ÿWPCJ [ÕU=>±[U*ThiœÚšêåZ$ÇÌ-'ÙœÝ.×:´J£BÉWS0á'm=ç8¶§òíÄk%ŒoH©ß/ÏÔú½3•1%ÃíFÁE[Ç;º#x öz^ŸÔDÀA­Ý•†:Ç"ëS¯å¤t@eÙRÇ>¾5½ùgœQù ¶<š¼Ã[/ü}{UžÔ»‘bäLzðL‘ u3‰6ðãºþƒ{øÐ9¿vŽ.©c‡KDÄ­¯ôÿ¢ÀbÁáI Ï›,‹èïÉ9Û©æí^7׎3MdìS?Ì9!dE®ð.’ÁwþZ­^>6°S)1n²Uu™°˜±Ìp‘“újy?¨™Ú†tîÿt¯f€X-¢¬2s \\ÊÌRv ÂcJþQ†M¯TôoëE}`?–W!ŒZ€†ÎI©Ê:vÎkÃGcÞ!xíBFùþb¹l”qÓKfÊ>ÿ ¤ä!÷îhË»Þ^9Ð2„Rn’j–®ìÞ¶”Qv41&ú7ß~Fêä:ªÒÀšîá™ÃbJE74Ž¯î h¾Ü5;J„¢è­»Ò—KK{™‰>΢¡S¢Çê•ÛGy€2Ò+Ý.൨&?®LÎ3™ºðŠðÏÝ¥ŠÁ#ÉŽ UNW %¥ 0:« 0Uå 0ã: 0Å 0¿â 0¹¡ 0³Z 0­  0§º 0¡a 0Å 0ÑÇ 0³˜ 0­K 0§ø 0¡Ÿ 0›@ 0•Û 0p 0Âý 0ο 0° 0ª= 0¤ç 0ž‹ 0˜) 0’Á 0ŠS! 0;Ý! 0<# 0T# 0Br$ 0/´$ 0Öã% 0:¹& 0ó& 0Ö( 0ç( 0í) 0T+ 06Y, 0Ó- 0Èb0 0¹*3U2ã5 0Ê6 0¿ß8 0°ž; 0ÁN> 0žA 1U­C 7 DU>DU6LD 0U‚DÆ×D 0UE 0UòE 0(GF D+oF AQšFU,ëF^ G 0U#Gw@xG4¸G B-ÌG 0CùG?Cþÿ<< cÿÿ(ô\ Y`‹Symbol9 Y/— (-2«$©©Ý ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  Ý ±{²D³´Dµ¶Q·E¸¹QºEû¾Q/i+00)Hairline d(ÿÿ$òòÚ  ÚÚ  Úóó3|xºÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ(B2½±$¤¤Ý ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÓÓòòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó3#37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)hi)(;3£$´´Ô2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  à dÝ ƒö\!ÝÔCEUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_Ôò òHUMAN€RIGHTS€COMMITTEEÐ ° ÐÌòòÔ_ÔBaumgartenÔ_Ô€v.€GermanyóóÐ „Ô ÐÌCommunication€No.€960/2000**Ð X¨ ÐÌ31€July€2003Ð , | ÐÌÔ_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/78/D/960/2000*Ð  P ÐÌÌVIEWSó óÐ ¾  ÐÌÌòòòòSubmitted€byóó:€Klaus€Dieter€Ô_ÔBaumgartenÔ_ÔÐ zÊ  ÐÌòòAlleged€victimóó:€The€author€Ð H˜ ÐÌòòState€partyóó:€GermanyÐ f ÐÌòòDate€of€communicationóó:€30€September€1998€(initial€submission)óóÐ ä4 ÐÌÌòòÓ  ÓThe€Human€Rights€Committeeóó,€established€under€article€28€of€the€International€Covenant€on€CivilÐ í Ðand€Political€Rights,€Ð †Ö ÐÌòòMeeting€onóó€31€July€2003,Ð X¨ ÐÌòòHaving€concludedóó€its€consideration€of€communication€No.€960/2000,€submitted€to€the€Human€RightsÐ *z ÐCommittee€by€Mr.€Klaus€Dieter€Ô_ÔBaumgartenÔ_Ô€under€the€Optional€Protocol€to€the€InternationalÐ c ÐCovenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights,Ð üL ÐÌòòHaving€taken€into€accountóó€all€written€information€made€available€to€it€by€the€author€of€theÐ Î!  Ðcommunication,€and€the€State€party,Ð ·"! ÐÌòòAdopts€the€followingóó:Ð ‰$Ù# ÐÓ§ÓÌÌÓ  Óò òòòViews€under€article€5,€paragraph€4,€of€the€Optional€Protocolóóó óÐ D'”"& ÐÓÀÓÌÌÓ  ÓÓ  Ó1.à  àThe€author€of€the€communication€is€Mr.€Klaus€Dieter€Ô_ÔBaumgartenÔ_Ô,€a€German€citizen,€who,Ð *P%) Ðat€the€time€of€his€initial€submission,€was€imprisoned€in€the€prison€of€Ô_ÔDppelÔ_Ô€in€Berlin,€Germanyòò*óó.Ð é*9&* ÐHe€claims€to€be€the€victim€of€violations€by€Germany€of€articles€15€and€26€of€the€InternationalÐ Ò+"'+ ÐCovenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.€He€is€not€represented€by€counsel.Ð », (, ÐÐ ¤-ô(- ÐòòFacts:óóÐ ° ÐÌ2.1à  àFrom€1979€until€his€retirement€in€February€1990,€the€author€was€Deputy€Minister€of€DefenceÐ ‚Ò Ðand€Head€of€Border€Troops€(òòòòóóChef€der€Ô_ÔGrenztruppenÔ_Ôóóòòóó)€of€the€former€German€Democratic€RepublicÐ k» Ð(GDR).Ð T¤ ÐÌ2.2à  àOn€10€September€1996,€the€Regional€Court€of€Berlin€(òòòòóóÔ_ÔLandgerichtÔ_Ô€Berlinóóòòóó)€convicted€theÐ & v Ðauthor€of€homicideòò1óó€€and€attempted€homicide€in€several€cases€occurring€between€1980€and€1989,Ð  _ Ðsentencing€him€to€a€prison€term€of€six€years€and€six€months.€The€Court€found€that€the€author€wasÐ ø H Ðresponsible€for€the€killing€or€attempted€killing€of€the€persons€concerned,€who,€upon€attempting€toÐ á 1  Ðcross€the€border€between€the€former€GDR€and€the€Federal€Republic€of€Germany€(FRG)€includingÐ Ê   ÐWest€Berlin,€were€shot€by€border€guards€or€set€off€mines.€On€30€April€1997,€the€Federal€CourtÐ ³  Ð(òòòòóóÔ_ÔBundesgerichtshofÔ_Ôóóòòóó)€dismissed€the€authorððs€appeal.€The€Federal€Constitutional€CourtÐ œì  Ð(òòòòóóÔ_ÔBundesverfassungsgerichtÔ_Ôóóòòóó)€rejected€his€constitutional€motion€€on€21€July€1997,€holding€that€theÐ …Õ  Ðprevious€court€decisions€did€not€violate€constitutional€law.€Ð n¾  ÐòòóóÌ2.3à  àThe€author€testified€before€the€Regional€Court€of€Berlin€that,€since€1960,€the€highest€militaryÐ @ Ðorgan€of€the€former€GDR,€the€National€Defence€Council€formulated€general€policy€guidelines€onÐ )y Ðthe€protection€and€defence€of€the€border,€which€had€to€be€implemented€by€the€Minister€of€DefenceÐ b Ð.€The€border€troops€(òòÔ_ÔGrenztruppenÔ_Ôóó)€were€directly€subordinate€to€the€Minister€of€Defence;€the€HeadÐ ûK Ðof€Border€Troops€was,€at€the€same€time,€one€of€the€Deputy€Ministers.Ð ä4 ÐÌ2.4à  àIn€order€to€implement€€the€general€policy€guidelines€of€the€National€Defence€Council,€theÐ ¶ ÐMinister€of€Defence€issued€his€annual€€order€no.€101€for€the€protection€of€the€border€to€the€Head€ofÐ Ÿï ÐBorder€Troops€who,€in€turn,€spelled€out€the€required€defence€and€security€measures€in€more€concreteÐ ˆØ Ðterms€in€annual€order€no.€80.€The€content€of€this€order€was€thereupon€further€interpreted€and€refinedÐ qÁ Ðthrough€the€different€levels€of€hierarchy€in€the€border€troops,€and€eventually€reached€every€unit€forÐ Zª Ðimplementation.Ð C“ ÐÌ2.5à  àAs€Head€of€Border€Troops€and€under€his€sole€responsibility,€the€author€issued€the€followingÐ e Ðorders:€no.€80/79€of€6€October€1979,€no.€80/80€of€10€October€1980,€no.€80/81€of€6€October€1981,Ð þN Ðno.€80/83€of€10€October€1983,€no.€80/84€of€9€October€1984,€no.€80/85€of€18€October€1985,€no.€80/86Ð ç 7 Ðof€15€October€1986€and€no.€80/88€of€26€September€1988.€Excerpts€from€these€ordersòò2óó€are€cited€inÐ Ð!   Ðthe€judgment€of€the€Berlin€Regional€Court:Ð ¹" ! ÐÌð ðThe€guard€sections€and€units€must€reliably€and€without€interruption€guard,€in€the€border€sectionsÐ ‹$Û# Ðassigned€to€them,€the€inviolability€of€the€state€border€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic,Ð t%Ä $ Ðapprehend€border€violators,€and€not€permit€border€violations€or€the€expansion€of€border€provocationsÐ ]&­!% Ðonto€the€state€territory€of€the€GDR.€[ð8ð]€The€effectiveness€of€border€security€should€be€furtherÐ F'–"& Ðincreased.€[ð8ð]Ð /(#' ÐÌ[Border€guards]€are€to€be€trained€to€act€in€a€way€that€is€politically€clever,€decisive€and€showsÐ *Q%) Ðinitiative.€[They€are]€primarily€to€be€trained€to€apprehend€border€violators€or€provocateurs€withoutÐ ê*:&* Ðhaving€resort€to€firearms.€In€marksmanship€training,€soldiers€should€be€enabled€to€handle€theirÐ Ó+#'+ Ðpersonal€firearms€safely€and€to€safely€combat€targets€that€appear€and€that€move€by€day€and€night.Ð ¼, (, ÐThese€tasks€should€be€carried€out€with€the€least€amount€of€ammunition.ððòò3óóÐ ¥-õ(- Їð ðThe€readiness€and€ability€of€the€forces€deployed€in€the€Border€Service€to€prevent€any€attack€on€theÐ ° Ðstate€border€through€politically€correct€and€tactically€clever,€decisive,€active,€cunning€andÐ ™é Ðresourceful€action€is€to€be€further€perfected.