’WPC[ ü'sØ–¤Ć.ĖČ0ưhÜj°0«ÅßĆL¼ŲĆs[āŲOÓΧ²©12Ü Ü Ž4|n„ž;įæ²p'jJ”Ā™Hī„܏OŅ “ĄpO~L†dflÕ-5Ų…š$X~Ć?Eu=Ƃń=£Īš+ˆ «ŁœL‚Ź.†+“šBŒŽ:ŚYSŚ$æžEČŗéƋ›ćē.…‹ę~JŅ]AÉ&„ęé0Į®a1Æbä/abĪ(Pr£NføŻēÉ¢¢aŹą*ļ܇_jhĶēĪYĻ~‚n1ū¾£P7–{ų§U¦_(7J`õ’ü-]ÄfļIF\¶¼d(½ģ‰YmqH 0 š£IÆa—ŠæBGnLŗ±ŲŠŚ|°„Üś¤fż€ū !ޤlĢķ^²°Ž«½Ó0]š…Ų„7Żē «e—‘_ ¦i™°µ »éb§Ģ›ńˆŲ6S lĪY:1&Š¢WßkųÖRDNöy S÷/ŗCq¢é ÷b@[©w@¼ėwˆ~'Œ%’ī„»zÆĮ¹S~žÜ­ÕŽĮ9ĢaR˲¤ 6ĢĪ~žĻņ“OīīśoūE"³!!j0¤S9š»Ä6|ń5Ø4¦lj–Õć*: p/˜²µ•ŗŠy˜„ #Į¶UNw %Å 0:Ė^ w4)8 m:QNY˜HP LaserJet 4000 Series PSČŁŲŁŁŲČŁ0&Öd9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(ūœ$””ŌUKUS.,Ō-a, ½ha+Tu„ œ•Ÿ3|x ’U‹’ĄĄĄ Ż ƒūœ!ŻŌUKUS.,ŌŻ  ŻŌ_ŌÓ  Óņ ņŌ‡¼eh»XXŌAUSTRALIAŌ#†X*VX»¼ehL#Ōó óŠ ° ŠĢĢÓ  Óņ ņŌ_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō€€A/38/40€(1983)Š “ć ŠĢĢó óÓ  Ó135.€€The€Committee€considered€the€initial€report€of€Australia€(Ō_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō/C/14/Add.1)€at€its€401ņņstóó,€402ņņndóó,Š Q ” Š403ņņrdóó,€407ņņthóó€and€408ņņthóó€meetings,€held€on€25€and€26€October€and€on€2€November€1982Š : Š Š(Ō_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō/C/SR.401,€402,€403,€407€and€408).Š # s ŠĢ136.€€The€report€was€introduced€by€the€representative€of€the€State€party€who€informed€theŠ õ E  ŠCommittee€that€since€the€submission€of€Australiaššs€initial€report€there€had€been€a€number€ofŠ Ž.  Šdevelopments,€the€most€significant€of€which€had€been€the€establishment€of€the€Australian€HumanŠ Ē  ŠRights€Commission,€which€had€commenced€operation€in€December€1981€and€which€was€a€uniqueŠ °  Šblend€of€conciliatory€machinery€and€of€research,€educational,€promotional€and€advisory€functions.Š ™é  ŠHe€also€reported€that€Aboriginals€currently€had€the€means€of€exercising€real€influence€in€mattersŠ ‚Ņ  Šaffecting€them,€since€they€had€a€greater€awareness€of€the€political€process€and€were€now€involvedŠ k» Šin€decision„making,€and€that€his€Government€had€recently€announced€that€it€was€to€draft€a€law€toŠ T¤ Šprotect€its€employees€from€discrimination€on€the€grounds€of€sex€and€marital€status.€He€also€pointedŠ = Šout€that€although€many€Australians€had€only€a€vague€conception€of€the€rights€embodied€in€theŠ &v ŠCovenant,€there€was€a€widespread€awareness€that€the€United€Nations€had€established€protectiveŠ _ Šmachinery€and€that€in€codifying€human€rights€principles,€the€United€Nations€was€helping€to€bringŠ ųH Šabout€changes€in€community€attitudes.Š į1 ŠĢ137.€€Members€of€the€Committee€commended€the€excellence€of€the€Australian€report,€its€exhaustiveŠ ³ Šcharacter€and€frankness€and€the€fact€that€it€had€been€drafted€on€the€basis€of€the€CommitteeššsŠ œģ Šguidelines€and€noted€with€appreciation€the€size€and€quality€of€the€delegation,€which€attested€to€theŠ …Õ ŠAustralian€Governmentššs€intention€to€co„operate€with€the€Committee€in€ensuring€compliance€withŠ n¾ Šthe€provisions€of€the€Covenant€in€Australia.€In€this€connection,€it€was€asked€how€much€publicity€hadŠ W§ Šbeen€given€to€the€Covenant€in€Australia,€whether€it€had€been€translated€into€languages€other€thanŠ @ ŠEnglish,€particularly€languages€spoken€by€the€Aboriginals.€Questions€were€also€asked€concerningŠ ) y Šthe€principal€factors€and€difficulties€which€had€affected€the€implementation€of€the€Covenant.Š !b ŠĢ138.€€Referring€to€the€many€reservations€entered€by€Australia€upon€ratification€of€the€Covenant,Š ä"4! Šseveral€members€wondered€whether€some€of€those€reservations€were€compatible€with€AustraliaššsŠ Ķ#" Šcommitments€under€the€Covenant.€They€were€particularly€concerned€with€regard€to€the€reservationsŠ ¶$ # Šrelating€to€articles€2€and€50€of€the€Covenant.€Noting€that€article€2€(2)€required€each€State€party€toŠ Ÿ%ļ $ Šimplement€the€Covenant€š šin€accordance€with€its€constitutional€processesšš,€that€article€51,€paragraphsŠ ˆ&Ų!% ŠXXIX€and€Ō_ŌXXXIXŌ_Ō,€of€the€Australian€Constitution€conferred€on€Parliament€the€necessary€power€inŠ q'Į"& Šthat€respect€and€that,€according€to€the€Vienna€Convention€on€the€Law€of€Treaties,€a€State€could€notŠ Z(Ŗ#' Šformulate€a€reservation€if€it€was€incompatible€with€the€object€and€purpose€of€the€treaty€nor€could€itŠ C)“$( Šinvoke€the€provisions€of€its€internal€law€as€justification€for€its€failure€to€perform€a€treaty,€membersŠ ,*|%) Šwondered€what€exactly€were€the€nature€and€effect€of€these€reservations,€whether€they€purported€toŠ +e&* Šdivest€the€Commonwealth€Government€of€responsibility€for€implementing€the€Covenant€in€so€farŠ ž+N'+ Šas€it€impinged€on€matters€within€the€competence€of€the€constituent€states€of€the€Federation€and,€ifŠ ē,7(, Šnot,€whether€the€courts€in€Australia€would€be€bound€by€an€official€statement€made€by€theŠ Š- )- ŠŌ_Ōrepresentative€of€the€Australian€Government€before€the€Human€Rights€Committee.€They€askedŠ ° Šfurther,€how€the€Commonwealth€Government€could€ensure€that€the€constituent€states€discharged€theŠ ™é Šinternational€commitments€undertaken€by€Australia,€particularly€in€respect€of€the€Covenant€andŠ ‚Ņ Šwhether€there€was€any€procedure€under€which€control€could€be€exercised€by€the€FederalŠ k» ŠGovernment.Š T¤ ŠĢ139.€€As€regards€article€1€of€the€Covenant,€mention€was€made€of€a€statement€in€the€report€to€theŠ & v Šeffect€that€the€people€of€Australia€had€exercised€their€right€to€self„discrimination€by€uniting€as€oneŠ  _ Špeople€in€a€Federal€Commonwealth€and€information€was€requested€on€the€manner€in€which€theŠ ų H ŠAboriginals€š šwho€were€already€present€when€the€first€European€settlers€arrived€in€1788"€hadŠ į 1  Šparticipated€in€that€exercise.€Noting,€according€to€the€report,€that€Australia€had€traditionally€beenŠ Ź   Ša€strong€supporter€of€the€right€to€self„discrimination,€it€was€asked€whether€that€included€recognitionŠ ³  Šof€the€right€to€self„determination€of€the€Palestinian€people€and€the€peoples€of€southern€Africa€andŠ œģ  Šwhether€Australia€had€taken€legislative€and€administrative€action€to€prevent€Australian€corporations,Š …Õ  Šcompanies€and€banks€from€assisting€the€ņņapartheidóó€regime€in€South€Africa.€In€this€connection,€it€wasŠ n¾  Šasked€whether€the€Governmentššs€policy€of€self„management€for€the€Australian€Territories€wasŠ W§  Šconsidered€a€first€stage€on€the€road€to€self„determination.Š @ ŠĢ140.€€In€relation€to€article€2€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€pointed€out€that,€in€countries€such€as€Australia,Š b Šin€which€the€Covenant€was€not€embodied€in€internal€legislation,€which€did€not€have€a€comparableŠ ūK Šbill€of€rights€and€in€which€the€legal€system€was€based€on€the€concept€of€the€rule€of€law,€where€š štheŠ ä4 Šrights€of€individuals€are€guaranteed€by€ordinary€legal€remedies€without€the€need€for€formalŠ Ķ Šconstitutional€guaranteesšš,€as€mentioned€in€the€report,€it€was€more€difficult€to€prove€that€theŠ ¶ ŠCovenant€was€effectively€implemented€and€that€particular€importance€should,€therefore,€be€attachedŠ Ÿļ Što€the€commitment€undertaken€in€this€article€not€only€to€š šrespectšš€but€also€to€š šensurešš€the€rightsŠ ˆŲ Šrecognized€in€the€Covenant.€Noting€also€that€the€rules€derived€from€decisions€of€courts€formed€partŠ qĮ Šof€the€law€of€the€land,€members€asked€how€the€Covenant€was€made€accessible€to€judges,€whatŠ ZŖ Šarrangements€had€been€made€to€ensure€that€judges€would€act€in€accordance€with€the€obligationsŠ C“ Šwhich€Australia€had€assumed€under€international€law€and€whether€Australia€was€considering€theŠ ,| Šincorporation€of€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant€in€domestic€law€or,€failing€that,€the€adoption€of€aŠ e ŠFederal€Bill€of€Rights€or€a€Bill€of€Rights€for€each€of€the€constituent€states.Š žN ŠĢ141.€€Noting€the€existence€in€Australia€of€many€bodies€and€authorities€competent€to€deal€with€humanŠ Š!   Šrights€and€referring€to€the€various€writs€mentioned€in€the€report,€members€wondered€whether€aŠ ¹" ! Šcommon€law€system,€such€as€that€of€Australia,€provided€any€genuine€or€effective€remedies€to€ensureŠ ¢#ņ" Šthe€enjoyment€of€all€the€rights€enunciated€in€the€Covenant€and€suggested€than€an€unwrittenŠ ‹$Ū# Špresumption€of€freedom€was€not€sufficient.€More€information€was€needed,€particularly€on€whetherŠ t%Ä $ Šthe€Australian€Human€Rights€Commission€was€competent€to€receive€complaints€from€individualsŠ ]&­!% Šwhose€rights€had€allegedly€been€violated€and,€if€so,€how€many€complaints€it€had€received€and€whatŠ F'–"& Šthe€nature€of€its€arbitration€function€was;€what€recommendations€had€been€made€by€that€Commission€Š /(#' Šwith€a€view€to€the€amendment€of€Commonwealth€legislation€and€practices€thereunder;€whether€thereŠ )h$( Šwas€any€organ€with€competence€to€decide€whether€laws€and€administrative€acts€or€decisions€wereŠ *Q%) Šconsistent€with€the€Covenant,€whether€any€executive€infringements€of€human€rights€had€beenŠ ź*:&* Šbrought€to€the€attention€of€Parliament€by€the€Meeting€of€Ministers€of€Human€Rights;€and€what€typesŠ Ó+#'+ Šof€complaints€had€been€investigated€by€the€Commonwealth€Ombudsmen€and€how€effective€theirŠ ¼, (, Šreports€were.Š „-õ(- Ї142.€€Noting€that€article€3€of€the€Covenant€provided€for€the€equal€right€of€men€and€women€to€theŠ ° Šenjoyment€of€all€civil€and€political€rights€set€forth€in€the€Covenant€and€that,€in€the€report,€it€wasŠ ™é Šadmitted€€that€certain€problems€were€being€experienced€in€securing€equality€between€the€sexes,Š ‚Ņ Šmembers€sought€more€factual€information€on€those€problems€and€on€the€effect€of€the€measures€takenŠ k» Što€implement€this€article,€and€requested€some€statistics€in€this€respect.Š T¤ ŠĢ143.€€With€regard€to€article€6€of€the€Covenant,€reference€was€made€to€the€fact€that€the€life€expectancyŠ & v Šof€the€aboriginal€population€was€20€years€less€than€that€of€the€white€population€and€that€their€infantŠ  _ Šmortality€rate€was€three€times€higher,€and€it€was€asked€how€that€situation€could€be€reconciled€withŠ ų H Šthe€principle€of€equal€enjoyment€of€the€right€to€life€and€what€action€was€being€taken€to€remedy€it.Š į 1  ŠA€question€was€posed€on€the€legislative€provisions€relating€to€abortion€and€on€the€severity€ofŠ Ź   Špenalties€inflicted€in€case€of€abortion.€Noting€that€since€use€of€firearms€could€result€in€violations€ofŠ ³  Šthe€right€to€life,€one€member€asked€in€what€circumstances€the€police€and€the€armed€forces€wereŠ œģ  Špermitted€to€use€their€weapons.€One€member€was€surprised€to€read€in€the€report€that€the€states€didŠ …Õ  Šnot€have€the€legislative€capacity€to€abolish€certain€statutes€providing€for€the€death€penalty,€whichŠ n¾  Šremained€within€the€sole€jurisdiction€of€the€Parliament€at€Westminster,€and€it€was€asked€whether€itŠ W§  Šwas€possible€to€review€that€situation€and€what€the€prospects€were€for€capital€punishment€to€beŠ @ Šabolished€in€all€federal€states.€Noting€that€in€those€states€that€had€abolished€the€death€penalty€it€had,Š )y Štheoretically,€still€been€€retained€for€the€capital€offences€of€burglary€or€arson€in€the€QueenššsŠ b Šdockyards,€one€member€asked€whether€the€gravity€of€the€punishment€matched€the€crime€and€whetherŠ ūK Šthe€repeal€of€the€laws€that€perpetuated€that€abnormal€state€of€affairs€was€being€blocked€by€obstaclesŠ ä4 Šof€a€political€or€a€constitutional€kind.€In€this€connection,€it€was€pointed€out€that€the€possibleŠ Ķ Šimposition€of€the€death€sentence€in€respect€of€persons€under€18€years€of€age,€as€indicated€in€theŠ ¶ Šreport,€was€contrary€to€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant€and€that€domestic€law€should€therefore€beŠ Ÿļ Šbrought€into€line€with€its€provisions.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ144.€€Commenting€on€article€7€of€the€Covenant,€members€noted€that€it€was€still€possible€to€resort€toŠ ZŖ Šwhipping€in€Australia€.€They€considered€that€to€be€an€inappropriate€form€of€punishment€andŠ C“ Šwondered€how€this€inhuman€practice€could€be€reconciled€with€the€Covenant.€They€also€noted€thatŠ ,| Šthere€were€no€special€penal€law€provisions€against€torture€and€that€only€common€law€remedies€wereŠ e Šavailable€in€the€event€of€a€complaint€against€the€police,€and€it€was€asked€whether€any€cases€ofŠ žN Šalleged€ill„treatment€or€brutality€on€the€part€of€a€police€officer€ever€resulted€in€charges€being€broughtŠ ē 7 Šso€as€to€be€able€to€determine€the€effectiveness€of€such€remedies.Š Š!   ŠĢ145.€€In€this€connection€with€article€8€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€noted€that,€under€the€legislation€inŠ ¢#ņ" Šsome€states,€the€authorities€in€the€reserves€seemed€to€have€the€power€to€order€Aboriginals€to€carryŠ ‹$Ū# Šout€particular€tasks,€which€was€incompatible€with€the€Covenant.€It€was€asked€whether€account€wasŠ t%Ä $ Štaken,€in€imposing€a€sentence€of€hard€labour,€of€age,€physical€ability€and€education€and€whether€theŠ ]&­!% Šfact€that€only€adult€males€were€affected€by€such€a€sentence€was€not€contrary€to€the€principle€ofŠ F'–"& Šequality€between€men€and€women€embodied€in€the€Covenant.€In€this€respect,€one€member€thoughtŠ /(#' Šthat,€if€the€law€could€take€account€of€physical€differences€between€men€and€women,€it€could€alsoŠ )h$( Šmake€provision€for€different€types€of€hard€labour€for€the€two€sexes.Š *Q%) ŠĢ146.€€With€reference€to€article€9€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€noted€that,€a€court€was€required€to€decideŠ Ó+#'+ Šš šwithout€delayšš€on€the€lawfulness€of€a€detention€and€not€š šas€soon€as€practicablešš€or€š šas€soon€asŠ ¼, (, Šconvenientšš,€as€stated€in€the€report.€Information€was€requested€about€the€authority€of€certainŠ „-õ(- Šdesignated€€medical€officers€to€detain€addicted€persons;€on€whether€a€detention€order€could€be€madeŠ ° Šotherwise€than€in€judicial€proceedings;€and€how€effective€the€remedy€was€in€the€event€of€unlawfulŠ ™é Šarrest.€In€this€connection,€it€was€pointed€out€that€the€Covenant€permitted€the€initiation€of€legal€actionŠ ‚Ņ Šnot€against€an€official€who€might€have€abused€his€powers€but€against€the€State€itself,€which€was€heldŠ k» Šresponsible€if€the€victim€had€been€unjustifiably€arrested€or€detained.Š T¤ ŠĢ147.€€As€regards€article€12€of€the€Covenant,€more€information€was€requested€on€control€of€residence,Š & v Šentry€into€and€departure€from€Aboriginal€reserves;€on€control€of€entry€at€the€residentsšš€insistence€toŠ  _ Šthe€Cocos€(Keeling)€Islands€and€Norfolk€Islands;€on€the€restrictions€concerning€the€issue€ofŠ ų H Špassports€and€on€the€authorities€competent€to€decide€that€a€person€could€not€leave€the€country.