÔAnalyseÔ_Ô€the€extent€to€which€the€State€party€ensures€that€those€organizations€are€consultedÐ ä%X" Ðand€the€impact€of€their€advice€on€all€levels€of€government€policy€formulation€andÐ Ð&D # Ðimplementation;€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  à(h)€€Provide€information€concerning,€and€Ô_ÔanalyseÔ_Ô€factors€contributing€to,€the€under„Ð ”)#& Ðrepresentation€of€women€as€members€and€officials€of€political€parties,€trade€unions,Ð €*ô#' Ðemployers'€organizations€and€professional€associations.€Ðl+à$((#(# Їà0  àòòArticle€8óó€ÐŒ(#(# ÐÌà0  à49.€€Measures€which€should€be€identified,€implemented€and€monitored€for€effectivenessÐ dØ Ðinclude€those€designed€to€ensure€a€better€gender€balance€in€membership€of€all€United€NationsÐ P Ä Ðbodies,€including€the€Main€Committees€of€the€General€Assembly,€the€Economic€and€SocialÐ < ° ÐCouncil€and€expert€bodies,€including€treaty€bodies,€and€in€appointments€to€independentÐ ( œ Ðworking€groups€or€as€country€or€special€Ô_ÔrapporteursÔ_Ô.€Ð ˆ(#(# ÐÌà0  à50.€€When€reporting€under€article€8,€States€parties€should:€Ðì `(#(# ÐÌà0  à(a)€€Provide€statistics,€Ô_ÔdisaggregatedÔ_Ô€by€sex,€showing€the€percentage€of€women€in€theirÐ Ä8  Ðforeign€service€or€regularly€engaged€in€international€representation€or€in€work€on€behalf€ofÐ °$  Ðthe€State,€including€membership€in€government€delegations€to€international€conferences€andÐ œ  Ðnominations€for€peacekeeping€or€conflict€resolution€roles,€and€their€seniority€in€the€relevantÐ ˆü  Ðsector;Ðtè (#(# ÐÌà0  à(b)€€Describe€efforts€to€establish€objective€criteria€and€processes€for€appointment€andÐ LÀ Ðpromotion€of€women€to€relevant€positions€and€official€delegations;€Ð8¬(#(# ÐÌà0  àÔ_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€€Describe€steps€taken€to€disseminate€widely€information€on€the€Government'sÐ „ Ðinternational€commitments€affecting€women€and€official€documents€issued€by€multilateralÐ üp Ðforums,€in€particular,€to€both€governmental€and€non„governmental€bodies€responsible€for€theÐ è\ Ðadvancement€of€women;€ÐÔH(#(# ÐÌà0  à(d)€€Provide€information€concerning€discrimination€against€women€because€of€their€politicalÐ ¬  Ðactivities,€whether€as€individuals€or€as€members€of€women's€or€other€organizations.€Ð˜ (#(# Ðà0  à______________________________Єø(#(# Ðà0  àòòNotesóóÐpä(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò1óó/€€General€Assembly€resolution€217€A€(III).€ÐH!¼(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò2óó/€€General€Assembly€resolution€2200€A€(XXI),€annex.€Ð #”(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò3óó/€€General€Assembly€resolution€640€(VII).€Ðø$l!(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò4óó/€€Report€of€the€World€Conference€on€Human€Rights,€Vienna,€14„25€June€1993Ð Ð&D # Ð(A/Ô_ÔCONFÔ_Ô.157/24€(Part€I)),€chap.€III.€Ð¼'0!$(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò5óó/€€Report€of€the€Fourth€World€Conference€on€Women,€Beijing,€4„15€September€1995Ð ”)#& Ð(A/Ô_ÔCONFÔ_Ô.177/20€and€Add.1),€chap.€I,€resolution€1,€annex€I.€Ð€*ô#'(#(# ÐÐ l+à$( Ðà0  àòò6óó/€€See€Official€Records€of€the€General€Assembly,€Forty„third€Session,€Supplement€No.€38Ð Œ Ð(A/43/38),€chap.€V.€Ðxì(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò7óó/€€Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7,€27€August€1996.€ÐP Ä(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò8óó/€€96/694/Ô_ÔECÔ_Ô,€Brussels,€2€December€1996.€Ð( œ(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò9óó/€€European€Commission€document€V/1206/96„EN€(March€1996).