€[ð8ð]€[Ô_ÔS]taffÔ_Ô€deployed€for€securing€the€border€are€trainedÐ ‚Ò Ðin€the€uncompromising€use€of€firearms€in€carrying€out€the€combat€order,€if€all€other€means€ofÐ k» Ðapprehension€have€been€exhausted,€in€accordance€with€the€regulations€on€the€use€of€firearms€[ð8ð]Ð T¤ ÐÌParticular€attention€is€to€be€paid€to€constantly€ensuring€the€functionality€and€full€effectiveness€of€theÐ & v Ð[border]€installations.€There€should€be€[...]€39.2€km€of€border€fence€I,€10€facilities€or€borderÐ  _ Ðinstallations€with€fragmentation€mines€[ð8ð].€Transformation€and€main€repair€is€to€be€implementedÐ ø H Ðat€[ð8ð]€border€installations€with€fragmentation€mines,€6€facilities,€104€km€border€fence€I.€[ð8ð]€InÐ á 1  Ðorder€to€support€the€ððpioneerðð€and€signal€expansion€in€Border€Command€South,€the€exceptionalÐ Ê   Ðservice€of€two€ððpioneerðð€companies€should€be€ensured€[ð8ð]€from€24€June€1982€to€15€October€1982Ð ³  Ð[ð8ð].€The€maintenance€staff€for€the€border€installations€with€fragmentation€mines€[ð8ð]€should€notÐ œì  Ðbe€deployed€in€24„hour€shifts.€They€should€be€planned€and€deployed€for€at€least€15€working€daysÐ …Õ  Ðof€maintenance€work€per€month.€[ð8ð]Ð n¾  ÐÌThe€efforts€are€to€be€directed€at€enabling€the€border€soldiers€to€act€in€a€way€that€is€politically€cleverÐ @ Ðand€shows€initiative€as€well€as€determination€in€the€Border€Service,€[ð8ð]€to€hit€their€targets€whetherÐ )y Ðthese€appear€and€move€by€day€or€by€night.ððòò4óóÐ b ÐÌð ðBorder€training€is€to€be€organized€as€a€whole€and€shall€respond€to€the€requirements€of€reliablyÐ ä4 Ðsecuring€the€state€border€day€and€night.€The€soldiers€are€to€be€trained€in€accurate€shooting€to€combatÐ Í Ð[ð8ð]€targets€in€all€situations€and€shall€be€enabled€to€use€their€personal€firearm€in€accordance€with€theÐ ¶ Ðlegal€provisions€and€military€regulations,€as€well€as€in€a€responsible€and€decisive€manner,€in€theÐ Ÿï Ðborder€area.€To€apprehend€border€violators€and€provocateurs€using€physical€force,€border€troopsÐ ˆØ Ðshall€receive€training€in€border„related€close€combat.ððòò5óóÐ qÁ ÐÌð ðThrough€the€coordinated,€dispersed€employment€of€forces€and€means,€[ð8ð]€attempts€of€borderÐ C“ Ðviolations€and€other€attacks€on€the€state€border€should€be€recognized€in€time€and€be€preventedÐ ,| Ðreliably€and€through€determined€action.ððòò6óóÐ e ÐÌð ðThe€focus€should€be€on€[ð8ð]€the€fast€and€precise€recognition€of€indications€of€the€preparation€andÐ ç 7 Ðthe€carrying€out€of€border€violations€and€provocations,€actions€in€the€border€service€which€areÐ Ð!   Ðpolitically€clever,€offensive€as€well€as€controlled€under€all€circumstances,€quick€and€targeted€actionsÐ ¹" ! Ðto€arrest€border€violators€without€using€firearms,€[ð8ð]€the€prevention€of€border€breakthroughs€andÐ ¢#ò" Ðthe€successful€defence€against€border€provocations€[ð8ð].€In€marksmanship€training,€the€members€ofÐ ‹$Û# Ðthe€border€troops€and€units€[ð8ð]€are€to€be€trained€in€such€a€way€that€they€hit€the€target€with€the€firstÐ t%Ä $ Ðshot€[ð8ð]€within€the€first€third€of€the€combat€time€available€[ð8ð].€The€focus€is€to€be€placed€on€[ð8ð]Ð ]&­!% ÐÔ_ÔcombatingÔ_Ô€small€targets€at€direct€shooting€distance€with€the€personal€firearm€or€with€double€arms.ððòò7óóÐ F'–"& ÐÌð ðCombat€and€special€training€should€enable€the€units,€services,€crews€and€border€guards€to€recognizeÐ )h$( Ðany€indications€of€the€preparation€and€the€carrying€out€of€border€violations€in€good€time,€to€actÐ *Q%) Ðdecisively€and€with€initiative€to€prevent€border€violations,€to€successfully€prevent€borderÐ ê*:&* Ðprovocations€and€armed€attacks€on€the€territory€of€the€GDR.€[ð8ð]€Effective€measures€are€to€be€takenÐ Ó+#'+ Ðto€improve€marksmanship€training.€[ð8ð]€[M]embers€of€the€border€guard€should€become€more€ableÐ ¼, (, Ðto€use€their€arms€safely,€to€hit€their€target€under€all€conditions€and€[ð8ð]€with€the€first€shot.ððòò8óóÐ ¥-õ(- ÐòòÌDomestic€context€and€legislation:Ð ™é ÐóóÌ3.1à  àBetween€1949€and€1961,€approximately€two€and€a€half€million€Germans€fled€from€theÐ k» ÐGerman€Democratic€Republic€to€the€Federal€Republic€of€Germany,€including€West€Berlin.€To€stopÐ T¤ Ðthis€flow€of€refugees,€the€GDR€started€construction€of€the€Berlin€Wall€on€13€August€1961€andÐ =  Ðreinforced€security€installations€along€the€inner„German€border,€in€particular€by€installingÐ & v Ðlandmines,€later€replaced€by€SM„70€fragmentation€mines.€Hundreds€of€persons€lost€their€livesÐ  _ Ðattempting€to€cross€the€border,€either€because€they€set€off€mines,€or€because€they€were€shot€by€EastÐ ø H ÐGerman€border€guards.Ð á 1  ÐÌ3.2à  àFollowing€German€reunification,€public€prosecutors€started€to€investigate€the€killings€ofÐ ³  Ðpersons€at€the€former€inner„German€border€on€the€basis€of€the€Treaty€on€the€Establishment€of€aÐ œì  ÐUnified€Germany€of€31€August€1990€(òòEinigungsvertrag)óó.€The€Unification€Treaty,€taken€togetherÐ …Õ  Ðwith€the€Unification€Treaty€Act€of€23€September€1990€declares,€in€the€transitional€provisionsÐ n¾  Ðrelating€to€the€Criminal€Code€(articles€315€to€315c€of€the€Introductory€Act€to€the€Criminal€Code),Ð W§  Ðthat,€as€a€rule,€the€law€of€the€place€where€an€offence€was€committed€remains€applicable€for€acts€thatÐ @ Ðoccurred€prior€to€the€time€when€unification€became€effective.€For€offences€committed€in€the€formerÐ )y ÐGDR,€the€Criminal€Code€of€the€former€GDR€remains€applicable.€Pursuant€to€section€2,€paragraphÐ b Ð3,€of€the€Criminal€Code€(FRG),€the€law€of€the€FRG€is€applicable€only€if€it€is€more€lenient€than€thatÐ ûK Ðof€the€GDR.Ð ä4 ÐÌ3.3à  àThe€first€chapter€of€the€Special€Section€of€the€Criminal€Code€(GDR),€entitled€ð ðCrimesÐ ¶ Ðagainst€the€national€sovereignty€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic,€peace,€humanity€and€humanÐ Ÿï Ðrightsðð,€included€the€following€introduction:Ð ˆØ ÐÌð ðThe€merciless€punishment€of€crimes€against€the€national€sovereignty€of€the€German€DemocraticÐ Zª ÐRepublic,€peace,€humanity€and€human€rights,€and€of€war€crimes,€is€an€indispensable€prerequisite€forÐ C“ Ðstable€peace€in€the€world,€for€the€restoration€of€faith€in€fundamental€human€rights€and€the€dignityÐ ,| Ðand€worth€of€human€beings,€and€for€the€preservation€of€the€rights€of€everyone.ððÐ e ÐÌSection€95€of€the€Criminal€Code€(GDR)€provided:Ð ç 7 ÐÌð ðAny€person€whose€conduct€violates€human€or€fundamental€rights,€international€obligations€or€theÐ ¹" ! Ðnational€sovereignty€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic€may€not€invoke€statute€law,€an€order€orÐ ¢#ò" Ðinstruction€as€justification;€he€shall€be€held€criminally€responsible.ððÐ ‹$Û# ÐÌSections€112€and€113€of€the€Criminal€Code€(GDR)€sanctioned€murder€and€ð ðmanslaughterðð:Ð ]&­!% ÐÌÓGÓòòSection€112Ð /(#' ÐMurderÐ )h$( ÐóóÓÓÌð ð(1)€Any€person€who€intentionally€kills€another€person€shall€be€punished€with€no€less€than€ten€yearsððÐ ê*:&* Ðimprisonment€or€with€life€imprisonment.