Š į 1  ŠReferring€also€to€article€27€of€the€Covenant,€one€member€expressed€his€doubts€as€to€whether,€despiteŠ Ź   Šthe€amendments€that€had€been€made€in€recent€years€to€the€legislation€of€the€State€of€Queensland,Š ³  Šwhich€provided€for€the€possible€expulsion€of€an€Aboriginal€from€a€reserve,€which€was€an€extremelyŠ œģ  Šsevere€penalty€because€it€might€entail€the€loss€of€his€language€and€culture,€was€compatible€with€theŠ …Õ  ŠCovenant.Š n¾  ŠĢ148.€€Commenting€on€article€14€of€the€Covenant,€members€requested€more€information€on€theŠ @ Šconditions€for€appointment€of€judges;€whether€costly€training€was€needed€for€admission€to€the€legalŠ )y Šprofession;€what€the€percentage€was€of€women€and€Aboriginals€in€the€higher€echelons€of€theŠ b Šjudiciary;€whether€any€magistrate€had€ever€been€dismissed€by€the€Governor„General€or€GovernorŠ ūK Šfor€bad€behaviour€and€about€the€status€and€competence€of€juries€in€Australian€courts€and€their€roleŠ ä4 Šin€the€countryššs€judicial€life.€In€this€connection,€reference€was€made€to€the€decision€of€the€EuropeanŠ Ķ ŠCourt€of€Human€Rights€in€the€ņņSunday€Timesóó€case€and€it€was€asked€how€a€conflict€involving€theŠ ¶ Šdelicate€relationship€between€freedom€of€expression€and€the€need€to€ensure€the€independence€of€theŠ Ÿļ Šjudiciary€would€be€resolved€in€Australia.€With€regard€to€a€possible€shift€under€statutory€provisionsŠ ˆŲ Šin€the€burden€of€proof,€referred€to€in€the€report,€some€examples€were€requested€of€cases€in€which€theŠ qĮ Šaccused€had€managed€to€establish€his€innocence.€It€was€pointed€out€that€it€was€for€the€State,€and€notŠ ZŖ Šfor€the€accused,€as€implied€in€the€report,€to€make€the€necessary€arrangements€for€the€services€of€anŠ C“ Šinterpreter€if€he€had€difficulties€with€the€English€language€and€it€was€asked€how€language€difficultiesŠ ,| Šcould€present€a€barrier€to€commencement€of€proceedings€in€the€more€remote€and€sparsely€populatedŠ e Šareas€of€Australia,€as€indicated€in€the€report,€and€whether€it€would€not€be€possible€to€provideŠ žN Šitinerant€interpreters€to€accompany€the€courts.€Questions€were€asked€as€to€what€circumstances€theŠ ē 7 Šright€of€an€accused€to€communicate€with€counsel€while€in€custody€would€be€regarded€as€creatingŠ Š!   Šš šunreasonable€delayšš€or€hindering€š šthe€processes€of€the€investigation€or€the€administration€ofŠ ¹" ! Šjusticešš€and€whether€the€police€were€not€thereby€given€a€wide€measure€of€discretion€which€theyŠ ¢#ņ" Šmight€be€tempted€to€abuse;€whether€it€had€happened€that€persons€held€in€custody€had€been€releasedŠ ‹$Ū# Šbecause€they€had€not€been€brought€to€trial€within€a€certain€time;€and€whether€evidence€obtainedŠ t%Ä $ Šunder€duress€was€admissible€and,€if€so€whether€it€was€possible€to€speak€of€effective€remedies€andŠ ]&­!% Šwhether€there€were€any€cases€in€point.€€Noting€that€in€Australia,€criminal€law€existed€side€by€sideŠ F'–"& Šwith€Aboriginal€customary€law,€members€asked€whether€this€situation€was€compatible€with€theŠ /(#' Šprinciple€of€equality€before€the€law€and€without€discrimination€to€the€equal€protection€of€the€law;Š )h$( Šwhether€it€could€happen€that€a€person€was€brought€before€both€state€and€aboriginal€courts€and€henceŠ *Q%) Štried€twice€and,€if€so,€how€that€could€be€justified€in€the€light€of€article€14€(7)€of€the€Covenant.Š ź*:&* ŠĢ149.€€In€relation€to€article€15€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€asked€whether€there€had€been€retrospectiveŠ ¼, (, Šcriminal€legislation€and,€if€so,€whether€there€was€any€authoritative€decision€as€to€the€constitutionalŠ „-õ(- Švalidity€of€such€legislation;€whether,€where€a€penalty€was€reduced,€the€lighter€penalty€was€to€applyŠ ° Što€an€offence€committed€before€the€reduction€but€not€to€an€offender€who€had€already€been€convictedŠ ™é Šfor€that€offence.Š ‚Ņ ŠĢ150.€€In€this€connection€with€article€18€of€the€Covenant,€more€information€was€requested€on€existingŠ T¤ Šguarantees€for€the€right€of€everyone,€not€only€every€citizen,€to€freedom€of€thought,€conscience€andŠ =  Šreligion€and€on€existing€restrictions€of€this€freedom;€whether€atheists€has€the€right€to€make€knownŠ & v Štheir€point€of€view;€on€whether€a€person€could€claim€the€status€of€conscientious€objector€on€purelyŠ  _ Špolitical€grounds€and,€if€so,€whether€applicants€had€to€appear€before€a€tribunal€or€administrativeŠ ų H Šboard.Š į 1  ŠĢ151.€€As€regards€article€19€of€the€Covenant,€more€information€was€requested€about€the€ņņde€factoóó€andŠ ³  Šņņde€jureóó€freedom€of€the€media,€the€laws€restricting€the€freedom€of€expression€and€the€sphere€ofŠ œģ  Šcompetence€of€the€Australian€Broadcasting€Tribunal€referred€to€in€the€report;€whether€there€wereŠ …Õ  Šany€legislative€provisions€or€regulations€to€prevent€the€establishment€of€monopolies€and€whatŠ n¾  Šguarantees€there€were€to€ensure€that€the€Australian€Broadcasting€Commission,€appointed€by€theŠ W§  ŠGovernor„General,€would€not€simply€be€an€instrument€in€the€hands€of€the€majority€in€power.Š @ ŠĢ152.€€Noting€that€the€prohibition€of€propaganda€for€war€and€advocacy€of€racial€hatred€was€mandatoryŠ b Šunder€article€20€of€the€Covenant€and€that€such€prohibition€might€be€necessary€for€the€protection€ofŠ ūK Šthe€rights€enunciated€in€articles€19,€21€and€22,€some€members€wondered€why€no€such€prohibitionŠ ä4 Šwas€made,€whereas€different€kinds€of€prohibitions€had€been€deemed€necessary€to€ensure€respect€forŠ Ķ Šthose€other€articles;€how€that€requirement€was€complied€with€in€Australian€case€law€and€howŠ ¶ Šsedition€was€interpreted€in€Australia€in€terms€of€the€immediacy€of€the€advocacy€and€the€promotionŠ Ÿļ Šof€š šill€will€and€hostility€between€different€classes€of€Her€Majestyššs€subjectsšš.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ153.€€Commenting€on€articles€21€and€22€of€the€Covenant,€members€asked€what€criterion€applied€inŠ ZŖ Šdeciding€whether€or€not€to€grant€permits€for€assemblies€or€processions€on€public€roads€and€whichŠ C“ Šauthority€was€competent€to€take€such€decisions;€whether€Australia€had€ever€applied€the€provisionsŠ ,| Šof€the€Crimes€Act€relating€to€associations€that€could€be€declared€unlawful€and€membership€of€whichŠ e Šgenerally€constituted€a€criminal€offence€and,€if€so,€against€which€association€and€whether€there€wasŠ žN Šat€the€Commonwealth€level€a€general€prohibition€of€discrimination€of€any€kind€in€respect€ofŠ ē 7 Šregistered€clubs.€In€this€connection,€one€member€pointed€out€that€the€closed€shop€system,€referredŠ Š!   Što€in€the€report,€resulting€in€the€compulsory€affiliation€of€workers€to€a€particular€union€not€of€theirŠ ¹" ! Šown€choosing€was€prejudicial€to€their€rights€and€asked€further€information€concerning€that€systemŠ ¢#ņ" Šat€the€justification€therefor.Š ‹$Ū# ŠĢ154.€€As€regards€article€25€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€asked€whether€it€was€correctly€concluded€fromŠ ]&­!% Šthe€report€that€Aboriginals€had€no€vote€unless€they€left€their€reserves€or€otherwise€becameŠ F'–"& Šenfranchised€and€that€the€enrolment€of€Aboriginals€on€electoral€lists€was€not€yet€compulsory.€It€wasŠ /(#' Šmaintained€that€while€the€authorities€might€regard€that€as€a€privilege€granted€to€Aboriginals,€suchŠ )h$( Ša€privilege€could€also€constitute€a€possible€source€of€discrimination.€Had€legislation€been€adoptedŠ *Q%) Što€make€enrolment€for€Commonwealth€elections€compulsory€for€all€Aboriginals,€as€mentioned€inŠ ź*:&* Šthe€report?€What€was€the€situation€with€regard€to€the€enrolment€of€Aboriginals€for€state€elections?Š Ó+#'+ ŠWas€there€a€significant€difference€in€any€of€the€states€between€the€number€of€Aboriginals€enrolledŠ ¼, (, Šfor€Commonwealth€elections€and€those€enrolled€for€state€elections?€If€so,€how€could€thoseŠ „-õ(- Šdifferences€be€explained?€Noting€that,€according€to€the€report,€British€subjects€were€entitled€to€enrolŠ ° Šfor€Commonwealth€and€state€elections€and€to€have€access€to€public€service€employment€in€Australia,Š ™é Šone€member€sought€more€information€on€the€matter€that€seemed€to€indicate€a€preference€in€regardŠ ‚Ņ Što€British€subjects€which€might€be€considered€to€be€a€contravention€of€articles€2€(1)€and€25€of€theŠ k» ŠCovenant.€Another€member€contested€this€view€and€maintained€that€the€Covenant€merely€prohibitedŠ T¤ Šdiscrimination€and€stipulated€the€minimum€rules€to€be€observed€by€States€but€in€no€way€prohibitedŠ =  Šsuch€preferential€treatment€to€certain€aliens.€More€information€was€requested€about€the€categoriesŠ & v Šof€citizens€who€were€disqualified€from€voting€in€federal€elections,€and€it€was€asked€whether€theŠ  _ Šfunctions€of€a€municipal€councillor€were€compatible€with€the€office€of€member€of€the€House€ofŠ ų H ŠRepresentatives€or€senator€and€what€real€opportunities€were€provided€for€Aboriginals€to€have€accessŠ į 1  Što€public€service.Š Ź   ŠĢ155.€€With€reference€to€the€statement€lodged€with€Australiaššs€instrument€of€ratification€indicatingŠ œģ  Šits€interpretation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€pointed€out€that€if€it€was€designed€simply€toŠ …Õ  Šensure€and€protect€š šaffirmative€actionšš€programmes,€as€mentioned€in€the€report,€then€there€was€noŠ n¾  Šneed€for€it€and€that€acceptance€by€Australia€of€article€26€š šon€the€basis€that€the€object€of€the€provisionŠ W§  Šis€to€confirm€the€right€of€each€person€to€equal€treatment€in€the€application€of€the€lawšš€did€not€seemŠ @ Što€be€consistent€with€that€article€which€provided€not€only€for€equality€of€all€before€the€law,€but€alsoŠ )y Šfor€equal€protection€of€all€by€the€law€against€any€discrimination€and€which€also€stipulated€that€theŠ b Šlaw€must€not€institutionalize€discrimination.€One€member€could€not€agree€with€that€interpretationŠ ūK Šand€maintained€that€Australiaššs€statement€was€in€accord€with€the€meaning€that€the€authors€of€theŠ ä4 ŠCovenant€had€thought€to€give€to€that€article,€that€article€26€did€not€require€that€States€should€combatŠ Ķ Šall€types€of€discrimination,€at€that€the€Covenant€was€concerned€only€with€the€civil€and€politicalŠ ¶ Šrights€that€States€must€guarantee.€It€was€also€noted€that€insufficient€precautions€were€being€takenŠ Ÿļ Šagainst€discriminatory€practices€by€individuals,€firms€or€organizations;€that€the€annual€report€of€theŠ ˆŲ ŠCommission€on€Community€Relations€showed€that€Aboriginals€had€been€discriminated€against€andŠ qĮ Šit€was€asked€what€was€being€done€to€remedy€that€situation€and,€in€general,€to€widen€the€range€ofŠ ZŖ Šprohibited€discriminatory€practices.Š C“ ŠĢ156.€€Commenting€on€article€27€of€the€Covenant,€many€members€noted€that€the€report€containedŠ e Šlittle€information€about€the€Aboriginals€and,€therefore,€requested€detailed€information€about€theirŠ žN Šstatus€and€their€rights€in€law€as€well€as€in€practice.€Noting€that€the€Aboriginals€were€the€firstŠ ē 7 Šinhabitants€of€the€country€and€that€the€Australian€Government€seemed€to€draw€a€distinction€betweenŠ Š!   Šthem€and€other€Australians,€members€asked€whether€the€Government€considered€them€to€be€a€groupŠ ¹" ! Šcoming€under€the€protection€of€article€27€of€the€Covenant€or€a€people€coming€under€the€protectionŠ ¢#ņ" Šof€article€1;€what€percentage€of€Australiaššs€total€population€they€presented;€whether€an€assimilationŠ ‹$Ū# Špolicy€was€applied;€whether€autonomy€was€anticipated€for€their€areas€or€whether€the€matter€ofŠ t%Ä $ Šintegration€was€left€entirely€in€the€hands€of€the€Aboriginals€themselves€and,€if€so,€what€their€politicalŠ ]&­!% Šaspirations€were€and€whether€they€had€the€means€to€freely€express€them;€whether€AboriginalsŠ F'–"& Šwishing€to€preserve€their€ethnic€characteristics€were€free€to€do€so;€and€why€it€was€that€the€AustralianŠ /(#' ŠConstitution€appeared€to€contain€no€provision€relating€specifically€to€Aboriginals.€Noting€also€that,Š )h$( Šin€his€introductory€statement,€the€representative€of€Australia€had€indicated€that€his€Government€wasŠ *Q%) Šdisplaying€great€concern€for€the€Aboriginal€population€but€that€much€remained€to€be€done,€membersŠ ź*:&* Šasked€why€little€was€being€done€to€improve€their€lot€two€centuries€after€the€arrival€of€the€firstŠ Ó+#'+ Šsettlers;€how€could€a€declaration€by€the€Government€of€Queensland€turning€an€area€into€a€nationalŠ ¼, (, Špark€overrule€an€earlier€decision€of€the€High€Court€concerning€the€transfer€of€that€area€for€the€Ō_ŌbenefitŠ „-õ(- Šof€the€Aboriginals;€what€was€the€division€of€responsibility€between€the€Commonwealth€and€theŠ ° Šconstituent€states€in€respect€of€the€treatment€of€Aboriginals€and€immigrants;€what€measures€wereŠ ™é Šbeing€taken€to€protect€the€rights€of€linguistic,€ethnic€and€religious€minorities€and€to€enable€them€toŠ ‚Ņ Šenjoy€their€own€cultures€and€what€machinery€the€federal€and€state€Governments€had€established€inŠ k» Šthat€respect.Š T¤ ŠĢ157.€€Some€members€raised€questions€concerning€the€Australian€policy€towards€immigration€andŠ & v Šrefugees.€Was€Australia€still€pursuing€a€policy€of€white€immigration?€What€progress€had€been€madeŠ  _ Šin€that€respect€and€what€criteria€were€now€being€applied€in€the€selection€of€immigrants?€WhatŠ ų H Šproblems€might€Vietnamese€refugees€have€faced€in€the€exercise€of€their€human€rights€within€theŠ į 1  ŠAustralian€community?€Could€such€refugees€acquire€Australian€citizenship€and,€if€so,€how?€Š Ź   ŠĢ158.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€by€members€of€the€Committee,€the€Representative€of€the€StateŠ œģ  Šparty€pointed€out€that€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant€had€been€the€subject€of€extensive€parliamentaryŠ …Õ  Šdebate€during€the€passage€of€the€Human€Rights€Commission€Act;€that€one€of€the€functions€of€theŠ n¾  ŠCommission€was€to€promote€understanding€and€public€discussion€of€the€rights€and€freedomsŠ W§  Šrecognized€in€the€Covenant;€that€it€had€already€published€a€pamphlet€explaining€its€work€andŠ @ Šoutlining€important€rights€in€the€Covenant€and€that€he€would€pass€on€to€the€Commission€theŠ )y Šsuggestions€that€this€pamphlet€be€translated€into€Aboriginal€languages,€but€that€it€would€not€be€easyŠ b Što€carry€out€because€there€were€so€many€Aboriginal€languages€and€the€majority€of€them€wereŠ ūK Šexclusively€oral.€The€Commission€was€currently€engaged€in€developing€projects€for€the€teaching€ofŠ ä4 Šhuman€rights€in€schools€and€had€recently€begun€issuing€bi„monthly€newsletters.Š Ķ ŠĢ159.€€He€stated€that€Australiaššs€declarations€and€reservations,€which€accompanied€its€ratification€ofŠ Ÿļ Šthe€Covenant,€were€made€after€a€thorough€and€careful€analysis€of€the€laws€and€practices€in€all€theŠ ˆŲ Šcountryššs€jurisdictions;€that€certain€statements€had€been€prompted€by€caution€when€the€GovernmentŠ qĮ Šhad€been€in€doubt,€but€that€all€articles€on€the€subject€of€which€no€reservation€had€been€entered€wereŠ ZŖ Šconsidered€fully€compatible€with€Australiaššs€domestic€legislation.