€Ð t(#(# ÐÌà0  àòò10óó/€€See€paragraph€141€of€the€Platform€for€Action€adopted€by€the€Fourth€World€ConferenceÐ ØL  Ðon€Women,€held€at€Beijing€from€4€to€15€September€1995€(A/Ô_ÔCONFÔ_Ô.177/20,€chap.€I,Ð Ä8  Ðresolution€1,€annex€II).€€See€also€paragraph€134,€which€reads€in€part:€"The€equal€access€andÐ °$  Ðfull€participation€of€women€in€power€structures€and€their€full€involvement€in€all€efforts€forÐ œ  Ðthe€prevention€and€resolution€of€conflicts€are€essential€for€the€maintenance€and€promotionÐ ˆü  Ðof€peace€and€security."€Ðtè (#(# Ðà0  à______________________________Ð`Ô (#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£5ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝCRC€General€Comment€2€(Thirty„first€session,€2002):€The€Role€of€Independent€NationalÐ $˜ ÐHuman€Rights€Institutions€in€the€Promotion€and€Protection€of€the€Rights€of€the€Child,Ð „ ÐA/59/41€(2004)€82€at€paras.€5€and€8.݃3£5bÝŒÐüp(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌà0  à...ÐÔH(#(# Ðà0  à5.€€While€adults€and€children€alike€need€independent€Ô_ÔNHRIsÔ_Ô€[national€human€rightsÐ À4 Ðinstitutions]€to€protect€their€human€rights,€additional€justifications€exist€for€ensuring€thatÐ ¬  Ðchildrenððs€human€rights€are€given€special€attention.€€These€include€the€facts€that€childrenððsÐ ˜  Ðdevelopmental€state€makes€them€particularly€vulnerable€to€human€rights€violations;€theirÐ „ø Ðopinions€are€still€rarely€taken€into€account;€most€children€have€no€vote€and€cannot€play€aÐ pä Ðmeaningful€role€in€the€political€process€that€determines€Governmentsðð€response€to€humanÐ \ Ð Ðrights;€children€encounter€significant€problems€in€using€the€judicial€system€to€protect€theirÐ H!¼ Ðrights€or€to€seek€remedies€for€violations€of€their€rights;€and€childrenððs€access€to€organizationsÐ 4"¨ Ðthat€may€protect€their€rights€is€generally€limited.Ð #”(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð $€ (#(# Ðà0  à8.€€Ô_ÔNHRIsÔ_Ô€should,€if€possible,€be€constitutionally€entrenched€and€must€at€least€be€legislativelyÐ ø$l! Ðmandated.€€It€is€the€view€of€the€Committee€that€their€mandate€should€include€as€broad€aÐ ä%X" Ðscope€as€possible€for€promoting€and€protecting€human€rights,€incorporating€the€ConventionÐ Ð&D # Ðon€the€Rights€of€the€Child,€its€Optional€Protocols€and€other€relevant€international€humanÐ ¼'0!$ Ðrights€instruments€„€thus€effectively€covering€childrenððs€human€rights,€in€particular€their€civil,Ð ¨("% Ðpolitical,€economic,€social€and€cultural€rights.€€The€legislation€should€include€provisionsÐ ”)#& Ðsetting€out€specific€functions,€powers€and€duties€relating€to€children€linked€to€the€ConventionÐ €*ô#' Ðon€the€Rights€of€the€Child€and€its€Optional€Protocols.€€If€the€Ô_ÔNHRIÔ_Ô€was€established€beforeÐ l+à$( Ðthe€existence€of€the€Convention,€or€without€expressly€incorporating€it,€necessaryÐ Œ Ðarrangements,€including€the€enactment€or€amendment€of€legislation,€should€be€put€in€placeÐ xì Ðso€as€to€ensure€conformity€of€the€institutionððs€mandate€with€the€principles€and€provisions€ofÐ dØ Ðthe€Convention.ÐP Ä(#(# Ðà0  à...Ð< °(#(# ÐÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£Á$ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XX€(Forty„eighth€session,€1996):€Article€5:Ð  t ÐNon-Discriminatory€Implementation€of€Rights€and€Freedoms,€A/51/18€(1996),€124.€€For€textÐ ì ` Ðof€General€Recommendation,€see€ò òEQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATIONó 󀄀RACIALÐ ØL  ÐDISCRIMINATION.