Ð Ó+#'+ Ð[ð8ð]Ð ¼, (, Ð(3)€Preparation€and€the€attempt€shall€be€punishable.ððÐ ¥-õ(- ЇÓÒ8ÓÓ  ÓòòSection€113Ð ° ÐManslaughterÐ ™é ÐóóÓ:ÓÓ9ÓÌð ð(1)€The€intentional€killing€of€a€person€shall€be€punished€with€imprisonment€of€up€to€ten€years€ifÐ k» Ð1.€the€offender,€without€his€own€guilt,€has€been€placed€in€a€state€of€considerable€excitement€byÐ T¤ Ðmistreatment,€serious€threat€or€serious€insult€done€to€himself/herself€or€his/her€family€members€byÐ =  Ðthe€person€killed,€and€was€forced€or€influenced€thereby€to€commit€the€homicide;Ð & v Ð2.€a€woman€kills€her€child€during€or€immediately€following€birth;Ð  _ Ð3.€particular€circumstances€exist€relating€to€the€offence,€reducing€responsibility€under€criminal€law.Ð ø H Ð(2)€The€attempt€shall€be€punishable.ððÐ á 1  ÐÌArticle€258€of€the€Criminal€Code€(GDR)€provided:Ð ³  ÐÌð ð(1)€Members€of€the€armed€forces€shall€not€be€criminally€responsible€for€acts€committed€inÐ …Õ  Ðexecution€of€an€order€issued€by€a€superior,€save€where€execution€of€the€order€manifestly€violates€theÐ n¾  Ðrecognized€rules€of€public€international€law€or€a€criminal€statute.Ð W§  Ð(2)€Where€a€subordinateððs€execution€of€an€order€manifestly€violates€the€recognized€rules€of€publicÐ @ Ðinternational€law€or€a€criminal€statute,€the€superior€who€issued€that€order€shall€also€be€criminallyÐ )y Ðresponsible.Ð b Ð(3)€Criminal€responsibility€shall€not€be€incurred€for€refusal€or€failure€to€obey€an€order€whoseÐ ûK Ðexecution€would€violate€the€rules€of€public€international€law€or€a€criminal€statute.ððÐ ä4 ÐÌ3.4à  àPursuant€to€section€17,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Peopleððs€Police€Act€(òòÔ_ÔVolkspolizeigesetzÔ_Ôóó)€of€11Ð ¶ ÐJune€1968,€the€use€of€firearms€was€justifiedÐ Ÿï ÐÌð ð(a)à  àto€prevent€the€imminent€commission€or€continuation€of€an€offence€(òòÔ_ÔStraftatÔ_Ôóó)€which€appears,Ð qÁ Ðaccording€to€the€circumstances,€to€constituteÐ Zª Ðñ¶ñà0  àñ¶ñ„€a€serious€crime€(òòVerbrechenóó)€against€the€sovereignty€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic,Ð C“ Ðpeace,€humanity€or€human€rightsÐ,|(#(# Ðñ¶ñà0  àñ¶ñ„€a€serious€crime€against€the€German€Democratic€RepublicÐe(#(# Ðñ¶ñà0  àñ¶ñ„€a€serious€crime€against€the€person€ÐþN(#(# Ðñ¶ñà0  àñ¶ñ„ñ²ññ±ñà0  àñ±ññ²ññ³ñ€ñ³ña€serious€crime€against€public€safety€or€the€State€orderÐç 7(#(# Ðñ¶ñà0  àñ¶ñ„ñ´ññ®ñà0  àñ®ññ´ññµñ€ñµñany€other€serious€crime,€especially€one€committed€through€the€use€of€firearms€orÐ Ð!   Ðexplosives;й" !(#(# Ð(b)€à  àto€prevent€the€flight€or€effect€the€re„arrest€of€personsÐ ¢#ò" Ðñ¹ñà0  àñ¹ñ„€who€are€strongly€suspected€of€having€committed€a€serious€crime€or€who€have€been€arrestedÐ ‹$Û# Ðor€imprisoned€for€committing€a€serious€crimeÐt%Ä $(#(# Ðñ¹ñà0  àñ¹ñ„€who€are€strongly€suspected€of€having€committed€a€lesser€offence€(òòVergehenóó),€or€who€haveÐ ]&­!% Ðbeen€arrested,€taken€into€custody€or€sentenced€to€prison€for€committing€an€offence,€whereÐ F'–"& Ðthere€is€evidence€that€they€intend€to€use€firearms€or€explosives,€or€to€make€their€escape€by€Ð /(#' Ðsome€other€violent€means€or€by€assaulting€the€persons€charged€with€their€arrest,Ð )h$( Ðimprisonment,€custody€or€supervision,€or€to€make€their€escape€jointly€with€othersÐ*Q%)(#(# Ðñ¹ñà0  àñ¹ññ·ñÝ"‚†3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚†3£TIÝÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú1Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  àÝ  Ýñ·ññ¸ñ„€ñ¸ñwho€have€received€a€custodial€sentence€and€been€incarcerated€in€a€high„security€or€ordinaryÐ ê*:&* ÐprisonÐÓ+#'+(#(# Ð(c)€à  àagainst€persons€who€attempt€by€violent€means€to€effect€or€assist€in€the€release€of€personsÐ ¼, (, Ðarrested,€taken€into€custody€or€sentenced€to€imprisonment€for€the€commission€of€a€serious€crime€orÐ ¥-õ(- Ðlesser€offence.Ð ° Ð(3)à  àThe€use€of€firearms€must€be€preceded€by€a€clear€warning€or€warning€shot,€save€whereÐ ™é Ðimminent€danger€may€be€prevented€or€eliminated€only€through€targeted€use€of€the€firearm.Ð ‚Ò Ð(4)à  àWhen€firearms€are€used,€human€life€should€be€preserved€wherever€possible.€WoundedÐ k» Ðpersons€must€be€given€first€aid,€subject€to€the€necessary€security€measures€being€taken,€as€soon€asÐ T¤ Ðimplementation€of€the€police€operation€permits.Ð =  Ð(5)à  àFirearms€must€not€be€used€against€persons€who€appear,€from€their€outward€aspect,€to€beÐ & v Ðchildren,€or€when€third€parties€might€be€endangered.€If€possible,€firearms€should€not€be€used€againstÐ  _ Ðjuveniles€€or€female€persons.Ð ø H Ð(6)à  àThe€use€of€firearms€shall€be€regulated€in€detail€by€the€Minister€of€the€Interior€and€Head€ofÐ á 1  Ðthe€German€Peopleððs€Police€[ð8ð].ððÐ Ê   ÐÌUnder€section€20,€paragraph€3,€of€the€Peopleððs€Police€Act,€these€provisions€were€also€applicable€toÐ œì  Ðmembers€of€the€National€Peopleððs€Army€(òòNationale€Volksarmeeóó).Ð …Õ  ÐÌ3.5à  àOn€1€May€1982,€the€Act€on€the€State€Border€(òòGrenzgesetzóó)òò€óóof€the€GDR€entered€into€force,Ð W§  Ðreplacing€section€17,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Peopleððs€Police€Act€insofar€as€the€use€of€firearms€by€borderÐ @ Ðguards€was€concerned.€Section€27€of€the€State€Border€Act€reads:Ð )y ÐÌð ð(1)€The€use€of€firearms€is€the€most€extreme€measure€entailing€the€use€of€force€against€the€person.Ð ûK ÐFirearms€may€be€used€only€where€resort€to€physical€force,€with€or€without€the€use€of€mechanicalÐ ä4 Ðaids,€has€been€unsuccessful€or€holds€out€no€prospect€of€success.€The€use€of€firearms€against€personsÐ Í Ðis€permitted€only€where€shots€aimed€at€objects€or€animals€have€not€produced€the€desired€result.Ð ¶ Ð(2)€The€use€of€firearms€is€justified€to€prevent€the€imminent€commission€or€continuation€of€an€offenceÐ Ÿï Ð(òòStraftatóó)€which€appears€in€the€circumstances€to€constitute€a€serious€crime€(òòVerbrechenóó).€It€is€alsoÐ ˆØ Ðjustified€in€order€to€arrest€a€person€strongly€suspected€of€having€committed€a€serious€crime.Ð qÁ Ð(3)€The€use€of€firearms€must€in€principle€be€preceded€by€a€clear€warning€or€warning€shot,€save€whereÐ Zª Ðimminent€danger€may€be€prevented€or€eliminated€only€through€targeted€use€of€the€firearm.Ð C“ Ð(4)€Firearms€must€not€be€used€whenÐ ,| Ða)€the€life€or€health€of€third€parties€may€be€endangered;Ð e Ðb)€the€persons€appear,€from€their€outward€aspect,€to€be€children:€orÐ þN Ðc)€the€shots€would€violate€the€sovereign€territory€of€a€neighbouring€State.Ð ç 7 ÐIf€possible,€firearms€should€not€be€used€against€juveniles€or€female€persons.Ð Ð!   Ð(5)€When€firearms€are€used,€human€life€should€be€preserved€where€possible.€Wounded€persons€mustÐ ¹" ! Ðbe€given€first€aid,€subject€to€the€necessary€security€measures€being€taken.ððÐ ¢#ò" ÐÌ3.6à  àBy€contrast€with€the€use€of€firearms,€the€installation€of€mines€was€not€regulated€by€statutoryÐ t%Ä $ Ðlaw,€but€by€a€series€of€service€regulations€and€orders€which€provided€for€measures€to€secure€borderÐ ]&­!