€As€regards€the€reservation€madeŠ C“ Šwith€regard€to€articles€2€and€50€of€the€Covenant,€he€pointed€out€that€careful€reading€of€theŠ ,| Šreservation€would€indicate€that€Australia€intended€to€apply€certain€parts€of€the€Covenant€consistentlyŠ e Šwith€other€parts€which€seemed€unexceptionable;€that€although€international€obligations€to€implementŠ žN Šthe€Covenant€naturally€rested€with€the€Australia€Government,€the€Government€had€deemed€itŠ ē 7 Šdesirable€to€draw€international€attention€to€its€domestic€co„operative€arrangements€to€ensure€theŠ Š!   Šimplementation€of€the€Covenant;€that€Australia€was€not€seeking€justification€for€its€failure€to€fulfilŠ ¹" ! Šits€obligations€and€did€not€consider€its€statement€in€respect€of€those€two€articles€to€be€in€any€wayŠ ¢#ņ" Šcontrary€to€the€object€of€the€Covenant,€nor€did€it€accept€that€the€statement€was€in€breach€of€theŠ ‹$Ū# ŠVienna€Convention€on€the€Law€of€Treaties.Š t%Ä $ ŠĢ160.€€In€connection€with€article€1€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€stated€that€his€countryŠ F'–"& Šsupported€the€right€of€the€Palestinians€to€a€homeland;€that€it€had€worked€consistently€towardsŠ /(#' Šsecuring€for€the€Namibian€People€the€full€exercise€of€their€right€to€self„determination€and€that€it€hadŠ )h$( Šcondemned€human€rights€violations€in€southern€Africa€and€was€committed€to€the€eradication€ofŠ *Q%) Šņņapartheidóó.Š ź*:&* ŠĢ161.€€Responding€to€comments€made€under€article€2€of€the€Covenant,€he€stated€that€the€adoption€ofŠ ¼, (, Šfederal€legislation€was€not€necessary€for€Australia€to€carry€out€its€obligations€under€internationalŠ „-õ(- Štreaties€and€that€the€Australian€authorities€had€virtually€always€pursued€a€policy€consulting€theŠ ° Švarious€states€on€the€implementation€of€treaties€in€areas€within€their€traditional€responsibilities.€HisŠ ™é ŠGovernment€decided€against€the€adoption€of€a€š šbill€of€rightsšš€in€legislative€or€constitutional€fromŠ ‚Ņ Šbecause€that€would€have€meant€the€incorporation€in€the€legislation€of€a€broad€statement€of€humanŠ k» Šrights€and€that€it€would€have€been€left€to€the€courts€to€try€to€interpret€those€rights,€which€was€not€theŠ T¤ Šprocedure€Australia€normally€adopted€in€the€drafting€of€legislation.€Australia€had€eventually€decidedŠ =  Šin€favour€of€federal€legislative€texts€on€specific€issues€(e.g.,€racial€discrimination).€He€pointed€outŠ & v Šthat€some€countries€without€a€bill€of€rights€incorporated€in€their€legislation,€nevertheless€consistentlyŠ  _ Šobserved€a€certain€code€of€conduct€which€was€based€on€the€good€conscience€of€their€people.€HeŠ ų H Šmaintained€that€the€co„operative€arrangements€between€the€Commonwealth€and€State€GovernmentsŠ į 1  Šfor€ensuring€implementation€of€the€Covenant€were€designed€to€ensure€that€the€problem€ofŠ Ź   Šinconsistency€between€a€federal€and€a€state€law€did€not€arise€and€were€predicated€on€the€fact€that,Š ³  Šin€any€federation,€the€central€and€provincial€Governments€had€to€co„exist.€€The€fact€that€all€theŠ œģ  ŠGovernments€of€Australian€federation€had€reached€an€agreement€on€the€terms€of€AustraliaššsŠ …Õ  Šratification€of€the€Covenant€gave€the€Federal€Government€the€confidence€that€all€the€internationalŠ n¾  Šobligations€it€had€undertaken€could€and€would€be€fulfilled.Š W§  ŠĢ162.€€Commenting€on€a€suggestion€made€in€the€Committee€that€the€common€law€system€offered€onlyŠ )y Šnarrow€remedies,€he€stated€that€this€problem€had€been€largely€overcome€by€the€reforms,€bothŠ b Šparliamentary€and€judicial,€of€the€past€100€years.€He€also€explained€that€the€Australian€HumanŠ ūK ŠRights€Commission€could€receive€complaints€from€members€of€the€public€and€was€required€to€tryŠ ä4 Što€settle€the€matter€and,€failing€that,€to€submit€a€report€to€the€Attorney„General€who€was€requiredŠ Ķ Što€take€that€report€before€both€Houses€of€the€Federal€Parliament.€Referring€to€a€question€on€the€largeŠ ¶ Šnumber€of€bodies€working€in€the€human€rights€field€in€Australia,€he€pointed€out€that€each€of€thoseŠ Ÿļ Šbodies€had€specialist€functions€requiring€different€powers€and€procedures€but€that€all€of€themŠ ˆŲ Šcontributed,€each€in€its€own€way,€to€the€protection€of€human€rights.Š qĮ ŠĢ163.€€As€regards€article€3€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€stated€that€exceptions€to€stateŠ C“ Šlegislation€prescribing€discrimination€on€the€grounds€of€sex€resulted€from€the€fact€that€it€was€oftenŠ ,| Šimpossible€to€apply€such€legislation€to€small€businesses€because€they€did€not€employ€a€sufficientlyŠ e Šlarge€number€of€persons;€that€it€was€usually€felt€in€Australia€that€legislation€should€not€intrude€tooŠ žN Šfar€into€private€affairs€except€in€cases€closely€related€to€the€use€of€public€funds€and€that€legislationŠ ē 7 Šagainst€discrimination€normally€left€matters€in€the€field€of€industrial€relations€to€be€worked€out€inŠ Š!   Šaccordance€with€specific€industrial€relations€law.€He€also€provided€some€statistics€illustratingŠ ¹" ! Šimprovements€in€the€status€of€women€in€the€areas€of€political€participation,€education,€employmentŠ ¢#ņ" Šand€community€activities.Š ‹$Ū# ŠĢ164.€€In€connection€with€questions€raised€under€article€6€of€the€Covenant,€he€pointed€out€thatŠ ]&­!% Šalthough€the€infant€mortality€rate€among€Aboriginals€was€higher€than€that€of€the€AustralianŠ F'–"& Šcommunity€generally,€it€should€be€noted€that€there€had€been€a€steady€improvement€over€recent€years,Š /(#' Što€the€extent€that€in€the€Northern€Territory,€where€there€was€a€high€concentration€of€Aboriginals,€theŠ )h$( Šmortality€rate€had€dropped€from€142€per€thousand€in€1971€to€30€per€thousand€in€1981;€that€theŠ *Q%) ŠGovernment€had€given€financial€support€to€independent€Aboriginal€medical€services€and€assignedŠ ź*:&* Šspecial€allocations€to€health€and€environmental€health€programmes€for€Aboriginal€communities.€AsŠ Ó+#'+ Što€questions€relating€to€capital€punishment,€he€informed€the€Committee€that€the€last€instance€of€theŠ ¼, (, Šimplementation€of€the€death€penalty€in€Australia€had€been€in€1967,€just€six€years€before€itsŠ „-õ(- Šabolishment€in€all€areas€of€Commonwealth€jurisdiction,€including€Northern€Territory;€that€althoughŠ ° Šthere€was€still€a€theoretical€possibility€of€its€being€imposed€in€some€states€for€some€crimes,€whichŠ ™é Šwas€a€survival€of€the€colonial€regime,€the€possibility€was€purely€theoretical€and€that€legislation€wasŠ ‚Ņ Šnow€to€be€prepared€to€provide€for€the€severing€of€most€Australiaššs€remaining€links€with€its€colonialŠ k» Špast.Š T¤ ŠĢ165.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€article€7€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€referred€to€theŠ & v Šemphasis€placed€in€the€report€on€community€attitudes€in€connection€with€corporal€punishment€butŠ  _ Špointed€out€that€the€abolition€of€the€punishment€of€whipping€was€currently€under€consideration€inŠ ų H Šone€of€the€two€jurisdictions€in€Australia€where€it€remained€theoretically€possible.€He€also€indicatedŠ į 1  Šthat€there€were€ample€instances€of€action€being€taken€against€police€officers€for€misuse€of€authority.Š Ź   ŠĢ166.€In€relation€to€article€8€of€the€Covenant,€he€stated€that€hard€labour€was€subject€in€principle€to€theŠ œģ  Šparliamentary€and€ministerial€control€exercised€over€any€public€servant,€such€as€the€Controller„Š …Õ  ŠGeneral€of€Prisons€and€his€staff.€As€to€the€possible€imposition€of€the€sentence€of€hard€labour€toŠ n¾  Šconvicted€males€only,€he€could€not€regard€that€as€conflicting€with€article€3€of€the€Covenant,€sinceŠ W§  Šit€could€hardly€be€argued€that€the€ability€of€a€State€party€to€impose€a€sentence€of€that€kind,€was€aŠ @ Šcivil€or€political€right€to€be€enjoyed€equally€by€men€and€women€in€accordance€with€the€Covenant.Š )y ŠĢ167.€€As€regards€article€9€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€pointed€out€that€in€the€case€of€undueŠ ūK Šdelay€in€deciding€on€the€lawfulness€of€the€detention,€the€possibility€was€always€there€for€obtainingŠ ä4 Ša€writ€of€ņņhabeas€corpusóó.€He€reiterated€the€information€in€the€report€concerning€the€differentŠ Ķ Šapproaches€of€the€different€Australian€jurisdictions€to€the€question€of€confinement€of€mentally„illŠ ¶ Špersons.€All€jurisdictions€had,€however,€instituted€stringent€review€mechanisms€in€order€to€ensureŠ Ÿļ Šthat€only€those€genuinely€suffering€from€mental€illness€were€detained.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ168.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€article€12€of€the€Covenant,€he€stated€that€the€persons€atŠ ZŖ Špresent€entitled€to€reside€on€reserves€were€Aboriginals€permitted€to€do€so€by€the€Director€ofŠ C“ ŠAboriginal€and€Islander€Advancement€and€the€Community€Council€who€decided€whether€that€wasŠ ,| Šin€the€best€interest€of€the€applicant€and€was€not€detrimental€to€the€best€interests€of€other€inhabitantsŠ e Šor€the€reserve€itself,€and€persons€whose€presence€was€required€for€the€fulfilment€of€certain€duties.Š žN ŠPermits€to€visit€a€reserve€were€issued€by€the€relevant€community€council.€He€also€stated€that€allŠ ē 7 ŠAustralian€jurisdictions€recognized€that€the€relationship€between€Aboriginals€and€the€land€wasŠ Š!   Šcommunal€and€not€individual€and,€accordingly,€if€an€individual€breached€the€communal€norm,€theŠ ¹" ! Šcommunity€had€the€right€to€expel€him€in€accordance€with€existing€legal€procedures.€ConsultationsŠ ¢#ņ" Šwere€taking€place€between€the€Queensland€Government€and€the€Aboriginal€and€IslanderŠ ‹$Ū# Šcommunities€on€new€legislation€under€which€Aboriginal€Community€Councils€would€have€enhancedŠ t%Ä $ Šrights€to€exercise€control€over€freedom€of€movement€to€and€from€reserves€and,€in€particular,€overŠ ]&­!% Šcommunity€members€who€offended€community€standards.€He€also€informed€the€Committee€thatŠ F'–"& Šrestrictions€on€entry€to€the€Cocos€and€Norfolk€Islands€were€necessary€in€order€to€protect€the€rightsŠ /(#' Šof€small€and€isolated€communities€in€accordance€with€paragraph€3€of€article€12€of€the€Covenant.Š )h$( ŠĢ169.€€With€regard€to€article€14€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€stated€that€there€had€not€been€anyŠ ź*:&* Šcase€of€the€removal€of€a€judge€in€the€present€century;€that€the€function€of€juries€was€to€be€judges€ofŠ Ó+#'+ Šfact€in€all€criminal€trials€in€superior€courts;€that€they€were€composed€of€laymen€selected€from€theŠ ¼, (, Šgeneral€community€and€that€they€played€a€fundamental€role€in€the€Australian€judicial€system.€OnŠ „-õ(- Šthe€question€of€reversal€of€the€onus€of€proof,€he€stated€that,€given€the€fact€that€the€whole€ofŠ ° ŠAustralian€political€and€legal€tradition€was€against€it,€a€government€would€seek€to€introduceŠ ™é Šlegislation€in€that€sense€only€in€very€exceptional€cases€and€that,€nevertheless,€he€would€draw€theŠ ‚Ņ Šattention€of€the€Ministerial€Meeting€on€Human€Rights€to€the€Committeeššs€concern€about€the€matter.Š k» ŠAs€to€the€question€of€interpretation,€he€explained€that€it€was€a€potential€problem€only€at€the€time€ofŠ T¤ Šarrest€since€the€diversity€of€languages€spoken€in€Australia,€the€size€of€the€country€and€the€sparsenessŠ =  Šof€the€population€in€remote€areas€meant€that€the€availability€of€an€interpreter€at€the€time€of€arrestŠ & v Šcould€not€be€guaranteed;€that€interpreters€travelled€on€circuit€with€a€court€when€necessary,€but€theŠ  _ Šmatter€was€not€a€simple€one€because€material€often€had€to€be€relayed€through€several€interpretersŠ ų H Šbefore€an€accused€person€or€a€witness€could€be€properly€understood€but€that€he€would,€however,Š į 1  Šbring€the€Committeeššs€comments€to€the€attention€of€his€Government.€Replying€to€other€questions,Š Ź   Šhe€pointed€out€that,€in€most€Australian€jurisdictions,€if€a€trial€was€not€initiated,€at€least€by€theŠ ³  Špresentation€of€an€indictment€before€the€court€to€which€the€person€had€been€committed€for€trial,€theŠ œģ  Šaccused€could€apply€for€the€striking€out€of€the€committal€or€for€the€entry€of€a€verdict€of€not€guilty;Š …Õ  Šthat€in€common€law,€evidence€obtained€by€unlawful€means€could€be€admissible€in€a€court€but€thatŠ n¾  Šwhat€mattered€was€the€weight€attached€to€such€evidence,€which€was€entirely€dependent€on€theŠ W§  Šexercise€of€judicial€discretion.€He€also€stated€that€penalties€applicable€under€Aboriginal€customaryŠ @ Šlaw,€which€themselves€constituted€criminal€offences,€were€clearly€unlawful,€that€there€were€not€twoŠ )y Šcriminal€law€systems€but€that€other€types€of€tribal€punishment€which€formed€part€of€AboriginalŠ b Šcustomary€law€could€be€applied€and€it€was€those€punishments€which€were€usually€at€issue€inŠ ūK Šquestions€of€double€jeopardy€and€that€this€was€a€matter€of€balancing€conflicting€interpretations€ofŠ ä4 Šindividual€rights.Š Ķ ŠĢ170.€€In€relation€to€article€15€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€indicated€that,€to€his€knowledge,Š Ÿļ Šthere€was€no€retrospective€legislation€in€Australia€which€could€properly€be€labelled€criminal,€thatŠ ˆŲ Šif€a€penalty€were€reduced€after€conviction€and€sentence,€the€sentence€imposed€was€expected€to€stand.Š qĮ ŠĢ171.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€article€18€of€the€Covenant,€he€stated€that,€throughoutŠ C“ ŠAustralia,€the€right€of€a€person€to€adopt€and€practise€a€religion€of€his€choice€or€to€adopt€no€religionŠ ,| Šwas€respected;€that€no€restriction€was€imposed€on€the€propagation€or€practice€of€atheistic€or€agnosticŠ e Šviews€and€that€exemption€from€military€duties€of€all€kinds€could€be€granted€to€a€person€who€hadŠ žN Šconscientious€beliefs€which€did€not€allow€him€to€engage€in€such€services.Š ē 7 ŠĢ172.€€As€regards€article€19€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€explained€that€the€AustralianŠ ¹" ! ŠBroadcasting€Tribunal€had€the€functions€of€granting€licenses€to€commercial€broadcasting€andŠ ¢#ņ" Štelevision€stations€and€of€determining€standards€to€be€observed€and€the€conditions€on€whichŠ ‹$Ū# Šadvertising€might€be€shown€and€that€before€granting€a€licence,€the€Tribunal€had€to€hold€a€publicŠ t%Ä $ Šinquiry€into€the€grant;€that€the€Broadcasting€and€Television€Act€contained€stringent€provisions€withŠ ]&­!