݃3£Á$î$ÝŒÐÈ< (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£Ï&ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXII€(Forty„ninth€session,€1996):€Article€5€and€RefugeesÐ Œ  Ðand€Displaced€Persons,€A/51/18€(1996)€126€at€preamble€and€para.€2(d).€€For€text€of€GeneralÐ xì  ÐRecommendation,€see€ò òEQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATIONó 󀄀RACIALÐ dØ  ÐDISCRIMINATION.݃3£Ï&ü&ÝŒÐTÈ(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£á(ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXVII€(Fifty„seventh€session,€2000):€DiscriminationÐ Œ ÐAgainst€Roma,€A/55/18€(2000)€154€at€paras.€8,€11€and€41„45.€€For€text€of€GeneralÐ x ÐRecommendation,€see€ò òEQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATION€„€ó óRACIALÐ ðd ÐDISCRIMINATION.݃3£á()ÝŒÐàT(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£ä*ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€XXIX€(Sixty„first€session,€2002):€On€Article€1,€ParagraphÐ ¤ Ð1,€of€the€Convention€(Descent),€A/57/18€(2002)€111€at€paras.€bb„dd.€For€text€of€GeneralÐ  ÐRecommendation,€seeò ò€EQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATION€ó ó„€RACIALÐ |ð ÐDISCRIMINATION.݃3£ä*+ÝŒÐl à(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£ô,ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCERDÔ_Ô€General€recommendation€Ô_ÔXXXIÔ_Ô€(Sixty„seventh€session,€2005):€The€Prevention€ofÐ 0#¤ ÐRacial€Discrimination€in€the€Administration€and€Functioning€of€the€Criminal€Justice€System,€Ð $  ÐA/60/18€(2005)€98€at€para.€5.€€For€text€of€General€Recommendation,€see€ò òEQUALITY€ANDÐ %|! ÐDISCRIMINATION€ó ó„€RACIAL€DISCRIMINATION.݃3£ô,!-ÝŒÐø%l"(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£X/ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICCPRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€28€(29€March€2000),€Article€3:€€Equality€of€Rights€Between€MenÐ À(4"% Ðand€Women,€A/55/40€vol.€I€(2000)€133€at€paras.€29€and€32.€€For€text€of€General€Comment,Ð ¬) #& Ðseeò ò€EQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATION€ó ó„€GENDER€DISCRIMINATION€„€General.݃3£X/…/݌И* $'(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÐ ˆ+ü$( ЇÝ"‚3£ "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£a1ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔICESCRÔ_Ô€General€Comment€16€(Thirty„fourth€session,€2005):€Article€3:€The€Equal€Right€ofÐ Œ ÐMen€and€Women€to€the€Enjoyment€of€all€Economic,€Social€and€Cultural€Rights,€E/2006/22Ð xì Ð(2005)€116€at€paras.€5,€10€and€21.€For€text€of€General€Comment,€see€ò òEQUALITY€ANDÐ dØ ÐDISCRIMINATION€ó ó„€GENDER€DISCRIMINATION€„€General.݃3£a1Ž1ÝŒÐT È(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£ª3ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝÔ_ÔCEDAWÔ_Ô€General€Recommendation€25€(Thirtieth€session,€2004):€Article€4,€Paragraph€1:Ð   ÐTemporary€Special€Measures,€A/59/38€part€I€(2004)€78€at€paras.€9,€18,€19,€23,€32€and€37.€€ForÐ  | Ðtext€of€General€Recommendation,€see€ò òEQUALITY€AND€DISCRIMINATION€ó ó„Ð ô h ÐTEMPORARY€SPECIAL€MEASURES€(AFFIRMATIVE€ACTION).݃3£ª3×3ÝŒÐäX (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌÌÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚3£ç5ÝÔ2ñ–ÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝCRC€General€Comment€5€(Thirty„fourth€session,€2003):€General€measures€of€implementationÐ ¨  Ðof€the€Convention€on€the€Rights€of€the€Child€(arts.€4,€42€and€44,€para.€6),€A/59/41€(2004)€114Ð ”  Ðat€para.€12.€€For€text€of€General€Comment,€see€ò òCHILDRENððS€RIGHTS€ó ó„€GENERAL.݃3£ç56݌Ѐô (#(# ÐŒÝ  Ý