% Ðinstallations€through€mines,€as€well€as€the€use€of€firearms.òò9óóÐ F'–"& ÐÌ3.7à  àThe€term€ð ðserious€crimeðð€(òòVerbrechenóó)€referred€to€in€section€17,€paragraph€(2)€(a),€of€theÐ )h$( ÐPeopleððs€Police€Act€and€in€section€27,€paragraph€2,€of€the€State€Borders€Act€was€defined€in€sectionÐ *Q%) Ð1,€paragraph€3,€of€the€Criminal€Code:Ð ê*:&* ÐÌð ðSerious€crimes€are€attacks€dangerous€to€society€(òògesellschaftsgefhrliche€Angriffeóó),€against€theÐ ¼, (, Ðsovereignty€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic,€peace,€humanity€or€human€rights,€war€crimes,Ð ¥-õ(- Ðoffences€against€the€German€Democratic€Republic€and€deliberately€committed€criminal€acts€againstÐ ° Ðlife(òòÔ_ÔvorstzlichÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔbegangeneÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔStraftatenÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔgegenÔ_Ô€das€Ô_ÔLebenÔ_Ôóó).€Similarly€considered€crimes€are€otherÐ ™é Ðoffences€dangerous€to€society€which€are€deliberately€committed€against€the€rights€and€interests€ofÐ ‚Ò Ðcitizens,€socialist€property€and€other€rights€and€interests€of€society,€and€constitute€serious€violationsÐ k» Ðof€socialist€legality€and€which,€on€that€account,€are€punishable€by€at€least€two€yearsðð€imprisonmentÐ T¤ Ðor€in€respect€of€which,€within€the€limits€of€the€penalties€applicable,€a€sentence€of€over€two€yearsððÐ =  Ðimprisonment€has€been€imposed.ððÐ & v ÐÌ3.8à  àIn€principle,€the€GDR€denied€its€citizens€the€right€to€travel€to€a€Western€country€includingÐ ø H Ðthe€FRG€and€Berlin€(West).€Approval€was€required€to€travel€to€these€countries.€Under€the€legalÐ á 1  Ðprovisions€applicable€to€the€issuance€of€passports€and€visas€in€the€GDR,€it€was,€however,€impossibleÐ Ê   Ðfor€persons€who€enjoyed€no€political€privileges,€had€not€reached€retirement€age€or€had€not€beenÐ ³  Ðexempted€on€the€basis€of€certain€types€of€urgent€family€business,€to€leave€the€GDR€legally€for€aÐ œì  ÐWestern€country.€Crossing€the€border€without€an€authorization€constituted€a€criminal€offence€underÐ …Õ  Ðsection€213€(ð ðIllegal€border€crossingðð)€of€the€Criminal€Code€(GDR)€which€read:Ð n¾  ÐÌð ð(1)€Any€person€who€illegally€crosses€the€border€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic€or€contravenesÐ @ Ðprovisions€regulating€temporary€authorization€to€reside€in€the€German€Democratic€Republic€andÐ )y Ðtransit€through€the€German€Democratic€Republic€shall€be€punished€by€a€custodial€sentence€of€up€toÐ b Ðtwo€years,€a€suspended€sentence€with€probation,€imprisonment€or€a€fine.Ð ûK Ð(2)€[ð8ð]Ð ä4 Ð(3)€In€serious€cases,€the€offender€shall€be€sentenced€to€one€to€eight€yearsðð€imprisonment.€Cases€areÐ Í Ðto€be€considered€serious€in€particular€whereÐ ¶ Ð1.€the€offence€endangers€human€life€or€health;Ð Ÿï Ð2.€the€offence€is€committed€through€the€use€of€firearms€or€by€dangerous€means€or€methods;Ð ˆØ Ð3.€the€offence€is€committed€with€particular€intensity;Ð qÁ Ð4.€the€offence€is€committed€by€means€of€forgery,€falsified€documents€or€documents€fraudulentlyÐ Zª Ðused,€or€through€the€use€of€a€hiding€place;Ð C“ Ð5.€the€offence€is€committed€jointly€with€others;€orÐ ,| Ð6.€the€offender€has€already€been€convicted€of€illegally€crossing€the€border.Ð e Ð(4)€Preparation€and€attempt€shall€be€criminal€offences.ððòòÐ þN ÐóóÌ3.9à  àSerious€cases€of€illegal€border€crossing,€as€defined€in€section€213,€paragraph€3,€of€theÐ Ð!   ÐCriminal€Code,€included€the€use€of€a€ladder€to€climb€over€border€fences,€which€was€considered€aÐ ¹" ! Ðcommission€of€the€offence€by€the€use€of€dangerous€means€(section€213,€para.€3,€no.€2)òò10óó,€and€theÐ ¢#ò" Ðcrossing€of€the€border€under€considerable€physical€efforts€(section€213,€para.€3,€no.€3:€ð ðparticularÐ ‹$Û# Ðintensityðð)òò11óó.€Depending€on€the€intensity€of€commission,€such€acts€constituted€either€misdemeanoursÐ t%Ä $ Ð(òòÔ_ÔVergehenÔ_Ôóó)€or€serious€crimes€(òòÔ_ÔVerbrechenÔ_Ôóó).òò12óó€Frequently,€serious€cases€of€illegal€border€crossingÐ ]&­!% Ðwere€deemed€to€constitute€serious€crimesòò13óó,€either€because€they€were€punishable€by€more€than€twoÐ F'–"& Ðyearsðð€imprisonmentòò14óó€or€because€they€were€considered€ð ðattacks€dangerous€to€societyðð€or€a€ð ðseriousÐ /(#' Ðviolation€of€socialist€legalityððòò15óó,€under€section€1,€paragraph€3,€of€the€Criminal€Code€(GDR).Ð )h$( ÐÌ3.10à  àNo€member€of€the€border€troops€was€ever€prosecuted€in€the€GDR€for€ordering€the€use€ofÐ ê*:&* Ðfirearms€or€for€executing€such€orders.Ð Ó+#'+ ÐÌ3.11à  àThe€Covenant€entered€into€force€for€the€German€Democratic€Republic€on€23€March€1976.Ð ¥-õ(- ÐHowever,€it€was€never€incorporated€into€the€GDRððs€domestic€legal€order€by€ParliamentÐ ° Ð(òòÔ_ÔVolkskammerÔ_Ôóó),€as€required€by€article€51òò16óó€of€the€GDR€Constitution.òò17óóÐ ™é ÐÌòòThe€procedure€before€the€domestic€tribunals:Ð k» ÐóóÌ4.1à  àThe€Berlin€Regional€Court,€in€its€judgment€of€10€September€1996,€found€that,€based€on€theÐ =  Ðprovisions€on€homicide€of€the€GDR€Criminal€Code,€the€author€was€responsible€for€the€deaths€orÐ & v Ðinjuries€inflicted€on€persons€trying€to€cross€the€border€at€the€inner„German€border€or,€respectively,Ð  _ Ðthe€Berlin€Wall,€by€virtue€of€his€annual€orders,€triggering€a€chain€of€subsequent€orders€and,€thereby,Ð ø H Ðinciting€the€acts€committed€by€border€guards€in€the€cases€at€issue.€While€the€Court€recognized€thatÐ á 1  Ðit€was€not€the€authorððs€direct€intention€to€cause€the€death€of€border€violators,€it€argued€that€he€wasÐ Ê   Ðfully€aware,€and€accepted,€that,€as€a€direct€consequence€of€the€application€of€these€orders,€personsÐ ³  Ðattempting€to€cross€the€border€could€lose€their€lives.€It€rejected€the€authorððs€claim€that€he€had€erredÐ œì  Ðabout€the€prohibited€nature€of€his€orders,€since€such€error€was€avoidable,€given€his€high€militaryÐ …Õ  Ðrank,€his€competencies€and€the€fact€that€his€orders€manifestly€violated€the€right€to€life,€therebyÐ n¾  Ðinfringing€the€criminal€laws€of€the€GDR.€It€held€that€the€authorððs€acts€were€neither€justified€by€theÐ W§  Ðpertinent€service€regulations€issued€by€the€Minister€of€National€Defence,€nor€under€article€27,Ð @ Ðparagraph€2,€of€the€State€Border€Act,€arguing€that€these€legal€justifications€were€invalid€because€theyÐ )y Ðmanifestly€violated€basic€principles€of€justice€and€internationally€protected€human€rights,€asÐ b Ðenshrined€in€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights.Ð ûK ÐÌ4.2à  àThe€Court€argued€that,€by€giving€priority€to€the€inviolability€of€the€GDRððs€state€borders€overÐ Í Ðthe€right€to€life€of€unarmed€fugitives€who€attempted€to€cross€the€inner„German€border,€these€groundsÐ ¶ Ðof€justification€violated€legal€principles€based€on€the€intrinsic€worth€and€dignity€of€the€human€personÐ Ÿï Ðand€recognized€by€the€community€of€nations.