% Šregard€to€the€ownership€of€the€information€media€and€that€the€number€of€radio€and€television€stationsŠ F'–"& Šin€which€a€person€or€company€might€have€an€interest€was€strictly€limited,€but€that€there€were€noŠ /(#' Šequivalent€laws€with€regard€to€the€press;€that€appointments€to€the€membership€of€the€AustralianŠ )h$( ŠBroadcasting€Commission€were€closely€scrutinized€by€interested€members€of€the€public€and€thatŠ *Q%) Šthere€would€be€widespread€and€vocal€criticism€of€appointments€thought€to€be€politically€motivated.Š ź*:&* ŠĢ173.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€articles€20,€21€and€22€of€the€Covenant,€the€representativeŠ ¼, (, Šindicated€that€he€had€noted€the€comments€of€some€members€of€the€Committee€on€AustraliaššsŠ „-õ(- Šreservation€to€article€20€and€would€draw€those€comments€to€the€attention€of€relevant€authorities.€HeŠ ° Šstated€that€the€criteria€used€in€granting€or€refusing€permission€to€hold€public€assemblies€varied€fromŠ ™é Šjurisdiction€to€jurisdiction.€He€gave€information€on€the€relevant€applicable€provisions€in€some€statesŠ ‚Ņ Šas€well€as€on€the€competent€authorities€to€decide€on€the€matter€and€stated€that€CommonwealthŠ k» Šlegislation€did€not€deal€with€meetings€in€public€places.€He€explained€that€š šregisteredšš€clubs€wereŠ T¤ Šaccessible€to€all€and€that€the€word€š šregisteredšš€related€to€clubs€which€provided€extensiveŠ =  Šentertainment€and€other€facilities€based€on€legalized€gambling,€which€was€subject€to€stateŠ & v Šregistration€and€control;€that€Commonwealth€and€State€Ministers€in€the€Meeting€on€Human€RightsŠ  _ Šwere€giving€active€consideration€to€questions€of€discrimination€against€women€in€relation€to€clubŠ ų H Šmembership.€He€had€noted€the€views€of€Committee€members€on€the€questions€of€the€š šclosed€shopššŠ į 1  Šin€industry€and€would€draw€those€views€to€the€attention€of€authorities€in€Australia.Š Ź   ŠĢ174.€€Commenting€on€questions€raised€under€article€25€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€statedŠ œģ  Šthat€it€had€not€so€far€been€compulsory€for€Aboriginals€to€enrol€under€the€Commonwealth€ElectoralŠ …Õ  ŠAct,€under€the€Western€Australian€electoral€laws€or€in€South€Australia€where€it€was€not€compulsoryŠ n¾  Šfor€any€person€to€enrol€for€state€elections;€that€once€enrolled,€every€person€was€required€to€vote€atŠ W§  Šthe€Commonwealth€and€state€elections;€that€an€Aboriginal€advisory€body€had€recommended€that€theŠ @ Šlaw€should€be€changed€to€make€enrolment€compulsory;€that€the€Commonwealth€Government€hadŠ )y Šcommitted€itself€to€removing€the€optional€enrolment€provisions€for€Aboriginals,€thus€making€itŠ b Šcompulsory€for€Aboriginals€to€vote€in€Federal€elections.€He€also€informed€the€Committee€that€theŠ ūK ŠCommonwealth€and€State€Governments€had€agreed€that€Australian€citizenship€should€in€future€beŠ ä4 Šthe€appropriate€nationality€requirement€for€the€franchise€and€that€uniform€legislation€to€give€effectŠ Ķ Što€that€decision€should€be€enacted€by€the€Commonwealth€and€the€states,€but€that€no€person€currentlyŠ ¶ Šenrolled€as€an€elector€should€be€disenfranchised€.€He€indicated€that€the€reason€for€the€rule€that€civilŠ Ÿļ Šservants€should€resign€their€offices€if€they€wished€to€stand€for€election€to€the€CommonwealthŠ ˆŲ ŠParliament€was€the€strict€separation€of€the€legislative€and€executive€functions€in€the€AustralianŠ qĮ Šsystem.€He€informed€the€Committee€that€the€participation€of€Aboriginals€in€public€life€wasŠ ZŖ Šfacilitated€by€the€National€Aboriginal€Conference;€that€the€Aboriginal€Development€CommissionŠ C“ Šwas€controlled€solely€by€Aboriginals€and€that€there€were€Aboriginal€members€of€the€variousŠ ,| Šlegislative€bodies€at€the€Commonwealth€and€state€levels€and€that€they€were€also€represented€on€aŠ e Švariety€of€public€bodies€in€Australia.Š žN ŠĢ175.€€In€connection€with€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€stated€that€while€recognizingŠ Š!   Šthe€force€of€alternative€view€expressed€in€the€Committee,€Australia€believed€that€its€interpretationŠ ¹" ! Šof€the€second€sentence€of€the€article€was€more€in€keeping€with€the€original€intention€of€the€framersŠ ¢#ņ" Šof€that€provision.€He€also€pointed€out€that€Aboriginal€Australians€enjoyed€the€same€civil€andŠ ‹$Ū# Špolitical€rights€as€all€other€Australian€citizens€and,€like€them,€Aboriginals€could€invoke€theŠ t%Ä $ ŠCommonwealthššs€Racial€Discrimination€Act€if€they€considered€themselves€the€victims€ofŠ ]&­!% Šdiscriminatory€treatment€and€that,€in€fact,€they€took€advantage€of€the€machinery€for€investigationŠ F'–"& Šand€recourse€provided€by€the€Act.Š /(#' ŠĢ176.€€As€regards€questions€raised€under€article€27€of€the€Covenant,€particularly€those€relating€to€theŠ *Q%) Šaboriginals,€the€representative€referred€to€his€replies€under€various€articles€of€the€Covenant€andŠ ź*:&* Špointed€out,€from€the€outset,€that€his€Government€had€taken€a€very€active€part€in€international€foraŠ Ó+#'+ Šdealing€with€the€question€of€indigenous€populations.€He€stated€that€the€Australian€GovernmentŠ ¼, (, Šrealized€that€there€were€still€a€number€of€problems€to€be€overcome€and€it€acknowledged€theŠ „-õ(- Šgenerally€disadvantaged€position€of€Aboriginal€Australians€and€that€it€had,€therefore,€embarked€onŠ ° Ša€series€of€special€programmes€designed€to€remedy€particular€disadvantages.€Those€programmesŠ ™é Šwere€formulated€and€put€into€effect€only€after€consultations€with€Aboriginals,€whose€participationŠ ‚Ņ Šin€the€life€of€the€country€had€significantly€increased€in€recent€years.€Over€the€last€decade,Š k» ŠAboriginals€had€been€given€the€means€of€exercising€real€power€in€all€matters€affecting€their€lives.Š T¤ ŠThe€programmes€designed€for€Aboriginals€were€based€on€a€number€of€key€principles:€AboriginalsŠ =  Šmust,€for€example,€have€the€means€of€preserving€their€traditions,€languages€and€customs,€ņņinter€aliaóó,Š & v Šthrough€bi„cultural€education,€but€were€free,€if€they€so€wished,€to€integrate€themselves€intoŠ  _ ŠAustralian€society€or€to€adopt€whatever€aspects€of€a€western€life€style€they€pleased.€The€AustralianŠ ų H ŠGovernment€recognized€the€Aboriginalsšš€fundamental€affinity€with€their€land€and€consequentlyŠ į 1  Šguaranteed€them€enjoyment€of€their€rights€to€traditional€lands,€control€of€all€mineral€prospecting€andŠ Ź   Šdevelopment€in€a€manner€which€protected€sacred€sites€and€encouraged€states€to€make€land€availableŠ ³  Što€Aboriginals,€the€essential€principle€of€all€plans€in€respect€of€Aboriginals€being€that€of€self„Š œģ  Šmanagement.€He€than€gave€detailed€information€about€the€above„mentioned€programmes€as€well€asŠ …Õ  Šon€the€application€of€the€key€principles€on€which€those€programmes€were€based€explaining€the€roleŠ n¾  Šand€competence,€ņņinter€aliaóó,€of€the€National€Aboriginal€Conference,€the€Aboriginal€DevelopmentŠ W§  ŠCommission€and€the€National€Aboriginal€Education€Committee,€all€of€which€were€composed€of€€Š @ ŠAboriginals,€in€promoting€the€needs€and€wishes€of€Aboriginals€and€in€expressing€AboriginalsŠ )y Šopinions€or€deciding€on€appropriate€policies€to€satisfy€those€needs€and€wishes.€Referring€to€theŠ b Šspecial€affinity€which€Aboriginals€had€with€the€land,€which€was€an€important€factor€underlying€theŠ ūK ŠGovernmentsšš€land€rights€policies,€he€stated€that€whilst€rights€recognized€in€that€connection€differedŠ ä4 Šfrom€state€to€state€the€result€was€that€Aboriginals,€representing€a€little€over€1€per€cent€of€the€totalŠ Ķ ŠAustralian€population,€now€had€various€forms€of€legal€title€to€some€10€per€cent€of€the€land€mass€ofŠ ¶ ŠAustralia.€In€his€detailed€account€on€the€land€rights€of€Aboriginals€and€the€Governmentsšš€developingŠ Ÿļ Špolicy€in€that€respect,€he€stated€that€after€a€prolonged€period€of€consultation€with€various€AboriginalŠ ˆŲ Šand€Islander€groups,€the€Queensland€Government€has€decided€to€amend€the€Queensland€Land€ActŠ qĮ Šand€to€establish€what€was€known€asa€€š šdeed€of€grant„in„trustšš,€under€which€the€land€currentlyŠ ZŖ Šcomprising€Aboriginal€and€Islander€reserves€would€henceforth€be€placed€under€the€control€of€theŠ C“ Šelected€Aboriginal€and€Islander€Councils€and€that€those€Councils€would€have€to€be€consulted€beforeŠ ,| Šany€mining€right€could€be€granted€by€the€Queensland€Government.€Replying,€finally,€on€the€rightsŠ e Šof€minorities€in€general,€he€stressed€the€question€of€multi„Ō_ŌculturalismŌ_Ō€and€the€policy€adopted€by€theŠ žN ŠAustralian€Government€over€the€past€decade€in€encouraging€ethnic€communities€to€participate€fullyŠ ē 7 Šin€the€mainstream€of€Australian€life.€In€this€respect,€he€explained€the€role€of€the€Institute€of€Multi„Š Š!   ŠCultural€Affairs€and€the€facilities€made€available€to€the€various€ethnic€groups€to€preserve€theirŠ ¹" ! Šcultural€heritage€and€in€developing,€in€the€Australian€community,€an€appreciation€of€theŠ ¢#ņ" Šcontributions€of€various€cultures€to€the€enrichment€of€the€community€and€in€promoting€tolerance€andŠ ‹$Ū# Šunderstanding€between€different€cultural€groups€and€ethnic€communities.Š t%Ä $ ŠĢ177.€€Responding€to€comments€made€with€regard€to€Australiaššs€criteria€for€selection€of€migrants€andŠ F'–"& Šadmission€of€refugees,€he€stated€that€the€š šwhite€Australia€policyšš€has€died€a€natural€death€manyŠ /(#' Šyears€earlier;€that€Australiaššs€current€policy€for€migrant€selection€placed€emphasis€on€criteria€of€twoŠ )h$( Škinds:€family€migration€and€skills€in€demand€in€Australia€and€that€applicants€were€not€excluded€onŠ *Q%) Šdiscriminatory€grounds€such€as€religion,€colour,€race€or€nationality.€The€admission€of€refugees€onŠ ź*:&* Šthe€other€hand€was€based€on€a€different€set€of€criteria€and€depended€principally€on€an€applicationŠ Ó+#'+ Šof€the€definition€of€š šrefugeešš€contained€in€the€1951€Convention€relating€to€the€Status€of€Refugees,Š ¼, (, Šas€well€as€on€other€specific€criteria,€especially€that€of€family€reunion.€He€also€informed€theŠ „-õ(- ŠCommittee€that€special€programmes€were€in€operation€in€Australia€to€ensure€that€migrants€andŠ ° Šrefugees€were€encouraged€and€had€the€means€to€participate€fully€in€the€mainstream€of€AustralianŠ ™é Šlife.Š  ‚Ņ Šņ ņŌ_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō€€A/43/40€Ō_Ō(1988)ó óŌ_ŌŠ ° ŠĢĢ413.€€The€Committee€considered€the€second€periodic€report€of€Australia€(Ō_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō/C/42/Add.2)€at€itsŠ l¼ Š806ņņthóó€to€809ņņthóó€meetings,€held€on€5€and€6€April€1988€(Ō_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō/C/SR.806„809).Š U„ ŠĢ414.€€The€report€was€introduced€by€the€representative€of€the€State€party€who€reaffirmed€hisŠ ' w ŠGovernmentššs€support€for€the€Committeeššs€work€and€noted€that€the€scrutiny€of€reports€by€theŠ  ` ŠCommittee€and€its€dialogue€with€States€parties€had€resulted€in€increased€understanding€by€all€partiesŠ ł I Šof€their€obligations€under€the€Covenant.€The€representative€recalled€that€the€implementation€of€theŠ ā 2  ŠCovenant€in€Australia€was€significantly€affected€by€the€division€of€political€and€legal€responsibilitiesŠ Ė   Šbetween€the€Federal€Government€and€the€governments€of€the€various€Australian€States€andŠ “  ŠTerritories,€as€provided€by€the€Constitution,€and€that€the€implementation€of€a€given€article€of€theŠ ķ  ŠCovenant€depended€on€the€jurisdiction€that€had€the€constitutional€power€to€enforce€it.€A€smallŠ †Ö  Šnumber€of€civil€and€political€rights€were€protected€by€the€Constitution€while€others€were€embodiedŠ oæ  Šin€general€legislation€and€common€law.€Legislation€protecting€certain€specific€human€rights€has€beenŠ XØ  Šadded€at€the€federal€level,€such€as€the€Racial€Discrimination€Act€of€1975€and€the€Sex€DiscriminationŠ A‘ ŠAct€of€1984,€and€four€of€the€six€states€had€adopted€similar€laws.Š *z ŠĢ415.€€Reviewing€developments€since€the€consideration€of€Australiaššs€initial€report€in€October€1982,Š üL Šthe€representative€pointed€out€that€the€former€Human€Rights€Commission€had€been€replaced,€inŠ å5 ŠDecember€1986,€by€the€Human€Rights€and€Equal€Opportunity€Commission,€of€which€theŠ Ī ŠInternational€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights€formed€the€basic€charter,€and€that€Australia€hadŠ · Šratified€the€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Discrimination€against€Women€in€1983Š  š Šand€had€enacted€the€Affirmative€Action€(Equal€Opportunity€for€Women)€Act€in€1986.€LegislationŠ ‰Ł Šhad€also€been€introduced€recently€to€allow€ratification€by€Australia€of€the€Convention€againstŠ rĀ ŠTorture€and€Other€Cruel,€Inhuman€or€Degrading€Treatment€or€Punishment€and€Australia€alsoŠ [« Šremained€committed€to€the€adoption€of€a€second€Optional€Protocol€to€the€Covenant€outlawing€capitalŠ D” Špunishment.€Other€relevant€developments€included€the€elaboration€of€guidelines€based€on€the€UnitedŠ -} ŠNations€Standard€Minimum€Rules€for€the€Treatment€of€Prisoners,€the€establishment€of€aŠ f Šconstitutional€commission€to€recommend€desirable€changes€in€the€Constitution€in€the€area€ofŠ ’O Šindividual€and€democratic€rights,€initiatives€to€establish€a€data€protection€agency€and€to€enact€aŠ č 8 ŠPrivacy€Bill,€and€a€variety€of€initiatives€and€proposals€relating€to€the€improvement€of€the€status€andŠ Ń!!  Šcondition€of€Aboriginals€and€Torres€Strait€Islanders,€including,€in€particular,€improving€the€positionŠ ŗ" ! Šof€Aboriginals€in€the€criminal€justice€system.€Efforts€were€also€under€way€to€ensure€the€continuedŠ £#ó" Šimprovement€of€the€status€of€women€through€programmes€that€enabled€them€to€exercise€a€realŠ Œ$Ü# Šchoice€in€their€careers€and€life„styles,€and€to€make€access€to€government€programmes€broader€andŠ u%Å $ Šmore€equitable.Š ^&®!% ŠĢņņConstitutional€and€legal€framework€within€which€the€Covenant€is€implementedóóŠ 0(€#' ŠĢ416.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€receive€informationŠ *R%) Šconcerning€the€effectiveness€of€the€ombudsmanššs€powers€in€providing€remedies€or€necessaryŠ ė*;&* Šlegislative€changes,€the€relationship€between€the€Federal€Court€and€the€High€Court,€theŠ Ō+$'+ Šcircumstances€under€which€appeals€were€permitted€against€the€decisions€of€non„judicial€persons€andŠ ½, (, Šauthorities,€the€status€of€the€new€Human€Rights€and€Equal€Opportunity€Commission€and€its€abilityŠ ¦-ö(- ŠŌ_Ōto€monitor€compliance€with€the€Covenant€and€to€receive€complaints€from€individuals,€and€the€effortsŠ ° Šunder€way€to€make€the€entire€population€aware€of€the€rights€guaranteed€under€the€Covenant.Š ™é ŠMembers€also€asked€about€the€meaning€of€the€statement€in€paragraph€53€of€the€report€that,€š špriorŠ ‚Ņ Što€or€without€legislative€implementation,€some€of€the€requirements€of€the€Covenant€may€beŠ k» Šimplemented€at€an€administrative€levelšš€and€wondered€whether€all€the€rights€guaranteed€under€theŠ T¤ ŠCovenant€were€available€under€State€and€federal€law,€notwithstanding€the€absence€of€legislationŠ =  Šincorporating€the€Covenant€or€a€bill€of€rights.Š & v ŠĢ417.€€Further,€members€wished€to€know€whether€the€fact€that€the€Covenant€had€been€annexed€to€theŠ ų H ŠHuman€Rights€and€Equal€Opportunity€Commission€Act€meant€that€it€had€actually€been€incorporatedŠ į 1  Šinto€national€law,€whether€that€Commission€was€empowered€to€intervene€in€court€proceedings,Š Ź   Šwhether€it€had€taken€concrete€measures€to€familiarize€the€judiciary€with€the€guarantees€providedŠ ³  Šunder€the€Covenant,€what€typical€complaints€were€received€by€the€Commission€and€how€it€had€dealtŠ œģ  Šwith€them.€They€also€asked€on€what€grounds,€other€than€lack€of€jurisdiction,€the€ombudsman€couldŠ …Õ  Šdecline€to€investigate€a€complaint,€whether€the€High€Court€could€suspend€the€application€of€a€lawŠ n¾  Šand€had€competence€to€interpret€all€parts€of€the€Constitution,€what€type€of€instruction€was€providedŠ W§  Što€prison€officials€and€police€officers€with€regard€to€the€rights€contained€in€the€Covenant€and€whatŠ @ Šsteps€had€been€taken€by€the€federal€Government€to€ensure€the€implementation€of€the€Covenant€inŠ )y Šthe€Northern€Territory.€It€was€also€asked€whether€the€Constitutional€Commission€had€responsibilityŠ b Šfor€bringing€State€constitutions€into€line€with€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant,€why€a€bill€had€beenŠ ūK Šintroduced€to€incorporate€the€Convention€against€Torture€and€Other€Cruel,€Inhuman€or€DegradingŠ ä4 ŠTreatment€or€Punishment€into€national€law,€when€no€attempt€had€been€made€to€incorporate€articleŠ Ķ Š7€of€the€Covenant,€why€it€was€considered€necessary,€since€Australia€had€withdrawn€most€of€itsŠ ¶ Šreservations€to€the€Covenant,€to€maintain€the€reservation€to€article€20€and€why€the€advocacy€ofŠ Ÿļ Šnational€or€racial€hatred€was€not€punishable€under€the€Racial€Discrimination€Act,€and€whetherŠ ˆŲ Šhuman€rights€information€was€provided€in€all€Australian€schools€and€as€part€of€Aboriginal€educationŠ qĮ Šprogrammes.Š ZŖ ŠĢ418.€€Members€also€observed€that€informing€the€media€of€the€fact€that€Australiaššs€report€was€beforeŠ ,| Šthe€Committee€would€have€been€a€useful€way€to€alert€public€opinion€to€the€Committeeššs€concern€thatŠ e Šthe€Covenant€did€not€have€the€force€of€law€in€Australia.€They€recalled,€in€addition,€that€article€50Š žN Šof€the€Covenant€stipulated€that€its€provisions€extended€to€all€parts€of€federal€States€without€anyŠ ē 7 Šlimitations€or€exceptions.Š Š!   ŠĢ419.€€Responding€to€questions€raised€by€members€of€the€Committee,€the€representative€of€the€StateŠ ¢#ņ" Šparty€explained€that€the€phrase€relating€to€administrative€implementation€used€in€paragraph€53€ofŠ ‹$Ū# Šthe€report€was€intended€only€to€convey€that€not€all€the€rights€in€the€Covenant€needed€to€beŠ t%Ä $ Šimplemented€through€legislation,€since€some€of€the€requirements€of€the€Covenant€could€be€met€inŠ ]&­!% Šwhole€or€in€part€through€administrative€measures,€such€as€instructions€issued€by€police€authorities.Š F'–"& ŠNot€all€rights€guaranteed€by€the€Covenant€were€necessarily€available€through€specific€State€orŠ /(#' Šfederal€legislation€but€they€were€nevertheless€fully€protected.€For€example,€freedom€of€expressionŠ )h$( Šwas€not€specifically€guaranteed€by€law€but€the€only€limitations€on€that€right€were€those€provided€byŠ *Q%) Šlaw.€The€Government€and€its€officials€had€no€powers€independent€of€the€law€by€which€they€couldŠ ź*:&* Šact€to€affect€adversely€the€interests€of€Australians.€Prior€to€ratification€of€the€Covenant,€there€hadŠ Ó+#'+ Šbeen€extensive€consultations€between€the€Federal€Government€and€State€governments€with€a€viewŠ ¼, (, Što€identifying€any€provisions€in€the€law€which€were€inconsistent€with€the€Covenant,€and€actionŠ „-õ(- Šwhich€might€be€needed€to€ensure€compliance€with€the€Covenant.€Where€inconsistencies€or€obstaclesŠ ° Šhad€been€perceived,€laws€or€administrative€practices€had€been€changed€or€an€appropriate€reservationŠ ™é Šhad€been€formulated.Š ‚Ņ ŠĢ420.€€Regarding€the€effectiveness€of€the€ombudsman,€the€representative€stated€that€the€ombudsmanššsŠ T¤ Špowers€were€recommendatory€and€his€recommendations€were€not€always€followed.€During€theŠ =  Š1986/87€reporting€year,€the€ombudsman€had€dealt€with€3,708€written€complaints€and€12,107€oralŠ & v Šcomplaints.€About€25€per€cent€of€the€written€complaints€and€39€per€cent€of€the€oral€complaints€hadŠ  _ Šbeen€resolved€substantially€or€partially€in€favour€of€the€complainant.€The€decision€of€the€ombudsmanŠ ų H Šnot€to€investigate€a€particular€case€could€be€based€on€the€grounds€that€the€complaint€was€frivolousŠ į 1  Šor€that€the€complainant€had€not€had€recourse€to€the€appropriate€remedies.€Where€a€complaint€couldŠ Ź   Šnot€otherwise€be€resolved,€the€ombudsman€was€empowered€to€submit€a€report€to€the€Prime€MinisterŠ ³  Šand,€ultimately,€to€Parliament.€Also€the€ombudsman€was€an€ņņex€officioóó€member€of€the€AdministrativeŠ œģ  ŠReview€Council,€which€was€a€high„level€body€established€to€advise€the€Attorney„General€onŠ …Õ  Šadministrative€law€issues.Š n¾  ŠĢ421.€€The€Federal€Court€was€subordinate€to€the€High€Court,€which€had€been€set€up€under€theŠ @ ŠConstitution€and€was€at€the€apex€of€the€Australian€judicial€system.€Many€of€the€decisions€taken€byŠ )y Šnon„judicial€persons€and€authorities€under€Commonwealth€law€were€subject€to€review€by€theŠ b ŠAdministrative€Appeals€Tribunal,€which€had€broad€powers€in€most€cases.€The€Federal€Court€hadŠ ūK Šjurisdiction€to€hear€appeals€on€questions€of€law€concerning€any€decision€by€the€Tribunal.€The€HighŠ ä4 ŠCourtššs€role€in€respect€of€the€Administrative€Appeals€Tribunal€was€limited€to€the€determination€ofŠ Ķ Šappeals€from€the€Federal€Court.Š ¶ ŠĢ422.€€The€Human€Rights€and€Equal€Opportunity€Commission€was€a€permanent,€independent€bodyŠ ˆŲ Šestablished€by€federal€law€with€broad€statutory€powers€to€investigate€matters€relating€to€humanŠ qĮ Šrights€on€its€own€initiative,€a€the€request€of€the€Attorney„General€or€on€the€basis€of€a€complaint€fromŠ ZŖ Šan€individual.€The€President€of€the€Commission€was€a€judge€in€the€Federal€Court.€The€other€threeŠ C“ Šmembers€of€the€Commission€„€The€Human€Rights€Commissioner,€the€Race€DiscriminationŠ ,| ŠCommissioner€and€the€Sex€Discrimination€Commissioner€„€were€qualified€lawyers€and€had€broadŠ e Šexperience€in€human€rights€and€public€administration.€The€Human€Rights€Commissioner€generallyŠ žN Šdealt€with€the€Federal€and€State€governments€at€a€very€senior€level€and€had€the€same€rank€as€theŠ ē 7 Šsecretary€of€a€federal€department.€The€Commission€could€inquire€into€any€act€or€practice€that€mightŠ Š!   Šbe€inconsistent€with€or€contrary€to€human€rights.€Its€jurisdiction€with€respect€to€individualŠ ¹" ! Šcomplaints€covered€seven€international€instruments,€including€the€Covenant.€There€was€not€limit€toŠ ¢#ņ" Šthe€intervention€of€the€Commission€in€court€cases€except€that€it€had€to€have€the€consent€of€the€judgesŠ ‹$Ū# Šinvolved.€The€Commission€conducted€education€programmes€in€schools€in€conjunction€with€StateŠ t%Ä $ Šeducation€authorities€as€well€as€information€programmes€outside€formal€education€structures€thatŠ ]&­!% Šfocussed€on€groups€of€particular€concern,€such€as€homeless€children€and€migrant€women,€andŠ F'–"& Šprogrammes€with€other€organizations€on€subjects€such€as€racism€in€the€place€of€work.€Among€itsŠ /(#' Šinformation€activities,€the€Commission€issued€newsletters,€published€papers€and€reports€andŠ )h$( Šdistributed€posters€and€other€materials.€An€intensive€public€education€programme€was€carried€outŠ *Q%) Šduring€Human€Rights€Week€in€Australia.€Lastly,€the€Commission€conducted€conferences€andŠ ź*:&* Šseminars€on€subjects€of€particular€concern€where€the€law€was€deficient€and€the€Covenant€wasŠ Ó+#'+ Šespecially€important.€For€example,€common€law€had€a€little€to€say€regarding€the€rights€of€suchŠ ¼, (, Šminorities€as€the€disabled,€the€mentally€ill€or€children,€and€the€Commission€had€tried€to€compensateŠ „-õ(- Šfor€the€absence€of€a€bill€of€rights€by€focussing€on€themŠ ° ŠĢ423.€€As€to€questions€concerning€the€incorporation€of€the€Covenant€into€Australian€law,€theŠ ‚Ņ Šrepresentative€pointed€out€that€a€whole€range€of€remedies€were€utilized€to€implement€the€CovenantŠ k» Šwithin€the€limits€of€the€Australian€system€of€government,€to€which€the€common„law€background€wasŠ T¤ Šfundamental.€It€was€important€not€to€approach€reports€from€an€over„theoretical€standpoint.€TheŠ =  ŠAustralian€system,€complex€as€it€was,€worked€reasonably€well,€and€respect€for€human€rights€inŠ & v ŠAustralia€was€on€a€par€with€that€in€any€other€country.€Australia€had€inherited€a€cultural€difficultyŠ  _ Šwith€principles€that€were€enshrined€in€lofty€declaratory€constitutions€that€might€ultimately€serve€toŠ ų H Šrestrict€rights.€The€vitality€of€the€constitutional€debate€in€Australia€had€produced€a€dynamic€systemŠ į 1  Šbringing€minorities€at€the€State€and€federal€levels€into€close€consultation€and€fostering€greatŠ Ź   Šfamiliarity€with€the€Covenant.Š ³  ŠĢ424.€€Responding€to€other€questions,€the€representative€noted€that€courts€had€the€power€to€declareŠ …Õ  Ša€law€invalid€and€to€grant€specific€remedies€where€appropriate.€The€primary€forum€for€ensuring€thatŠ n¾  Šthe€States€agreed€to€proposed€federal€action,€and€took€action€themselves,€was€the€StandingŠ W§  ŠCommittee€of€the€Attorney„General,€which€held€regular€discussions€concerning€human€rights.€TheŠ @ Šexception€relating€to€the€judicial€interpretation€of€laws,€mentioned€in€paragraph€55€of€the€report,Š )y Šapplied€not€only€to€the€Northern€Territory€but€to€all€States,€the€Northern€Territory€being€treated€asŠ b Ša€State€by€the€Federal€Government.€The€Constitutional€Commission€was€to€report€by€30€June€1988Š ūK Šon€proposed€amendments€€to€the€Constitution.€The€scope€of€its€review€did€not€extend€to€each€StateŠ ä4 ŠConstitution,€but€such€constitutions€were€subject€to€the€Federal€Constitution.€Furthermore,€theŠ Ķ ŠIndividual€and€Democratic€Rights€of€the€Committee€had€recommended€that€all€existingŠ ¶ Šconstitutional€guarantees€should€be€made€to€apply€to€the€States.€That€Committee€had€alsoŠ Ÿļ Šrecommended€that€certain€rights,€such€as€the€right€to€vote€and€to€due€process€of€law,€should€beŠ ˆŲ Šenshrined€in€the€Constitution€and€that€a€referendum€should€be€held€to€that€end.€The€President€of€theŠ qĮ ŠHuman€Rights€and€Equal€Opportunity€Commission€had€given€the€education€of€judges€the€highestŠ ZŖ Špriority€and€had€established€a€high„level€committee€whose€sole€function€was€to€conduct€courses€andŠ C“ Šseminars€for€judges.€The€complaints€lodge€with€the€Commission€covered€the€entire€spectrum€of€theŠ ,| Šarticles€of€the€Covenant,€with€about€one€third€relating€to€discrimination€on€grounds€of€sex€or€race.Š e ŠThe€reason€for€introducing€legislation€in€relation€to€the€Convention€against€Torture€and€Other€Cruel,Š žN ŠInhuman€or€Degrading€Treatment€or€Punishment,€with€which€Australia€already€complied€fully,€wasŠ ē 7 Što€give€effect€to€the€requirement€of€universal€jurisdiction.Š Š!   ŠĢ425.€€Finally,€regarding€Australiaššs€reservation€to€article€20€of€the€Covenant,€the€Government€hadŠ ¢#ņ" Šnot€decided€to€take€action€to€remove€it€because€Australia€had€difficulty€with€any€restriction€onŠ ‹$Ū# Šfreedom€of€speech.€There€were€a€number€of€areas,€however,€such€as€under€the€Human€Rights€andŠ t%Ä $ ŠEqual€Opportunity€Act€in€1986,€where€the€Government€could€and€did€take€legal€action€to€proscribeŠ ]&­!% Šincitement€to€racial€or€religious€hatred.Š F'–"& ŠĢņņSelf„determinationóóŠ )h$( ŠĢ426.€€In€connection€with€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€Australiaššs€positionŠ ź*:&* Šwith€regard€to€self„determination€in€general,€and€specifically€with€regard€to€the€struggle€for€self„Š Ó+#'+ Šdetermination€of€the€South€African,€Namibian€and€Palestinian€people.€They€also€asked€whatŠ ¼, (, ŠAustraliaššs€views€and€actions€had€been€regard€to€the€situation€in€New€Caledonia.€It€was€also€askedŠ „-õ(- Šwhether€it€would€be€possible€to€allow€the€Torres€Strait€Islanders,€some€of€whom€were€apparentlyŠ ° Špressing€for€independence€according€to€news€reports,€to€express€their€views€on€self„determinationŠ ™é Šin€a€referendum,€as€the€people€of€the€Cocos€(Keeling)€Islands€had€done.Š ‚Ņ ŠĢ427.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that€his€Government€had€activelyŠ T¤ Šadvocated€and€voted€for€decolonization€and€for€the€right€of€Non„Self„Governing€Territories€to€self„Š =  Šdetermination.€Australia€had€been€the€administering€Power€for€Papua€New€Guinea,€Nauru€and€theŠ & v ŠCocos€(Keeling)€Islands,€and€each€of€those€Territories,€in€close€co„operation€with€the€SpecialŠ  _ ŠCommittee€on€the€Situation€with€regard€to€the€Implementation€of€the€Declaration€on€the€GrantingŠ ų H Šof€Independence€to€Colonial€Countries€and€Peoples,€of€which€Australia€was€a€member,€had€beenŠ į 1  Šable€to€exercise€the€right€to€self„determination.€Most€recently,€in€1984,€the€Cocos€(Keeling)€IslandersŠ Ź   Šhad€opted€for€integration€with€Australia€in€an€act€of€self„determination€under€United€NationsŠ ³  Šsupervision.€Australia€had€also€given€vigorous€support€to€Security€Council€resolution€435€(1978)Š œģ  Šon€Namibian€independence.€Australia€unequivocally€rejected€ņņapartheidóó€and€had€taken€a€number€ofŠ …Õ  Šspecific€steps,€including€various€restrictions€on€contacts€with€South€Africa€and€support€for€theŠ n¾  Šimposition€of€mandatory€sanctions,€to€bring€pressure€to€bear€on€the€South€African€authorities€toŠ W§  Šdismantle€that€system.€€With€regard€to€the€Middle€East,€Australia€believed€that€the€security€of€allŠ @ ŠStates€in€the€region€should€be€protected€and€that€a€resolution€of€the€conflict€in€the€territoriesŠ )y Šoccupied€by€Israel€required€recognition€of€the€right€of€the€Palestinians€to€self„determination,Š b Šincluding€their€right€to€choose€independence€if€they€so€desired.Š ūK ŠĢ428.€€Australia€considered€that€the€right€of€self„determination€was€not€fully€exercised€by€simplyŠ Ķ Šgaining€independence€after€a€colonial€era.€It€interpreted€self„determination€as€the€matrix€of€civil,Š ¶ Špolitical€and€other€rights€required€for€the€meaningful€participation€of€citizens€in€the€kind€of€decision„Š Ÿļ Šmaking€that€enabled€them€to€have€a€say€in€their€future.€Self„determination€included€participation€inŠ ˆŲ Šfree,€fair€and€regular€elections€and€the€ability€to€occupy€public€office€and€enjoy€freedom€of€speechŠ qĮ Šand€association.