€The€Court€concluded€that€in€such€a€case,€the€positiveÐ ˆØ Ðlaw€had€to€be€superseded€by€considerations€of€justice.€Such€a€finding€did€not€constitute€a€breach€ofÐ qÁ Ðthe€principle€of€non„retroactivity€in€article€103,€paragraph€2,€of€the€German€Basic€LawÐ Zª Ð(òòÔ_ÔGrundgesetzÔ_Ôóó),€since€the€expectation€that€the€law,€as€applied€in€GDR€state€practice,€would€continueÐ C“ Ðto€be€applied€so€as€to€broadly€construe€a€legal€justification€contrary€to€human€rights,€did€not€meritÐ ,| Ðprotection€of€the€law.€The€Court€dismissed€order€no.€101€as€a€lawful€excuse,€holding€that€underÐ e Ðarticle€258,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Criminal€Code€(GDR),€criminal€responsibility€was€not€excludedÐ þN Ðwhere€the€execution€of€an€order€manifestly€violated€recognized€rules€of€public€international€law€orÐ ç 7 Ða€criminal€statute.€In€assessing€the€punishment,€the€Court€balanced€the€following€aspects:€(1)€theÐ Ð!   Ðtotalitarian€structure€of€the€GDR€which€left€the€author€only€with€a€limited€scope€of€action,€(2)€theÐ ¹" ! Ðauthorððs€high€age€and€his€expressions€of€regret€for€the€victims,€(3)€the€considerable€lapse€of€timeÐ ¢#ò" Ðsince€the€commission€of€the€acts,€(4)€his€(albeit€avoidable)€error€as€to€the€unlawfulness€of€his€actsÐ ‹$Û# Ð(in€his€Ô_ÔfavorÔ_Ô),€and€(5)€his€participation,€at€a€high€level€of€hierarchy,€in€the€maintenance€and€increasedÐ t%Ä $ Ðsophistication€of€the€€system€of€border€control€(to€his€detriment).€Based€on€the€relevant€provisionsÐ ]&­!% Ðof€the€Criminal€Code€(FRG),€which€were€more€lenient€than€the€corresponding€norms€of€the€CriminalÐ F'–"& ÐCode€(GDR),€the€Court€decided€to€impose€a€reduced€sentence.€Ð /(#' ÐÌ4.3à  àThe€Federal€Constitutional€Court,€in€its€decision€dated€21€July€1997,€rejected€the€authorððsÐ *Q%) Ðconstitutional€complaint€that€the€decisions€of€the€Berlin€Regional€Court€and€the€Federal€CourtÐ ê*:&* Ðviolated€the€principle€of€non„retroactivity€in€article€103,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Basic€Law€byÐ Ó+#'+ Ðretroactively€declaring€acts€punishable€which,€under€GDR€law,€had€been€lawful.€The€Court€statedÐ ¼, (, Ðthat€it€was€precluded€from€reviewing€the€interpretation€and€application€of€the€criminal€law€of€theÐ ¥-õ(- Ðformer€GDR,€its€review€being€limited€to€the€question€of€whether€constitutional€law€had€been€violatedÐ ° Ðby€the€lower€courtsðð€decisions.€The€Court€found€no€breach€of€Article€103,€paragraph€2,€of€the€BasicÐ ™é ÐLaw€since€the€authorððs€expectation€that€his€acts€were€justified€under€GDR€practice€did€not€meritÐ ‚Ò Ðconstitutional€protection.€By€reference€to€its€previous€decision€on€border€shootingsòò18óó,€the€CourtÐ k» Ðreiterated€that€the€òòbona€fide€óóbasis€protected€by€article€103,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Basic€Law€was€absentÐ T¤ Ðwhere€a€State€codified€norms€which€sanction€the€most€severe€criminal€wrongs,€such€as€theÐ =  Ðintentional€killing€of€human€beings,€but€at€the€same€time€provide€for€legal€justifications€that€excludeÐ & v Ðcriminal€responsibility,€and€thereby€encourage€the€commission€of€such€wrongs€and€disregardÐ  _ Ðuniversal€human€rights€recognized€by€the€community€of€nations.€The€strict€protection,€in€article€103,Ð ø H Ðparagraph€2,€of€the€Basic€Law,€of€the€legitimate€expectation€of€the€legality€of€oneððs€acts€did€notÐ á 1  Ðapply€in€the€particular€case,€especially€since€the€injustice€of€the€GDRððs€€system€of€border€controlÐ Ê   Ðcould€only€prevail€as€long€as€that€State€had€existed.Ð ³  ÐÌòòThe€complaintóóÐ …Õ  ÐÌ5.1à  àThe€author€claims€that€he€is€a€victim€of€violations€of€articles€15€and€26€of€the€Covenant,Ð W§  Ðbecause€he€was€convicted€for€acts€committed€in€the€line€of€duty€which€did€not€constitute€a€criminalÐ @ Ðoffence€under€GDR€law€or€under€international€law.Ð )y ÐÌ5.2à  àWith€regard€to€the€alleged€violation€of€article€15€of€the€Covenant,€the€author€claims€that,€byÐ ûK Ðjudging€his€acts,€the€State€partyððs€courts€deprived€the€relevant€GDR€legislation€of€its€originalÐ ä4 Ðmeaning,€replacing€it€by€their€own€concept€of€justice.€He€argues€that€the€reasoning€of€the€CourtsÐ Í Ðamounts€to€the€absurd€contention€that€the€East€German€Parliament€€placed€members€of€the€armedÐ ¶ Ðforces€at€double€jeopardy,€by€enacting€criminal€laws€requiring€them€to€comply€with€theirÐ Ÿï Ðprofessional€duties,€and€at€the€same€time€criminalizing€such€compliance,€eventually€only€in€orderÐ ˆØ Ðto€prevent€the€prosecution€of€the€Ô_ÔfulfillmentÔ_Ô€of€such€duties€by€means€of€legal€justifications.€HeÐ qÁ Ðsubmits€that€compliance€with€professional€duties€never€constituted€a€criminal€offence€under€GDRÐ Zª Ðlaw€since€it€was€not€contrary€to€the€interests€of€society,€as€required€by€section€1,€paragraph€1,€of€theÐ C“ ÐCriminal€Code€(GDR).€On€the€contrary,€non„compliance€with€service€regulations€or€ordersÐ ,| Ðgoverning€the€protection€of€the€state€borders€itself€entailed€criminal€responsibility,€the€onlyÐ e Ðexception€pertaining€to€cases€where€the€order€manifestly€violated€the€recognized€rules€of€publicÐ þN Ðinternational€law€or€a€criminal€statute€(section€258€of€the€GDRððs€Criminal€Code).Ð ç 7 ÐÌ5.3à  àThe€author€contends€that€international€law€did€not€prohibit€the€installation€of€mines€alongÐ ¹" ! Ðthe€border€between€two€sovereign€states€which,€moreover,€marked€the€demarcation€line€between€theÐ ¢#ò" Ðtwo€largest€military€alliances€in€history€and€had€been€ordered€by€the€Commander„in„chief€of€theÐ ‹$Û# ÐWarsaw€Pact.€He€notes€that€the€mines€were€only€used€in€military€exclusion€zones,€were€clearlyÐ t%Ä $ Ðindicated€by€warning€signs,€and€that€involuntary€access€was€prevented€by€high€fences.€He€furtherÐ ]&­!% Ðclaims€that,€when€considering€the€second€periodic€report€of€the€GDR€in€1983,€the€Committee€foundÐ F'–"& Ðthe€East€German€system€of€border€control€to€be€in€conformity€with€the€Covenant.€Ð /(#' ÐÌ5.4à  àFurthermore,€the€author€argues€that€criminal€intent€required€the€apparent€and€wilful€disregardÐ *Q%) Ðof€certain€basic€social€norms,€which€obviously€was€not€the€case€in€instances€of€compliance€withÐ ê*:&* Ðoneððs€professional€duties.Ð Ó+#'+ ÐÌ5.5à  àAccording€to€the€author,€at€the€time€of€the€entry€into€force€of€the€Unification€Treaty€on€3Ð ¥-õ(- ÐOctober€1990,€no€basis€for€prosecuting€his€acts€existed.€The€legal€system€of€the€GDR€did€not€provideÐ ° Ðfor€incurring€criminal€responsibility€on€the€sole€basis€of€natural€law€concepts,€which€had€noÐ ™é Ðfoundation€in€the€GDRððs€positive€law.€When€the€FRG€agreed€to€include€the€prohibition€of€theÐ ‚Ò Ðretroactive€application€of€its€criminal€law€in€the€Unification€Treaty,€it€did€so€in€the€light€of€theÐ k» Ðhistorically€unique€chance€to€unify€both€German€States,€accepting€that€its€own€concepts€of€justiceÐ T¤ Ðcould€not€be€applied€to€acts€committed€in€the€former€GDR.