€The€Torres€Strait€Islands,€€unlike€the€Cocos€(Keeling)€Islands,€which€had€beenŠ ZŖ Šadministered€under€a€United€Nations€Trusteeship€Agreement,€had€always€formed€part€of€Australia.Š C“ ŠThe€concerns€of€some€Torres€Strait€Islanders€relating€to€self„management€and€autonomy€had€alreadyŠ ,| Šreceived€attention€and€an€inter„departmental€committee€had€been€set€up€by€the€Prime€Minister€toŠ e Šstudy€whether€those€concerns€could€be€addressed€more€appropriately.€Australiaššs€position€withŠ žN Šregard€to€New€Caledonia€was€that€the€Special€Committee€on€the€Situation€with€regard€to€theŠ ē 7 ŠImplementation€of€the€Declaration€on€the€Granting€of€Independence€to€Colonial€Countries€andŠ Š!   ŠPeoples€should€play€a€role€in€the€exercise€of€self„determination€by€all€Non„Self„GoverningŠ ¹" ! ŠTerritories,€and€Australia€had€therefore€supported€the€inclusion€of€New€Caledonia€in€the€list€of€suchŠ ¢#ņ" Šterritories.Š ‹$Ū# ŠĢņņNon„discrimination€and€equality€of€the€sexesóóŠ ]&­!% ŠĢ429.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€receive€informationŠ /(#' Šconcerning€the€implications€of€the€constitutional€inability€of€the€Federal€Government€to€enactŠ )h$( Šnational€legislation€on€all€aspects€on€non„discrimination€against€women,€the€area€in€which€suchŠ *Q%) Šdiscrimination€still€existed€in€law€and€in€practice,€any€plans€to€extend€the€Federal€Affirmative€ActionŠ ź*:&* Š(Equal€Employment€Opportunity€for€Women)€Act€1986€to€Aboriginal€peoples€and€restrictions€onŠ Ó+#'+ Šthe€right€of€aliens€as€compared€with€those€of€citizens.€It€was€also€asked€whether€the€550€AboriginalŠ ¼, (, Šcivil€servants€in€Queensland€were€employed€under€conditions€equal€to€those€offered€to€non„Š „-õ(- ŠAboriginals.Š ° ŠĢ430.€€In€his€response,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that€the€Federal€Parliament€had€theŠ ‚Ņ Špower€to€give€effect€to€international€conventions€and€the€implications€of€constitutional€limitationsŠ k» Šon€the€powers€of€the€Federal€Parliament€had€not€yet€proved€significant.€The€Federal€SexŠ T¤ ŠDiscrimination€Act€allowed€for€some€temporary€exemptions€from€full€compliance€with€its€provisionsŠ =  Šin€such€areas€as€restricting€the€employment€of€women€in€the€processing€and€handling€of€lead€or€inŠ & v Šmining,€but€such€exemptions€were€kept€under€regular€review.€There€were€also€some€exemptions€ofŠ  _ Šindefinite€duration€which€related€to€differential€entitlements€to€certain€benefits,€principally€benefitsŠ ų H Šavailable€to€widows€but€not€widowers€and€benefits€made€available€at€an€earlier€age€to€women.Š į 1  ŠĢ431.€€There€were€no€plans€to€extend€the€Federal€Affirmative€Action€Act€of€1986€to€Aboriginals,€butŠ ³  Šeach€federal€department€and€statutory€authority€was€required€under€the€Public€Service€Act,€toŠ œģ  Šproduce€an€equal€employment€opportunity€programme€for€women,€immigrants,€Aboriginals,Š …Õ  Šislanders€and€the€disabled.€Aliens€had€no€right€to€vote€in€elections€to€the€Australian€Federal€and€StateŠ n¾  Šparliaments€or€to€stand€for€election,€could€not€become€members€of€the€federal€public€service€or€theŠ W§  ŠDefence€Force,€were€not€entitled€to€passports€or€to€protection€by€Australian€diplomaticŠ @ Šrepresentatives€while€overseas,€had€to€have€a€resident€return€visa€in€order€to€re„enter€the€country€andŠ )y Šhad€no€right€to€register€any€child€born€overseas€as€an€Australian€citizen€by€descent.€Access€by€aliensŠ b Što€social€security€or€federal€medical€benefits€depended€to€some€extent€on€residency€requirements.Š ūK ŠIn€general,€Aboriginals€and€islanders€employed€in€the€public€service€were€entitled€to€the€sameŠ ä4 Šbenefits€as€other€public€servants.Š Ķ ŠĢņņRight€to€lifeóóŠ Ÿļ ŠĢ432.€With€regard€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€receive€information€concerningŠ qĮ Šarticle€6€of€the€Covenant,€pursuant€to€the€Committeeššs€general€comments€Nos.€6€(16)€and€14€(23),Š ZŖ Šregulations€on€police€use€of€firearms€and€complaints,€if€any,€of€violations€of€such€regulations€andŠ C“ Šinfant€mortality€rates€and€life„expectancy€rates€for€Aboriginals€as€compared€with€the€rest€of€theŠ ,| ŠAustralian€population.€Members€also€wished€to€receive€clarification€of€the€apparent€overlappingŠ e Šbetween€Australian€criminal€law€and€Aboriginal€customary€law€and€the€consequent€exposure€ofŠ žN ŠAboriginals€to€double€jeopardy€and€asked€about€the€outcome€of€the€inquiry€into€the€deaths€in€prisonŠ ē 7 Šof€17€Aboriginals€since€1980€by€the€Royal€Commission€on€Aboriginal€Deaths.Š Š!   ŠĢ433.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that€Australia€regarded€the€nuclear€non„Š ¢#ņ" Šproliferation€regime€as€central€to€the€preservation€of€international€peace€and€security€and€was€alsoŠ ‹$Ū# Šcommitted€to€a€comprehensive€nuclear€test€ban€as€well€as€to€comprehensive€nuclear€disarmament.Š t%Ä $ ŠHis€Government€considered€the€world€overarmed€and€supported€the€reduction€of€nuclear€andŠ ]&­!% Šconventional€arsenals€to€levels€consistent€with€legitimate€defence€needs.€Australiaššs€own€militaryŠ F'–"& Šforce€structure€were€defensive€in€nature.€As€a€member€of€the€South€Pacific€Forum,€the€governmentŠ /(#' Šhad€in€1985€joined€in€declaring€the€South€Pacific€a€nuclear€free€zone€and€had€signed€and€ratified€theŠ )h$( ŠTreaty€of€Rarotonga.Š *Q%) ŠĢ434.€€Police€officers€were€entitled€to€use€reasonable€force€when€making€an€arrest€and,€under€theŠ Ó+#'+ ŠAustralian€Federal€Police€Act,€might€be€justified€in€using€a€firearm€in€specific€circumstances,€suchŠ ¼, (, Šas€self„defence,€the€defence€of€other€persons€threatened€with€serious€violence€and€the€apprehensionŠ „-õ(- Šof€fugitives.€Any€police€officer€who€discharged€a€firearm€was€required€to€furnish€a€report€andŠ ° Šimproper€use€€of€such€arms€was€investigated€and€sanctioned€under€criminal€law.€Infant€mortalityŠ ™é Šrates€for€Aboriginals,€while€declining,€were€still€nearly€three€times€as€high€as€for€the€non„AboriginalŠ ‚Ņ Špopulation€and€life€expectancy€was€20€years€less€than€for€Australians.€Maternal€and€infant€healthŠ k» Šwere€important€parts€of€the€activities€of€the€Department€of€Aboriginal€Affairs.€The€GovernmentššsŠ T¤ Šapproach€was€based€on€improving€the€environmental€conditions€in€which€Aboriginals€lived.€WorkŠ =  Šhad€started€on€the€preparation€of€a€comprehensive€Aboriginal€and€Torres€Strait€Islander€health€policyŠ & v Šwith€the€establishment€of€a€working€party,€scheduled€to€report€in€early€1989.Š  _ ŠĢ435.€€Regarding€the€role€of€Aboriginal€law,€the€representative€said€that€it€would€be€difficult€toŠ į 1  Šreconcile€the€two€systems€of€law.€For€example,€tribal€law€did€not€accord€equal€rights€to€women,Š Ź   Šwhereas€the€promotion€of€womenššs€rights€was€required€by€the€Australian€legal€system€and€theŠ ³  Šinternational€human€rights€instruments€to€which€Australia€was€a€party.€The€issue€of€customary€lawŠ œģ  Šhad€originally€been€approached€from€the€standpoint€of€the€English€common„law€system,€but€anŠ …Õ  Šeffort€was€now€being€made€to€devise€a€new€approach,€perhaps€based€on€the€š šfamily€lawšš€model,Š n¾  Šwhich€provided€an€alternative€to€standard€adversarial€proceedings.€The€question€of€double€jeopardyŠ W§  Šdid€not€arise€as€such,€since€Aboriginal€customary€law€was€not€formally€recognized.€Australian€courtsŠ @ Šsometimes€imposed€lesser€sentences€in€cases€where€the€offender€had€already€been€the€object€of€tribalŠ )y Špunishment,€but€they€would€not€do€so€in€the€case€of€a€serious€crime€such€as€murder.€The€RoyalŠ b Š(Muirhead)€Commission€had€been€established€in€August€1987€to€investigate€Aboriginal€deaths€inŠ ūK Šprison€and€was€scheduled€to€complete€its€work€in€December€1988.€The€Minister€for€AboriginalŠ ä4 ŠAffairs€and€the€Minister€of€Justice€drew€up€a€code€of€conduct,€in€September€1987,€to€protectŠ Ķ ŠAboriginals€in€prison.Š ¶ ŠĢņņLiberty€and€security€of€personóóŠ ˆŲ ŠĢ436.€€With€regard€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€what€the€maximumŠ ZŖ Šperiod€of€pre„trial€detention€was€and€how€soon€after€arrest€the€person€involved€could€contact€hisŠ C“ Šlawyer€or€have€his€family€informed,€under€what€circumstances€solitary€confinement€was€permitted,Š ,| Šwhether€corporal€punishment€was€permitted€in€private€schools€and€within€the€family,€whether€theŠ e Šuse€of€corporal€punishment€in€schools€had€given€rise€to€litigations€or€complaints€and,€if€so,€how€suchŠ žN Šmatters€had€been€handled,€whether€a€person€detained€against€his€will€in€a€psychiatric€institutionŠ ē 7 Šcould€apply€to€an€independent€body€to€challenge€his€detention€and€whether€there€had€been€anyŠ Š!   Šlegislative€follow„up€to€the€report€of€the€Australian€Law€Reform€Commission€(No.€31)€in€respectŠ ¹" ! Šof€the€interaction€of€Aboriginal€laws€and€the€general€law.€Members€also€asked€the€representative€toŠ ¢#ņ" Šcomment€on€the€retention€of€whipping€in€the€criminal€codes€of€certain€States€and€Territories,€in€theŠ ‹$Ū# Šlight€of€the€Committeeššs€general€comment€No.€7€(16),€and€inquired€whether€a€convicted€personššsŠ t%Ä $ Šsentence€was€automatically€suspended€upon€appeal€until€it€had€been€reconfirmed.Š ]&­!% ŠĢ437.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that,€generally,€there€was€no€statutoryŠ /(#' Šlimit€to€pre„trial€detention.€Persons€in€police€custody€had€to€be€presented€before€a€magistrate€as€soonŠ )h$( Šas€was€practicable€„€in€the€State€of€Victoria,€the€period€of€doing€so€was€specified€as€six€hours.€It€wasŠ *Q%) Šup€to€the€court€to€decide€whether€or€not€a€person€was€to€be€kept€in€custody€until€his€trial,€but€aŠ ź*:&* Šperson€could€apply€for€bail€„€and€reapply€if€necessary€„€until€he€was€convicted.€Some€jurisdictionsŠ Ó+#'+ Šalso€allowed€the€accused€to€apply€for€presentation€of€an€indictment€to€permit€an€immediate€trial.€TheŠ ¼, (, Šsentence€imposed€by€a€court€took€effect€as€of€the€date€of€conviction.€A€relative,€friend€or€lawyerŠ „-õ(- Šcould€normally€be€contacted€immediately€after€arrest€and€a€person€could€contact€a€lawyer€as€soonŠ ° Šas€practicable€after€being€brought€to€a€police€station.€Solitary€confinement€was€permitted€only€inŠ ™é ŠQueensland€and€Western€Australia,€where€such€confinement€could€be€ordered€for€a€maximum€periodŠ ‚Ņ Šof€72€hours€by€prison€superintendents€and€up€to€30€days€by€the€Director€of€Prisons.€Prisoners€couldŠ k» Šbe€held€in€protective€custody€when€at€risk€from€other€prisoners€in€all€jurisdictions.€Draft€guidelines,Š T¤ Šbased€on€the€United€Nations€Standard€Minimum€Rules€for€the€Treatment€of€Offenders,€wereŠ =  Šcurrently€under€consideration.€They€would€prohibit€all€cruel€and€inhuman€or€degrading€punishment,Š & v Šincluding€prolonged€solitary€confinement.€Whipping,€which€had€not€been€resorted€to€in€practiceŠ  _ Šsince€1943,€had€now€been€dropped€from€Western€Australian€law€„€the€last€State€where€that€form€ofŠ ų H Špunishment€had€still€been€on€the€books.Š į 1  ŠĢ438.€€Australian€legislation€took€conscious€and€deliberate€account€of€the€rights€of€the€children€as€laidŠ ³  Šdown€in€the€Declaration€of€the€Rights€of€the€Child€(General€Assembly€resolution€1386€(XIV)€of€20Š œģ  ŠNovember€1959),€as€well€as€those€provided€for€in€the€Covenant.€Among€those€rights€were€the€rightŠ …Õ  Što€š šspecial€protectionšš€and€to€protection€from€cruelty€and€abuse.€Corporal€punishment€had€beenŠ n¾  Šabolished€in€government€schools€in€New€South€Wales,€Victoria€and€the€Australian€Capital€TerritoryŠ W§  Šand€was€being€phased€out€in€South€Australia.€Where€parents€specifically€objected€to€it,€corporalŠ @ Špunishment€could€not€be€administered€and€excessive€use€of€it€could€lead€to€disciplinary€proceedingsŠ )y Šagainst€the€teacher€involved€or€to€actions€in€tort€by€the€parents.€However,€the€use€of€corporalŠ b Špunishment€in€schools€had€given€rise€to€very€little€litigation,€with€most€cases€being€resolved€byŠ ūK Šnegotiation.€A€national€inquiry€being€conducted€on€the€situation€of€homeless€children€indicated€thatŠ ä4 Švarious€forms€of€abuse€in€the€home€were€involved€in€the€majority€of€cases.€Corporal€punishmentŠ Ķ Šboth€at€school€and€in€the€home€was€matter€of€great€concern€and€the€cause€of€problems€in€society€withŠ ¶ Šwhich€the€country€was€not€coping€very€well.Š Ÿļ ŠĢ439.€€Persons€forcibly€detained€in€mental€institutions€could€generally€apply€to€the€magistrateššs€courtŠ qĮ Šfor€release.€All€States€provided€for€the€right€of€appeal€to€an€administrative€body€comprising€mentalŠ ZŖ Šhealth€specialists,€lawyers€and€lay€persons,€which€a€further€right€of€appeal€to€a€court€on€questionsŠ C“ Šof€law.€Report€No.€31€of€the€Law€Reform€Commission€contained€38€recommendations,€relatingŠ ,| Šmainly€to€sensitive€and€complex€administrative€questions€currently€falling€within€the€exclusiveŠ e Šjurisdiction€of€State€and€Northern€Territory€governments.€Federal€State€discussions€were€under€wayŠ žN Šon€the€implications€of€each€of€the€recommendations€and€it€was€generally€agreed€that€no€federalŠ ē 7 Šlegislation€should€be€enacted€until€those€implications€had€been€fully€examined€and€the€desire€of€theŠ Š!   ŠAboriginal€and€Torres€Strait€Island€communities€for€federal€legislation€„€and€their€need€for€it€„€hadŠ ¹" ! Šbeen€clearly€established.€In€general,€the€Law€Reform€Commission€had€concluded€that€specialŠ ¢#ņ" Šmeasures€for€the€recognition€of€Aboriginal€customary€laws€would€not€be€racially€discriminatory€andŠ ‹$Ū# Šwould€not€involved€denial€of€equality€before€the€law,€provided€such€measures€were€reasonableŠ t%Ä $ Šresponses€to€the€special€needs€of€the€Aboriginal€people,€were€generally€accepted€by€them€and€didŠ ]&­!% Šnot€deprive€them€of€basic€human€rights.€Particular€rights€were€conferred€only€on€Aboriginal€personsŠ F'–"& Šwho€suffered€the€disadvantages€or€problems€which€justified€such€action€and€were€not€conferred€onŠ /(#' Šthe€Aboriginal€people€as€a€whole.€An€Aboriginal€accused€of€committing€a€serious€offence€could€beŠ )h$( Špunished€only€under€the€law€of€the€State€of€Territory€in€which€he€resided.€However,€for€less€seriousŠ *Q%) Šoffences,€the€recent€practice€of€the€courts€had€been€to€recognize€customary€law€and€to€mitigate€theŠ ź*:&* Šsentence€or€impose€no€sentence€in€cases€where€an€offender€had€earlier€been€tried€under€customaryŠ Ó+#'+ Šlaw.Š ¼, (, ŠŠ „-õ(- ŠņņRight€to€a€fair€trial€and€equality€before€the€lawóóŠ ° ŠĢ440.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€requested€additional€information€onŠ ‚Ņ Šarticle€14€of€the€Covenant,€pursuant€to€the€Committeeššs€general€comment€No.€13€(21).€They€alsoŠ k» Šwished€to€know€whether€Parliament€had€ever€adopted€retrospective€criminal€legislation,€whetherŠ T¤ Šadministrative€procedures€were€adequate€to€guarantee€full€compensation€for€miscarriages€of€justiceŠ =  Šand€what€limitations€on€the€capacity€of€married€women€to€deal€with€property€were€still€in€effectŠ & v Šfollowing€enactment€of€the€Married€Personššs€Property€Ordinance€of€1986€in€the€Australian€CapitalŠ  _ ŠTerritory.€Members€also€requested€further€information€concerning€Tasmanian€statutory€provisionsŠ ų H Šrelating€to€the€presumption€of€innocence,€the€reasons€for€maintaining€Australiaššs€reservation€toŠ į 1  Šarticle€14€of€the€Covenant,€the€legal€disabilities€of€children€born€out€of€wedlock,€the€absence€ofŠ Ź   Šlegislation€guaranteeing€the€right€to€legal€aid€in€the€Territories€of€Christmas€Island€and€the€CocosŠ ³  Š(Keeling)€Islands,€the€controversy€relating€to€the€removal€judges,€the€circumstances€under€which€theŠ œģ  Šburden€of€proof€in€a€criminal€trial€might€be€shifted€to€the€accused€and€the€limitations€on€the€ruleŠ …Õ  Šagainst€double€jeopardy.€They€also€asked€whether€any€progress€had€been€made€with€regard€to€theŠ n¾  Šstatutory€right€of€an€accused€person€to€the€assistance€of€an€interpreter€during€trial,€to€what€extentŠ W§  Šresort€was€had€to€imprisonment€for€inability€to€fulfil€a€contractual€obligation€and€whether€anyŠ @ Šaffirmative€action€had€been€taken€to€ensure€that€judges€were€not€drawn€exclusively€from€theŠ )y Šprivileged€section€of€society.Š b ŠĢ441.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that€retrospective€criminal€law€had€neverŠ ä4 Šbeen€enacted€in€any€Australian€jurisdiction€and€that€administrative€procedures€fully€guaranteed€theŠ Ķ Šprovision€of€compensation€for€a€miscarriage€of€justice.€In€New€South€Wales,€a€person€convicted€ofŠ ¶ Šan€offence€who€considered€that€there€had€been€a€miscarriage€of€justice€could€apply€under€the€CrimesŠ Ÿļ ŠAct€either€to€the€Governor€or€to€the€Supreme€Court€for€an€inquiry€subsequent€to€conviction,€whichŠ ˆŲ Šcould€result€in€the€quashing€of€the€conviction.€While€there€was€no€explicit€provisions€as€toŠ qĮ Šcompensation,€in€practice€a€petition€for€an€ņņex€gratiaóó€payment€would€be€made.€In€Tasmania,€theŠ ZŖ Šprovision€of€compensation€for€a€miscarriage€of€justice€was€guaranteed€under€the€Costs€in€CriminalŠ C“ ŠCases€Act€1976€and€remedied€might€also€be€available€for€false€imprisonment.€There€were€noŠ ,| Šlimitations€on€the€capacity€of€married€women€to€deal€with€property,€either€in€the€Australian€CapitalŠ e ŠTerritory€or€in€the€States,€apart€from€restrictions€contained€in€instruments€executed€before€theŠ žN Šcurrent€legislation€came€into€force.Š ē 7 ŠĢ442.€€The€presumption€of€innocence€was€a€fundamental€precept€of€the€Australian€system€of€justiceŠ ¹" ! Šand€the€prosecution€in€criminal€trials€had€the€traditional€burden€of€proving€guilt€š šbeyond€aŠ ¢#ņ" Šreasonable€doubtšš.€The€evidentiary€burden€of€proof€was€shifted€to€the€accused€only€under€certainŠ ‹$Ū# Šlimited€circumstances,€for€example,€to€establish€the€defence€of€provocation.€It€was€the€general€ruleŠ t%Ä $ Šthat,€if€the€accused€produced€sufficient€evidence€to€raise€the€issue,€the€judge€in€a€jury€trial€wasŠ ]&­!% Šrequired€to€put€to€the€jury€the€question€of€whether€a€defence€existed.€The€Tasmanian€Law€ReformŠ F'–"& ŠCommission€had€suggested€a€number€of€procedural€improvements€in€that€regard€in€its€report€of€JulyŠ /(#' Š1987.€There€was€currently€a€vigorous€debate€in€Parliamentary€concerning€legislation€which€soughtŠ )h$( Šeither€to€reverse€the€presumption€of€innocence€or€to€establish€a€different€standard.€All€States€exceptŠ *Q%) ŠWestern€Australia€and€the€Northen€Territory€had€enacted€equality€of€status€legislation,€under€whichŠ ź*:&* Šall€distinctions€between€children€born€in€or€out€of€wedlock€had€been€eliminated.€In€WesternŠ Ó+#'+ ŠAustralia,€various€statutes€had€been€amended€to€abolish€existing€disabilities€that€had€affectedŠ ¼, (, Šchildren€born€our€of€wedlock.€The€provisions€relating€to€children€in€the€Family€Law€Act,€asŠ „-õ(- Šamended€by€the€Federal€Parliament€in€1987,€concerning€maintenance,€custody,€guardianship€andŠ ° Šaccess,€applied€to€all€children€and€to€their€parents,€whether€or€not€they€were€married,€in€New€SouthŠ ™é ŠWales,€Victoria,€South€Australia,€Tasmania,€the€Australian€Capital€Territory,€the€Northern€TerritoryŠ ‚Ņ Šand€Norfolk€Island.€Elsewhere,€the€provisions€applied€only€to€children€born€of€a€marriage€and€toŠ k» Šparties€to€a€marriage.€Judicial€office€was€held€in€high€respect€in€Australia€and€was€open€only€toŠ T¤ Šsuitably€qualified€and€experienced€lawyers.€The€Australian€political€system€drew€a€sharp€lineŠ =  Šbetween€the€executive€and€the€judiciary€and€the€standards€expected€of€judges€were€different€fromŠ & v Šthose€expected€of€politicians.€While€there€had€been€€considerable€controversy€over€the€trial€of€theŠ  _ ŠHigh€Court€Judge€who€had€been€convicted€of€acting€improperly€in€relation€to€a€social€acquaintance,Š ų H Šthe€removal€of€a€judge€was€a€very€rare€occurrence.€The€reason€for€maintaining€AustraliaššsŠ į 1  Šreservation€to€article€14€of€the€Covenant€was€the€requirement€in€paragraph€6€of€that€article€forŠ Ź   Šstatutory€compensation€in€cases€of€miscarriage€of€justice,€whereas€in€Australia€the€procedures€forŠ ³  Šgranting€compensation€did€not€necessarily€have€a€statutory€basis.€The€compensation€procedure€forŠ œģ  Šmiscarriage€of€Justice€related€to€situations€where€there€had€been€judicial€error,€not€to€errors€thatŠ …Õ  Šmight€have€been€committed€by€a€jury.€Remedies€available€under€State€Debt€Acts€allowed€for€seizureŠ n¾  Šof€property€for€non„fulfilment€of€contractual€obligations€but€not€imprisonment.€Where€required,Š W§  Šinterpreters€were€made€available€in€court€in€accordance€with€national€guidelines.€In€the€periodŠ @ Šcovered€by€the€report,€there€had€been€more€appointments€of€women€and€minority€ethnic€groups,€notŠ )y Šonly€to€superior€courts€but€also€to€courts€of€summary€jurisdiction.€Recently,€an€Aboriginal€womanŠ b Šhad€been€appointed€as€a€magistrate€in€Sydney.Š ūK ŠĢņņFreedom€of€movement€and€expulsion€of€aliensóóŠ Ķ ŠĢ443.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€receive€information€on€theŠ Ÿļ Šposition€of€aliens€in€Australia,€pursuant€to€the€Committeeššs€general€comment€No.€15€(27),€and€onŠ ˆŲ Šthe€application€of€the€conditions€for€refusal€of€a€passport,€including€the€number€of€such€refusals.Š qĮ ŠMembers€also€wished€to€know€whether€appeals€against€deportation€orders€had€suspensive€effect€andŠ ZŖ Šwhether,€in€deporting€an€alien€couple€who€had€stayed€beyond€the€authorized€time„limit€for€their€visitŠ C“ Šand€who€had€had€a€child€in€Australia,€the€Government€was€not,€in€effect,€requiring€an€AustralianŠ ,| Šcitizen€„€the€child€„€to€leave€the€country€of€his€nationality.Š e ŠĢ444.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€explained€that€under€Australian€law€anyŠ ē 7 Šindividual,€whether€or€not€he€was€a€citizen,€could€bring€an€action€in€court€to€defend€his€legalŠ Š!   Šinterests.€Similarly,€an€alien€charged€with€an€offence€was€in€the€same€position€as€a€citizen.€The€factŠ ¹" ! Šthat€a€conviction€might€lead€to€deportation€was€not€considered€to€be€discriminatory.€Australian€lawŠ ¢#ņ" Šallowed€an€alien,€lawfully€within€Australia€but€subject€to€deportation,€to€challenge€that€deportationŠ ‹$Ū# Šin€the€Federal€Court€and€to€appeal€to€the€High€Court€if€granted€leave.€Under€the€passports€Act€ofŠ t%Ä $ Š1938,€the€Minister€could€refuse€a€passport,€but€his€decision€was€appealable.€No€record€of€refusedŠ ]&­!% Špassports€was€maintained,€but€refusals€were€extremely€rare€and€probably€there€had€been€none€withinŠ F'–"& Šthe€past€five€years.€The€courts€could€and€did€issue€interim€injunctions€to€prevent€deportation€untilŠ /(#' Šthe€relevant€appeal€was€heard.€Regarding€the€deportation€of€an€alien€couple€with€an€Australian„bornŠ )h$( Šchild,€the€representative€said€that€Australiaššs€non„discriminatory€immigration€policy,€based€on€skills,Š *Q%) Šemployment€in€Australia€and€family€ties,€was€subject€to€abuse,€since€aliens€who€gave€birth€to€a€childŠ ź*:&* Šin€Australia€could€invoke€the€childššs€citizenship€as€grounds€for€remaining€in€the€country.€However,Š Ó+#'+ Šthe€Human€Rights€and€Equal€Opportunity€Commission€was€continuing€to€pursue€the€examinationŠ ¼, (, Šof€the€issue€with€the€Ō_ŌGovernment.Š „-õ(- Šą  ąą ` ąĢņņRight€to€privacyóóŠ ™é ŠĢ445.€€With€regard€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€what€the€termŠ k» Šš šprescribed€authorityšš,€mentioned€in€the€report€meant,€whether€licensed€commercial€and€inquiryŠ T¤ Šagents€were€authorized€to€monitor€personal€conversation€by€means€of€a€listening€device,€whetherŠ =  Šthere€had€been€any€developments€in€Parliament€with€respect€to€draft€legislation€relating€to€privacyŠ & v Šand€data€protection€and€why€the€recent€attempt€to€simplify€and€unify€the€defamation€laws€had€failed.Š  _ ŠMembers€also€wished€to€know€whether€the€Privacy€Bill€that€had€recently€been€introduced€inŠ ų H ŠParliament€would€provide€for€the€general€protection€of€privacy,€including€regulation€of€dataŠ į 1  Šcollection€by€private€individuals€and€businesses€as€well€as€by€government€agencies,€what€specificŠ Ź   Šremedies€were€available€in€cases€of€violation€of€the€right€to€privacy€and€how€the€Statement€ofŠ ³  ŠPrinciples€of€the€Australian€Press€Council€and€the€Code€of€Ethics€affected€the€audio„visual€media.Š œģ  ŠĢ446.€€In€responding,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€explained€that€the€Attorney„General€wasŠ n¾  Šthe€š šprescribed€authorityšš€in€cases€involving€national€security€and€a€judge€of€the€State€SupremeŠ W§  ŠCourt€was€the€authority€in€matters€involving€narcotic€offences.€Under€federal€law,€it€was€an€offenceŠ @ Šfor€commercial€and€inquiry€agents€to€intercept€telecommunications€by€the€use€of€listening€devices.Š )y ŠThe€use€of€listening€or€recording€devices€to€monitor€or€record€personal€conversations€was€a€matterŠ b Šregulated€by€State€law,€he€stated,€and€legal€provisions€varied€from€State€to€State€except€that,€inŠ ūK Šgeneral,€a€conversation€could€be€recorded€or€monitored€only€by€a€person€who€was€party€to€it€andŠ ä4 Šwith€the€consent€of€the€other€party€or€parties.€The€Privacy€Bill€and€related€legislation€wereŠ Ķ Šreintroduced€in€the€House€of€Representatives€in€September€1987€and€a€Senate€committee€was€alsoŠ ¶ Šcurrently€considering€proposals€relating€to€a€national€identification€system,€privacy€legislation€andŠ Ÿļ Šdata€protection.€On€29€September€1987,€the€Prime€Minister€had€announced€that€the€GovernmentŠ ˆŲ Šwould€not€be€proceeding€with€the€Australian€Card€legislation€but€would€go€ahead€with€privacyŠ qĮ Šlegislation€and€proposals€to€establish€a€Data€Protection€Agency.€It€was€very€difficult€to€achieveŠ ZŖ Šuniformity€in€the€area€of€defamation€and€the€situation€remained€unsatisfactory€in€that€respect.Š C“ ŠĢ447.€€The€Privacy€Bill€was€limited€to€federal€matters€and€was€not€designed€to€regulate€the€collectionŠ e Šof€personal€information€by€individuals€and€businesses.€The€right€to€privacy€being€a€new€area€ofŠ žN Šjurisdiction,€the€relevant€federal€and€State€legislation€was€still€in€the€process€of€being€sorted€out.€TheŠ ē 7 Šprinciples€of€the€Australian€Press€Council€were€non„legal€in€nature€and€purely€voluntary.€VisualŠ Š!   Šmedia,€on€the€other€hand,€were€governed€by€legal€standards€established€by€the€AustralianŠ ¹" ! ŠBroadcasting€Tribunal.€General€remedies€protecting€the€right€to€privacy€included€the€right€of€accessŠ ¢#ņ" Što€records€held€by€federal€agencies,€as€provided€for€under€the€Freedom€of€Information€Act,€and€theŠ ‹$Ū# Šright€of€access€to€data€protection€agencies,€as€set€forth€in€the€Human€Rights€and€Equal€OpportunityŠ t%Ä $ ŠCommission€Act€and€the€Privacy€Bill.Š ]&­!% ŠĢņņFreedom€of€expression,€prohibition€of€war€propaganda€and€of€advocacy€of€national,€racial€orŠ /(#' Šreligious€hatredóóŠ )h$( ŠĢ448.€€With€reference€to€those€issues,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€whether€theŠ ź*:&* ŠGovernment€had€taken€any€decision€to€prohibit,€through€legislation,€the€dissemination€of€racistŠ Ó+#'+ Špropaganda€and,€if€so,€what€provisions€such€legislation€contained.€Members€also€wished€to€receiveŠ ¼, (, Šadditional€information€on€the€status€and€composition€of€the€Australian€Press€Council€and€theŠ „-õ(- Šprocedure€for€the€renewal€of€broadcasting€licences.€They€also€wished€to€know€about€the€AustralianŠ ° ŠBroadcasting€Corporationššs€policy€of€neutrality€and€asked€whether€it€could€be€challenged€before€theŠ ™é ŠAustralian€Broadcasting€Tribunal€or€the€courts.Š ‚Ņ ŠĢ449.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that€his€Government€had€some€difficultyŠ T¤ Šwith€any€proposals€that€would€restrict€freedom€of€speech€and€had,€accordingly,€maintained€aŠ =  Šreservation€to€article€19€of€the€Covenant.€The€whole€issue€of€restricting€freedom€of€expression€hadŠ & v Šbeen€examined€by€the€former€Human€Rights€Commission€and€was€under€active€consideration€at€theŠ  _ Šfederal€level.€Applications€for€the€renewal€of€broadcasting€licences€were€considered€at€a€publicŠ ų H Šinquiry€by€the€Australian€Broadcasting€Tribunal,€which€inquired,€in€particular,€into€the€applicantššsŠ į 1  Šrecord€with€respect€to€the€fair€presentation€of€public€issues.€The€Australian€BroadcastingŠ Ź   ŠCorporationsššs€policy€of€neutrality,€which€consisted€of€presenting€opposing€points€of€view,€wasŠ ³  Šprotected€by€legislation€and€bolstered€by€tradition.€The€Corporation€did€not€come€under€theŠ œģ  Šjurisdiction€of€the€Tribunal.€The€Australian€Press€Council€was€a€voluntary€body€composed€ofŠ …Õ  Šmanagers€of€the€leading€newspapers€and€its€role€was€to€consider€complaints€from€the€public€and€toŠ n¾  Šguard€against€offensive€reporting.Š W§  ŠĢņņFreedom€of€assembly€and€associationóóŠ )y ŠĢ450.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€requested€clarification€of€the€legalŠ ūK Šsituation€on€peaceful€assembly€in€Australia€and€asked€whether€it€was€consistent€with€theŠ ä4 ŠGovernmentššs€obligations€under€the€Covenant.€They€also€asked€for€an€elaboration€of€theŠ Ķ Šcircumstances€which€led€to€the€deregistration€of€the€Builders€Labourersšš€Federation€and€inquiredŠ ¶ Šwhether€there€was€nay€judicial€remedy€in€cases€where€an€industrial€union€was€deregistered€and€whatŠ Ÿļ Šmeasures€had€been€taken€to€prevent€abuse€of€laws€relating€to€freedom€of€association.