€The€author€concludes€that€his€conviction,Ð =  Ðtherefore,€lacked€a€legal€basis€in€the€Unification€Treaty.Ð & v ÐÌ5.6à  àWith€respect€to€the€reference€to€ð ðinternational€lawðð€in€article€15,€paragraph€1,€and€theÐ ø H Ðlimitation€clause€in€article€15,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant,€the€author€submits€that€at€the€materialÐ á 1  Ðtime,€his€acts€were€not€criminal€under€international€law,€nor€under€the€general€principles€of€lawÐ Ê   Ðrecognized€by€the€community€of€nations.Ð ³  ÐÌ5.7à  àRegarding€the€alleged€violation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€the€author€claims€that€he€hadÐ …Õ  Ðbeen€discriminated€against€as€a€former€citizen€of€the€GDR€because€the€German€courts€failed€to€applyÐ n¾  Ðthe€statutory€provisions€of€the€FRG€relating€to€the€use€of€firearms,€which€stipulate€that€theÐ W§  Ðknowledge€of€the€danger€of€such€arms€did€not€imply€an€intent€to€kill,€to€his€case,€and€insteadÐ @ Ðpresumed€that€he€had€accepted€the€death€of€border€violators€as€a€consequence€of€his€ordersÐ )y Ðpertaining€to€the€use€of€firearms.Ð b ÐÌ5.8à  àThe€author€states€that€he€has€exhausted€all€available€domestic€remedies€and€that€the€sameÐ ä4 Ðmatter€is€not€being€examined€under€another€procedure€of€international€investigation€or€settlement.Ð Í ÐÌòòState€Partyððs€observations€on€admissibility€and€merits:óóÐ Ÿï ÐÌ6.1à  àBy€òònote€Ô_ÔverbaleÔ_Ôóó€of€5€September€2001,€the€State€party€made€its€submission€on€theÐ qÁ Ðadmissibility€and€merits€of€the€communication.€It€confirms€the€facts€of€the€case€as€submitted€by€theÐ Zª Ðauthor.€However,€it€disputes€the€allegation€that€the€authorððs€conviction€violated€articles€15€and€26Ð C“ Ðof€the€Covenant.Ð ,| ÐÌ6.2à  àAs€to€the€alleged€violation€of€article€15€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€recalls€that€theÐ þN ÐRegional€Court€of€Berlin€found€that€the€authorððs€acts€were€punishable€under€GDR€law€at€the€timeÐ ç 7 Ðof€their€commission.€It€quotes€extensively€from€a€landmark€decision€of€the€Federal€Courtòò19óó,€whichÐ Ð!   Ðis€also€cited€in€the€judgment€of€the€Berlin€Regional€Courtòò20óó.€According€to€that€decision,€the€legalÐ ¹" ! Ðjustification€in€section€27,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Border€Act,€as€applied€in€the€GDRððs€state€practice,Ð ¢#ò" Ðhad€to€be€disregarded€in€the€application€of€the€law€because€it€violated€basic€notions€of€justice€andÐ ‹$Û# Ðhumanity€in€such€an€intolerable€manner€that€the€positive€law€must€give€way€to€justice€(so„calledÐ t%Ä $ ÐòòÔ_ÔRadbruchÔ_Ô€formulaóóòò21óó).€In€assessing€the€conflict€with€material€justice,€the€Court€refers€to€the€Covenant,Ð ]&­!% Ðin€particular€articles€6€and€12,€as€ð ðmore€specific€criteriaðð€for€that€assessment,€concluding€that€theÐ F'–"& Ðrestrictive€visa€policy€of€the€GDR€was€inconsistent€with€the€limitations€clause€in€article€12,Ð /(#' Ðparagraph€3,€of€the€Covenant€since€it€made€the€exception€to€the€freedom€to€leave€oneððs€own€countryÐ )h$( Ðthe€general€rule,€thereby€ignoring€the€close€ties€between€the€Germans€from€both€States€who€belongedÐ *Q%) Ðto€one€and€the€same€nation.€Similarly,€the€Court€found€the€use€of€firearms€against€border€violators,Ð ê*:&* Ðin€its€unprecedented€perfection,€to€be€inconsistent€with€article€6,€since€it€was€disproportionate€to€theÐ Ó+#'+ Ðitself€illegitimate€aim€of€deterring€third€persons€from€crossing€the€border€without€authorization.€OnÐ ¼, (, Ðthese€premises,€the€Court€held€that€section€27,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Border€Act€had€to€be€disregardedÐ ¥-õ(- Ðas€a€ground€for€justification€because€the€GDR€itself€should€have€interpreted€that€provisionÐ ° Ðrestrictively€on€the€basis€of€its€international€obligations,€its€constitutional€provisions€and€theÐ ™é Ðprinciple€of€proportionality€laid€down€in€article€30,€paragraph€2,€of€the€GDR€Constitution€and€inÐ ‚Ò Ðsection€27,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Border€Act.€In€the€Courtððs€opinion,€section€27,€paragraph€2,€firstÐ k» Ðsentence,€had€to€be€construed€as€follows:€ð ðThe€border€guard€was€allowed€to€use€a€firearm€to€preventÐ T¤ Ðflight€in€the€cases€referred€to€there;€but€the€ground€for€justification€met€its€limits€when,€withÐ =  Ðconditional€or€unconditional€intent€to€kill,€shots€were€fired€on€a€refugee€who,€in€the€circumstances,Ð & v Ðwas€unarmed€and€also€did€not€otherwise€constitute€a€danger€to€the€life€and€limb€of€others.ððÐ  _ ÐÌ6.3à  àThe€State€party€invokes€another€judgmentòò22óó,€in€which€the€Federal€Court€recalled€that€theÐ á 1  ÐGDR€had€always€stated€that€it€endorsed€the€principles€of€the€United€Nations€and€that€article€91€ofÐ Ê   Ðthe€GDR€Constitution€declared€the€generally€recognized€rules€of€international€law€on€the€punishmentÐ ³  Ðof€crimes€against€humanity€and€of€war€crimes€to€be€directly€applicable€law.€The€State€partyÐ œì  Ðconcludes€from€both€judgments€that€the€Federal€Court€did€not,€therefore,€rely€on€international€law,Ð …Õ  Ðbut€derived€its€assessment€that€the€authorððs€acts€were€punishable€from€the€domestic€law€of€the€GDR.Ð n¾  ÐThe€fact€that€these€offences€were€not€prosecuted€in€the€GDR€does€not€imply€that€they€did€notÐ W§  Ðconstitute€criminal€offences.Ð @ ÐÌ6.4à  à€The€State€party€refers€to€the€Federal€Constitutional€Courtððs€landmark€decisionòò23óó€on€the€issue,Ð b Ðwhich€emphasized€that,€in€the€absence€of€a€legitimate€expectation€not€to€be€punished,€the€prohibitionÐ ûK Ðof€the€retroactive€application€of€criminal€laws€in€article€103,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Basic€Law€was€notÐ ä4 Ðapplicable€to€situations€where€the€other€state€(the€GDR)€made€provision€for€criminal€offences€toÐ Í Ðcover€the€most€serious€criminal€wrongs,€but€at€the€same€time€excluded€criminal€liability€throughÐ ¶ Ðgrounds€of€justification€which€went€beyond€the€written€norms,€instigated€such€wrongs,€and€violatedÐ Ÿï Ðhuman€rights€recognized€by€the€community€of€nations.€In€the€interest€of€material€justice,€the€strictÐ ˆØ Ðapplication€of€article€103,€paragraph€2,€must€give€way.€Otherwise€the€administration€of€criminalÐ qÁ Ðjustice€in€the€Federal€Republic€would€run€counter€to€its€own€rule€of€law€premises.€Although€theÐ Zª Ðwording€of€the€GDRððs€provisions€on€the€use€of€firearms€at€the€inner„German€border€correspondedÐ C“ Ðto€that€of€the€FRGððs€provisions€on€the€use€of€force,€the€written€law€of€the€GDR€was,€in€fact,€eclipsedÐ ,| Ðby€the€requirements€of€political€expediency,€which€subordinated€the€individualððs€right€to€life€to€theÐ e ÐStateððs€interest€in€preventing€the€unauthorized€crossing€of€its€borders.€In€the€absence€of€anyÐ þN Ðadmissible€justification€for€the€border€killings,€the€definition€of€homicide€in€sections€112€and€113Ð ç 7 Ðof€the€Criminal€Code€applied€to€the€authorððs€acts.Ð Ð!   