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ451.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€explained€that€under€common€law€the€rightsŠ ZŖ Šof€peaceful€assembly€and€freedom€of€association€could€be€exercised,€subject€only€to€restrictionsŠ C“ Šbased€on€public€order€and€public€safety.€Statutory€provisions€required€the€organizers€of€publicŠ ,| Šassemblies€to€notify€the€public€authorities€of€proposed€assemblies€and€processions€and€to€enableŠ e Šthose€authorities€to€object€to€or€prohibit€such€assemblies€in€the€interest€of€public€order.€The€scopeŠ žN Šfor€judicial,€and€administrative€review€of€such€decisions€varied€from€State€to€State.€In€certainŠ ē 7 Šrespects,€the€laws€of€the€States€could€be€amended€to€bring€them€more€closely€into€line€with€theŠ Š!   ŠCovenant.€Regarding€the€deregistration€of€the€Builders€Labourersšš€Federation,€the€AustralianŠ ¹" ! ŠConciliation€and€Arbitration€Commission€had€found€that€the€Federation€had,€on€numerous€occasions,Š ¢#ņ" Šcommitted€fundamental€breaches€of€industrial€agreements€and€of€undertakings€given€to€the€IndustrialŠ ‹$Ū# ŠRegistrar,€employers,€the€Minister€of€Employment€and€Industrial€Relations€and€the€CommissionŠ t%Ä $ Šitself.€Deregistration€did€not€restrict€freedom€of€association€at€all,€since€the€position€of€trade€unionsŠ ]&­!% Ševen€outside€the€industrial€system€„€outside€the€Australian€conciliation€and€arbitration€system€„€wasŠ F'–"& Šfully€guaranteed€under€law.€Deregistration€simply€removed€the€privilege€of€taking€part€in€theŠ /(#' Šarbitration€system.€It€was€always€possible€for€actions€to€be€challenged€in€the€courts€and,€in€the€caseŠ )h$( Šof€the€Builders€Labourersšš€Federation,€several€such€challenges€had€in€fact€been€made,€all€of€themŠ *Q%) Šunsuccessfully.€The€Commonwealth€Crimes€Act€had€never€been€used€against€trade€unions,€even€inŠ ź*:&* Šextreme€circumstances,€and€had€not€led€to€any€infringement€of€rights.Š Ó+#'+ ŠĢņņRight€to€participate€in€public€affairsóóŠ „-õ(- Ї452.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€requested€clarification€of€the€measuresŠ ° Štaken€that€had€enabled€Australia€to€withdraw€its€reservation€to€article€25€(b)€of€the€Covenant,€as€wellŠ ™é Šas€of€the€factors€responsible€for€the€form€of€weighted€voting€that€was€in€effect€in€Australia.€MembersŠ ‚Ņ Šalso€wished€to€know€what€progress€has€been€made€in€implementing€the€equal€employmentŠ k» Šopportunities€programmes€required€by€the€Public€Service€Act€and€what€the€position€was€with€respectŠ T¤ Što€equal€employment€opportunity€in€the€public€service€at€the€State€level.Š =  ŠĢ453.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€explained€that€no€particular€measure€had€beenŠ  _ Štaken€to€make€the€withdrawal€of€the€reservation€possible€and€that€its€removal€had€followed€a€reviewŠ ų H Šof€all€the€reservations€and€declarations€made€by€Australia€and€consultations€with€the€governmentsŠ į 1  Šof€the€States€and€the€Northern€Territory.€The€Government€had€observed€that€the€withdrawal€of€theŠ Ź   Šinterpretative€declaration€would€not€impose€any€additional€international€obligations€on€Australia€andŠ ³  Šconsidered€that€its€retention€would€have€been€undesirable,€since€it€might€have€suggested€thatŠ œģ  ŠAustralia€did€not€give€its€unqualified€support€to€the€important€principles€embodied€in€article€25€(b).Š …Õ  ŠIt€was€the€policy€of€the€Australian€Government€to€favour€the€one„vote„one„value€system€and,€despiteŠ n¾  Šcontinuing€controversy€over€the€issue,€there€was€a€clear€move€towards€that€standard€throughout€theŠ W§  Šelectoral€system.€The€Attorney„General€was€considering€a€referendum€on€the€subject€during€theŠ @ Šcurrent€year.€The€origin€of€the€existing€system,€which€also€took€various€factors€other€than€populationŠ )y Šinto€account€in€determining€electoral€roles,€was€probably€geographical,€reflecting€the€fact€thatŠ b ŠAustralia€was€an€enormous€country€where€some€very€large€electoral€districts€were€sparselyŠ ūK Špopulated€.€All€federal€departments€had€affirmative€action€programmes€to€achieve€equal€employmentŠ ä4 Šopportunity€and€the€greatest€progress€to€date€had€been€made€with€respect€to€the€advancement€ofŠ Ķ Šwomen,€Aboriginals€and€Torres€Strait€Islanders.€The€States€had€not€laid€down€similar€requirementsŠ ¶ Šin€respect€of€their€own€public€services€departments.Š Ÿļ ŠĢņņRights€of€minoritiesóóŠ qĮ ŠĢ454.€€With€regard€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€receive€additional€informationŠ C“ Šconcerning€affirmative€action€measures€adopted€in€the€economic€and€cultural€spheres€in€favour€ofŠ ,| Šaboriginals€living€both€inside€and€outside€Aboriginal€communities€and€concerning€the€reasons€forŠ e Šthe€removal€from€section€51€(XXVI)€of€the€Constitution€of€the€clause€referring€to€the€AboriginalŠ žN Šrace.€Members€also€wished€to€know€whether€the€Government€had€any€plans€to€establish€an€electoralŠ ē 7 ŠAboriginal€commission€and€to€address€the€issue€of€Aboriginal€land€rights,€what€percentage€of€theŠ Š!   Štotal€budget€had€been€allocated€to€the€Ministry€of€Aboriginal€Affairs,€whether€Aboriginals€had€aŠ ¹" ! Šlanguage€of€their€own€and€if€any€measures€had€been€taken€to€promote€its€teaching€and€what€kind€ofŠ ¢#ņ" Šsystem€had€replaced€the€earlier€arrangements€for€the€care€of€Aboriginal€children€which€had€beenŠ ‹$Ū# Šcharacterized€as€š šexcessive€interventionšš€by€governments.€One€member,€who€was€of€the€view€thatŠ t%Ä $ Šarticle€27€of€the€Covenant€had€never€really€been€meant€to€cover€indigenous€peoples,€but€rather€theŠ ]&­!% Šreligious€and€ethnic€minorities€of€the€kind€found€in€European€countries,€wished€to€know€AustraliaššsŠ F'–"& Šviews€concerning€the€need€for€a€separate€convention€covering€the€rights€of€autochthonous€peoples.Š /(#' ŠĢ455.€€In€his€response,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that€successive€federal€governmentsŠ *Q%) Šhad€taken€special€measures€to€accelerate€access€to€services€for€Aboriginals€and€Torres€StraitŠ ź*:&* ŠIslanders€and€to€provide€the€basis€for€further€economic,€social€and€legal€advancement.€The€aim€wasŠ Ó+#'+ Što€build€a€more€secure€future€for€those€people€and€to€provide€not€only€a€solid€foundation€for€futureŠ ¼, (, Šachievement,€but€also€choice€of€options€not€previously€available.€Significant€improvements€had€beenŠ „-õ(- Šmade€and€increased€assistance€had€been€provided€in€such€areas€as€health€and€legal€services,Š ° Šeducation,€employment€and€enterprise€development,€housing,€land€rights€and€the€protection€ofŠ ™é Šcultural€heritage.€Despite€such€achievements,€much€remained€to€be€done€and€many€Aboriginal€andŠ ‚Ņ ŠIsland€people€still€lived€in€unsatisfactory€conditions.€Section€51€(XXVI)€of€the€Constitution€hadŠ k» Šprovided,€before€it€was€amended€in€1967,€that€Parliament€could€make€laws€with€respect€to€the€peopleŠ T¤ Šof€any€race€other€than€the€Aboriginal€race.€Aboriginals€and€Islanders€had€been€specifically€excludedŠ =  Šsince€they€were€considered€to€fall€within€the€jurisdiction€of€the€individual€States.€The€1967Š & v Šamendment€had€removed€that€discriminatory€provision€and€had€enabled€the€CommonwealthŠ  _ ŠParliament€to€make€special€laws€for€those€groups,€including€the€establishment€of€a€broad€range€ofŠ ų H Šassistance€programmes.€The€Federal€Governmentššs€plans€to€establish€an€elected€Aboriginal€andŠ į 1  ŠTorres€Strait€Islander€Commission,€as€well€as€it€policy€with€respect€to€Aboriginal€land€rights,€hadŠ Ź   Šbeen€set€out€in€a€statement€delivered€to€Parliament€on€10€December€1987€by€the€Minister€forŠ ³  ŠAboriginal€Affairs.€Initial€consultations€with€the€groups€concerned€indicated€general€support€for€theŠ œģ  Šprinciple€of€establishing€such€a€commission€as€well€as€a€desire€for€additional€information€on€keyŠ …Õ  Šissues.€A€series€of€follow„up€meetings€were€to€be€held€as€soon€as€possible€with€a€view€to€receivingŠ n¾  Šfurther€feedback€regarding€those€issues.Š W§  ŠĢ456.€€The€Ministry€of€Aboriginal€Affairs€had€been€allocated€some€$A€394€million€in€the€1987/88Š )y Šbudget,€to€be€divided€among€a€wide€range€of€legal,€social€and€cultural€programmes.€There€wereŠ b Šseveral€hundred€Aboriginal€dialects,€and€the€Australian€Institute€for€Aboriginal€Studies€hadŠ ūK Šprogrammes€to€preserve€them€and€teach€them€in€the€schools.€It€was€now€acknowledged€that€theŠ ä4 Špublic€policy€regarding€the€care€of€Aboriginal€children,€particularly€during€the€post„war€period,€hadŠ Ķ Šbeen€a€serious€mistake.€The€practice€of€taking€Aboriginal€children€away€from€their€parents€andŠ ¶ Šplacing€them€in€foster€homes€or€institutions€had€been€extremely€offensive€to€Aboriginal€and€IslandŠ Ÿļ Šcommunities.€The€erroneous€and€paternalistic€view€on€which€that€practice€had€been€based€had€beenŠ ˆŲ Šreplaced€by€the€recognition€that€Aboriginal€people€should€be€treated€like€anyone€else.Š qĮ ŠĢ457.€€Regarding€the€need€for€a€separate€convention€applying€to€Aboriginals,€the€representative€saidŠ C“ Šthat€Australia€had€from€the€outset€actively€supported€the€Working€Group€on€Indigenous€Populations,Š ,| Šwhich€was€drafting€principles€and€minimum€international€standards€applicable€to€indigenousŠ e Špopulations.€The€Working€Group€was€making€a€very€useful€contribution€by€focussing€on€thoseŠ žN Šaspects€that€were€distinctly€applicable€to€indigenous€populations€and€taking€care€not€to€undercut€theŠ ē 7 Šexisting€framework.€Australia€had€also€been€closely€involved€in€the€negotiations€within€the€Sub„Š Š!   ŠCommission€on€Prevention€of€Discrimination€and€Protection€of€Minorities€relating€to€the€draftingŠ ¹" ! Šof€a€declaration€on€the€rights€of€minorities.€There€could€be€no€question,€however,€of€the€CovenantššsŠ ¢#ņ" Šcentral€importance.Š ‹$Ū# ŠĢņņGeneral€observationsóóŠ ]&­!% ŠĢ458.€€Members€of€the€Committee€expressed€appreciation€to€the€delegation€of€Australia,€noting€thatŠ /(#' Šthe€answers€to€the€Committeeššs€questions€had€been€frank€and€complete€and€that€the€CommitteeššsŠ )h$( Šdialogue€with€the€delegation€has€been€satisfactory€from€every€point€of€view.€Several€membersŠ *Q%) Šexpressed€their€great€appreciation€for€the€vigour€with€which€the€Human€Rights€and€EqualŠ ź*:&* ŠOpportunity€Commission€was€carrying€out€its€mandate.€The€Committee€felt€that€the€creation€ofŠ Ó+#'+ Šinstitutions€such€as€the€Commission€could€also€prove€invaluable€to€other€countries€in€their€effortsŠ ¼, (, Što€promote€equality€of€opportunity€for€disadvantaged€and€minority€groups.€The€Committee€notedŠ „-õ(- Šthat€the€situation€of€the€Aboriginal€people€in€Australia€continued€to€present€a€real€problem€andŠ ° Šwelcomed€the€fact€that€the€Government€had€frankly€acknowledged€the€persistence€of€manyŠ ™é Šdifficulties€in€that€regard€and€was€endeavouring€to€deal€with€them.Š ‚Ņ ŠĢ459.€€The€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that€his€delegation€has€found€the€proceedingsŠ T¤ Šinstructive,€useful€and€fruitful€and€assured€the€Committee€that€its€comments,€which€would€provideŠ =  Ša€new€element€in€an€already€lively€debate€in€his€country€on€how€best€to€protect€human€rights,€wouldŠ & v Šbe€brought€to€the€attention€of€the€Australian€authorities.€Australia€was€aware€that€there€was€stillŠ  _ Šroom€for€improvement€in€its€treatment€of€human€rights,€but€the€representative€believed€that€hisŠ ų H Šcountryššs€record€was€on€a€par€with€that€of€any€other€country€in€the€world.Š į 1  ŠĢ460.€€In€concluding€the€consideration€of€the€second€periodic€report€of€Australia,€€the€Chairman€onceŠ ³  Šagain€thanked€the€delegation€for€engaging€in€an€extremely€constructive€dialogue€with€theŠ œģ  ŠCommittee.€The€ability€and€willingness€of€each€member€of€the€Australian€delegation€to€respond€toŠ …Õ  Šthe€many€questions€that€had€been€raised€was€particularly€appreciated.Š n¾  ŠĢĢÓÓņņóóĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢŠ ŠŠ „-õ(- Šņ ņŌ_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō€A/55/40€(2000)ó óŠ ° ŠĢĢÓ  Ó498.ą  ąThe€Committee€examined€the€third€and€fourth€periodic€reports€of€AustraliaŠ l¼ Š(Ō_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō/C/AUS/98/3€and€4)€at€its€1955th,€1957th€and€1958th€meetings€(Ō_ŌCCPRŌ_Ō/C/SR.1955,€1957€andŠ U„ Š1958),€held€on€20€and€21€July€2000.€€At€its€1967th€meeting,€on€28€July€2000,€the€Committee€adoptedŠ > Ž Šthe€following€concluding€observations.Š ' w ŠĢ1.€€ņņIntroductionóóŠ ł I ŠĢ499.ą  ąThe€Committee€appreciates€the€quality€of€the€reports€of€Australia,€which€conformed€to€theŠ Ė   ŠCommittee's€guidelines€for€the€preparation€of€States€parties'€reports€and€provided€a€comprehensiveŠ “  ŠŌ_Ōview€of€such€measures€as€have€been€adopted€by€Australia€to€implement€the€Covenant€in€all€parts€ofŠ ķ  Šthe€country.€€The€Committee€also€appreciated€the€extensive€additional€oral€and€written€informationŠ †Ö  Šprovided€by€the€State€party€delegation€during€the€examination€of€the€report.€€Furthermore,€theŠ oæ  ŠCommittee€expresses€appreciation€for€the€answers€to€its€oral€and€written€questions€and€for€theŠ XØ  Špublication€and€wide€dissemination€of€the€report€by€the€State€party.Š A‘ ŠĢ500.ą  ąThe€Committee€regrets€the€long€delay€in€the€submission€of€the€third€report,€which€wasŠ c Šreceived€by€the€Committee€10€years€after€the€examination€of€the€second€periodic€report€of€the€StateŠ üL Šparty.Š å5 ŠĢ501.ą  ąThe€Committee€expresses€its€appreciation€for€the€contribution€of€non-governmentalŠ · Šorganizations€and€statutory€agencies€to€its€work.Š  š ŠĢ2.€€ņņPositive€aspectsóóŠ rĀ ŠĢ502.ą  ąThe€Committee€welcomes€the€accession€of€the€State€party€to€the€Optional€Protocol€to€theŠ D” ŠCovenant€in€1991,€thereby€recognizing€the€competence€of€the€Committee€to€considerŠ -} Šcommunications€from€individuals€within€its€territory€and€subject€to€its€jurisdiction.€€It€welcomes€theŠ f Šaction€taken€by€the€State€party€to€implement€the€Views€of€the€Committee€in€the€case€ofŠ ’O Šcommunication€No.€488/1992€(Toonen€v.€Australia)€by€enacting€the€necessary€legislation€at€theŠ č 8 Šfederal€level.Š Ń!!  ŠĢ503.ą  ąThe€Committee€welcomes€the€enactment€of€anti-discrimination€legislation€in€all€jurisdictionsŠ £#ó" Šof€the€State€party,€including€legislation€to€assist€disabled€persons.Š Œ$Ü# ŠĢ504.ą  ąThe€Committee€welcomes€the€establishment€of€the€Aboriginal€and€Torres€Strait€IslanderŠ ^&®!% ŠSocial€Justice€Commissioner€in€1993.Š G'—"& ŠĢ505.ą  ąThe€Committee€notes€with€satisfaction€that€the€status€of€women€in€Australian€society€hasŠ )i$( Šimproved€considerably€during€the€reporting€period,€particularly€in€pub