ÐÌ6.5à  àThe€State€party€recalls€that,€in€accordance€with€the€Committeeððs€jurisprudence,€it€is€primarilyÐ ¢#ò" Ðfor€the€courts€and€authorities€of€the€State€party€to€interpret€and€apply€domestic€law.€Only€if€suchÐ ‹$Û# Ðinterpretation€or€application€is€arbitrary€may€the€Committee€intervene.€The€decisions€of€the€GermanÐ t%Ä $ Ðcourts€with€regard€to€the€author€were,€however,€not€arbitrary.Ð ]&­!% ÐÌ6.6à  àThe€State€party€submits€that€article€15€of€the€Covenant€only€applies€if€the€person€concernedÐ /(#' Ðcannot€reasonably€ascertain,€from€the€wording€of€the€law,€that€his€or€her€acts€are€punishable€and€alsoÐ )h$( Ðcannot€foresee€that€he€could€be€held€criminally€responsible€for€his€acts.€Given€the€authorððs€positionÐ *Q%) Ðas€a€trained€and€qualified,€high„ranking€ð ðmilitary€scientistðð,€it€should€have€been€obvious€to€him€thatÐ ê*:&* Ðhis€orders€were€contrary€to€articles€6€and€12€of€the€Covenant,€and€that€he€could€be€prosecuted€forÐ Ó+#'+ Ðhis€acts,€should€the€political€circumstances€in€the€GDR€change.Ð ¼, (, ÐòòÐ ¥-õ(- Ðóó6.7à  àThe€State€party€rejects€the€authorððs€claim€that€the€Committee€never€found€the€GDRððs€systemÐ ° Ðof€border€control€to€be€in€violation€of€the€Covenant€and€recalls€that,€prior€to€1992,€the€CommitteeÐ ™é Ðdid€not€adopt€concluding€observations€on€the€human€rights€situation€in€reporting€States€parties.Ð ‚Ò ÐHowever,€when€the€former€GDR€presented€its€first€and€second€periodic€reports€before€theÐ k» ÐCommittee€in€1978€and€in€1984,€several€Committee€members€expressed€clear€criticism€with€regardÐ T¤ Ðto€the€system€of€border€control.€The€author€should€also€have€noted€the€disapproval€of€the€€systemÐ =  Ðof€border€control€in€the€practice€of€international€organizations,€in€particular€the€appearance€of€theÐ & v Ðformer€GDR€on€the€ð ð1503„listðð€of€the€Commission€on€Human€Rights,€from€1981€to€1983,€preciselyÐ  _ Ðbecause€of€border€killings€and€violations€of€article€13€of€the€Universal€Declaration€of€Human€Rights.Ð ø H ÐÌ6.8€à  àThe€State€party€concludes€that,€in€line€with€the€Committeeððs€General€Comment€No.€6òò24óó€asÐ Ê   Ðwell€as€its€consistent€jurisprudenceòò25óó,€it€is€legally€obliged€under€article€6,€paragraph€1,€of€theÐ ³  ÐCovenant€to€prosecute€and€punish€those€who€arbitrarily€deprived€citizens€of€the€former€GDR€of€theirÐ œì  Ðlives.€Subsidiarily,€it€submits€that€the€authorððs€conviction€could€be€covered€by€article€15,€paragraphÐ …Õ  Ð2,€of€the€Covenant€if€his€acts€were€criminal€at€the€material€time,€according€to€the€general€principlesÐ n¾  Ðof€justice€recognized€by€the€community€of€nations.€In€that€regard,€the€State€party€emphasizes€theÐ W§  Ðclose€link€between€the€Nuremberg€Principles€and€the€òòÔ_ÔRadbruchÔ_Ô€formulaóó€and€contends€that€theÐ @ Ðsystem€of€border€control€led€to€grave€violations€of€human€rights.Ð )y ÐÌ6.9à  àWith€respect€to€the€alleged€violation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€the€State€party€submitsÐ ûK Ðthat€the€authorððs€prosecution€was€solely€based€on€his€personal€involvement€in€the€system€of€borderÐ ä4 Ðcontrol€and€that€the€prohibition€of€discrimination€does€not€mean€that€persons€cannot€be€heldÐ Í Ðcriminally€responsible.€Criminal€responsibility€for€offences€under€GDR€law€could€be€incurred€byÐ ¶ Ðanyone€subject€to€the€GDRððs€criminal€law,€irrespective€of€his€or€her€citizenship.Ð Ÿï ÐÌòòComments€by€the€author:Ð qÁ ÐÌóó7.1à  àBy€letter€of€14€November€2001,€the€author€responded€to€the€State€partyððs€submission.€HeÐ C“ Ðreiterates€the€arguments€stated€in€his€initial€communication€and€adds€that€article€15€of€the€CovenantÐ ,| Ðrequired€the€German€courts€to€apply€the€GDRððs€law€of€criminal€procedure€and,€in€particular,€its€lawÐ e Ðof€burden€of€proof€to€establish€his€criminal€liability.€Under€the€GDRððs€criminal€law,€intent€to€killÐ þN Ðcould€not€be€presumed€on€the€basis€of€oneððs€knowledge€of€the€possible€lethal€consequences€of€theÐ ç 7 Ðuse€of€firearms.€Instead,€the€expectation€that€a€border€violator€would€only€be€injured€or€would€refrainÐ Ð!   Ðfrom€climbing€over€mine€installations€precluded€such€intent.€Self„endangering€behaviour€alwaysÐ ¹" ! Ðdisrupted€the€chain€of€cause€and€effect€required€to€establish€criminal€liability.Ð ¢#ò" ÐÌ7.2à  àThe€author€rejects€the€State€partyððs€contention€that€the€GDRððs€written€norms€were€eclipsedÐ t%Ä $ Ðby€orders€which€left€no€room€for€weighing€the€use€of€firearms€against€the€principle€ofÐ ]&­!% Ðproportionality,€and€submits€that€all€military€orders€and€service€regulations€required€soldiers€to€saveÐ F'–"& Ðthe€life€of€border€violators,€whenever€possible.Ð /(#' ÐÌ7.3à  àFurthermore,€he€argues€that,€even€in€the€hypothesis€that€Ô_ÔfulfillmentÔ_Ô€of€military€dutiesÐ *Q%) Ðconstituted€a€criminal€offence€under€GDR€law,€the€Unification€Treaty€precluded€the€German€courtsÐ ê*:&* Ðfrom€negating€the€existing€legal€justifications€solely€because€these€justifications€prevented€criminalÐ Ó+#'+ Ðprosecution€of€such€acts.€The€fact€that€German€courts€systematically€violated€the€Unification€TreatyÐ ¼, (, Ðdoes€not€make€the€State€partyððs€position€any€more€justifiable.Ð ¥-õ(- Ї7.4à  àThe€author€admits€that€the€GDR€was€bound€by€its€legal€obligations€under€the€Covenant.Ð ° ÐHowever,€since€he€was€not€identical€with€the€GDR€as€a€subject€of€international€law,€the€CovenantÐ ™é Ðcould€not€create€rights€or€duties€for€him,€let€alone€establish€his€criminal€liability,€in€the€absence€ofÐ ‚Ò Ðan€incorporation€of€that€instrument€into€the€GDRððs€domestic€law.€He€indicates€that,€pursuant€toÐ k» Ðarticle€2,€paragraph€2€(b),€of€the€European€Convention€for€the€Protection€of€Human€Rights€andÐ T¤ ÐFundamental€Freedoms,€deprivation€of€life€does€not€violate€the€human€right€to€life€when€it€resultsÐ =  Ðfrom€the€use€of€force€which€is€absolutely€necessary€in€order€to€effect€a€lawful€arrest€or€to€preventÐ & v Ðthe€escape€of€a€person€lawfully€detained.Ð  _ ÐÌ7.5à  àThe€author€submits€that€the€installation€of€mines€at€the€inner„German€border€was€aÐ á 1  Ðpreventive€military€measure€against€a€possible€attack€by€NATO€forces.€He€denies€that€the€minesÐ Ê   Ðwere€deployed€with€the€intent€to€kill€people.€Instead,€their€enclosure€by€fences€and€the€placementÐ ³  Ðof€clearly€visible€warning€signs€were€intended€to€deter€border€violators€from€entering€mined€areas.Ð œì  ÐNo€one€forced€border€violators€to€enter€the€mine€fields,€the€danger€of€which€was€known€to€them.€TheÐ …Õ  Ðauthor€recalls€that€border€guards€were€never€required€to€make€excessive€use€of€their€firearms.€BorderÐ n¾  Ðviolators€were€always€warned€by€shouts€to€stop€and€by€at€least€one€warning€shot.€They€could€alwaysÐ W§  Ðstop€their€attempt€to€cross€the€border€to€prevent€being€shot€at;€shots€were€always€aimed€at€their€feet.Ð @ ÐAccording€to€the€author,€the€death€of€persons€attempting€to€cross€the€border€was€an€exception€ratherÐ )y Ðthan€the€general€rule.Ð b ÐÌ€7.6à  àThe€author€argues€that,€because€of€the€complex€chain€of€orders,€a€high„ranking€member€ofÐ ä4 Ðthe€armed€forces€can€never€directly€control€the€use€of€firearms€in€each€individual€case,€but€is€limitedÐ Í Ðto€setting€out€the€requirements€for€such€use€which€have€to€be€respected€by€each€individual€soldier.Ð ¶ ÐAlthough€the€use€of€firearms€frequently€implies€a€risk€to€life,€ordering€such€use€cannot€be€equatedÐ Ÿï Ðto€intentionally€killing€the€person€concerned.€Furthermore,€the€author€argues€that€he€cannot€be€heldÐ ˆØ Ðresponsible€for€the€GDRððs€visa€policy.Ð qÁ ÐÌ7.7à  àThe€author€submits€that€the€State€partyððs€Parliament€(òòBundestagóó)€enacted€a€law€in€1993Ð C“ Ðwhich€retroactively€stayed€the€statutory€limitations€contained€in€sections€82€and€83€of€the€CriminalÐ ,| ÐCode€(GDR)€for€the€period€during€which€offences€committed€in€relation€to€the€system€of€borderÐ e Ðcontrol€had€not€been€prosecuted€in€the€GDR€for€political€reasons.€He€argues€that€the€State€partyÐ þN Ðignored€the€adoption€by€the€State€Council€(òòÔ_ÔStaatsratÔ_Ôóó),€the€GDR€government,€of€a€general€amnesty,Ð ç 7 Ðdated€17€July€1987,€which€also€applied€to€acts€of€homicide€committed€prior€to€7€October€1987.Ð Ð!   ÐÌòòIssues€and€proceedings€before€the€Committee:Ð ¢#ò" ÐóóòòÌConsideration€of€admissibilityóóÐ r% $ ÐÌ8.1€Before€considering€any€claim€contained€in€a€communication,€the€Human€Rights€CommitteeÐ B'’"& Ðmust,€in€accordance€with€rule€87€of€its€rules€of€procedure,€decide€whether€or€not€the€case€isÐ +({#' Ðadmissible€under€the€Optional€Protocol€to€the€Covenant.Ð )d$( ÐòòÌóó8.2à  àThe€Committee€has€ascertained,€as€required€under€article€5,€paragraph€2€(a),€of€the€OptionalÐ æ*6&* ÐProtocol,€that€the€same€matter€is€not€being€examined€under€another€procedure€of€internationalÐ Ï+'+ Ðinvestigation€or€settlement.Ð ¸,(, ÐÐ ¡-ñ(- Ð8.3à  àThe€Committee€also€notes€that€the€State€party€did€not€contest€the€admissibility€of€theÐ ° Ðcommunication.€It€therefore€considers€that€there€is€no€obstacle€to€the€admissibility€of€theÐ ™é Ðcommunication,€and,€accordingly,€decides€that€the€communication€is€admissible€insofar€as€it€raisesÐ ‚Ò Ðissues€under€articles€15€and€26€of€the€Covenant.€Ð k» ÐÌñºñò òñºñòòConsideration€of€the€meritsñºñó óñºñóóÐ =  ÐÌ9.1à  àThe€Human€Rights€Committee€has€considered€the€present€communication€in€the€light€of€allÐ  ] Ðthe€information€made€available€to€it€by€the€parties,€as€provided€in€article€5,€paragraph€1,€of€theÐ ö F ÐOptional€Protocol.Ð ß /  ÐÌ9.2à  àAs€regards€the€authorððs€claim€under€article€15,€the€Committee€is€called€upon€to€determineÐ ±  Ðwhether€the€conviction€of€the€author€for€homicide€and€attempted€homicide€by€the€German€courtsÐ šê  Ðamounts€to€a€violation€of€that€article.€Ð ƒÓ  ÐÌ9.3à  àAt€the€same€time,€the€Committee€notes€that€the€specific€nature€of€any€violation€of€article€15,Ð U¥  Ðparagraph€1,€of€the€Covenant€requires€it€to€review€whether€the€interpretation€and€application€of€theÐ >Ž Ðrelevant€criminal€law€by€the€domestic€courts€in€a€specific€case€appear€to€disclose€a€violation€of€theÐ 'w Ðprohibition€of€retroactive€punishment€or€punishment€otherwise€not€based€on€law.€In€doing€so,€theÐ ` ÐCommittee€will€limit€itself€to€the€question€of€whether€the€authorððs€acts,€at€the€material€time€ofÐ ùI Ðcommission,€constituted€sufficiently€defined€criminal€offences€under€the€criminal€law€of€the€GDRÐ â2 Ðor€under€international€law.òò26óó€Ð Ë ÐÌ9.4à  àThe€killings€took€place€in€the€context€of€a€system€which€effectively€denied€to€the€populationÐ í Ðof€the€GDR€the€right€freely€to€leave€oneððs€own€country.€The€authorities€and€individuals€enforcingÐ †Ö Ðthis€system€were€prepared€to€use€lethal€force€to€prevent€individuals€from€non„violently€exercisingÐ o¿ Ðtheir€right€to€leave€their€own€country.€The€Committee€recalls€that€even€when€used€as€a€last€resortÐ X¨ Ðlethal€force€may€only€be€used,€under€article€6€of€the€Covenant,€to€meet€a€proportionate€threat.€TheÐ A‘ ÐCommittee€further€recalls€that€States€parties€are€required€to€prevent€arbitrary€killing€by€their€ownÐ *z Ðsecurity€forces.òò27óó€It€finally€notes€that€the€disproportionate€use€of€lethal€force€was€criminal€accordingÐ c Ðto€the€general€principles€of€law€recognized€by€the€community€of€nations€already€at€the€time€whenÐ üL Ðthe€author€committed€his€acts.Ð å 5 ÐÌ9.5à  àThe€State€party€correctly€argues€that€the€killings€violated€the€GDRððs€obligations€underÐ ·"! Ðinternational€human€rights€law,€in€particular€article€6€of€the€Covenant.€It€further€contends€that€thoseÐ  #ð" Ðsame€obligations€required€the€prosecution€of€those€suspected€of€responsibility€for€the€killings.€TheÐ ‰$Ù# ÐState€partyððs€courts€have€concluded€that€these€killings€violated€the€homicide€provisions€of€the€GDRÐ r% $ ÐCriminal€Code.€Those€provisions€required€to€be€interpreted€and€applied€in€the€context€of€the€relevantÐ [&«!% Ðprovisions€of€the€law,€such€as€section€95€of€the€Criminal€Code€excluding€statutory€defences€in€theÐ D'”"& Ðcase€of€human€rights€violations€(see€paragraph€3.3)€and€the€Border€Act€regulating€the€use€of€forceÐ -(}#' Ðat€the€border€(see€paragraph€3.5).€The€State€partyððs€courts€interpreted€the€provisions€of€the€BorderÐ )f$( ÐAct€on€the€use€of€force€as€not€excluding€from€the€scope€of€the€crime€of€homicide€theÐ ÿ)O%) Ðdisproportionateòò€óóuse€of€lethal€or€potentially€lethal€force€in€violation€of€those€human€rightsÐ è*8&* Ðobligations.€Accordingly,€the€provisions€of€the€Border€Act€did€not€save€the€killings€from€beingÐ Ñ+!'+ Ðconsidered€by€the€courts€as€violating€the€homicide€provisions€of€the€Criminal€Code.€The€CommitteeÐ º, (, Ðcannot€find€this€interpretation€of€the€law€and€the€conviction€of€the€author€based€on€it€to€beÐ £-ó(- Ðincompatible€with€article€15€of€the€Covenant.Ð ° ÐÌ10.à  àWith€regard€to€the€author's€allegation€of€a€violation€of€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€theÐ ‚Ò ÐCommittee€notes€that€the€Treaty€on€the€Establishment€of€a€Unified€Germany€provides€for€theÐ k» Ðapplicability€of€the€criminal€law€of€the€former€GDR€to€all€acts€committed€on€the€territory€of€theÐ T¤ Ðformer€GDR,€prior€to€the€unification€becoming€effective.€The€Committee€takes€note€of€the€author'sÐ =  Ðallegation€that€certain€provisions€of€the€State€partyððs€law€that€would€have€been€applied€on€the€useÐ & v Ðof€firearms€by€officials€of€the€FRG€had€not€been€applied€in€his€case.€However,€the€CommitteeÐ  _ Ðobserves€that€the€author€has€failed€to€demonstrate€that€persons€in€a€similar€situation€in€the€formerÐ ø H ÐGDR€or€FRG€have,€in€fact,€been€treated€differently.€Therefore,€the€Committee€concludes€that€he€hasÐ á 1  Ðnot€substantiated€his€claim€and€considers€that€there€has€been€no€violation€of€article€26€in€this€respect.Ð Ê   ÐÌ11.à  àThe€Human€Rights€Committee,€acting€under€article€5,€paragraph€4,€of€the€Optional€ProtocolÐ œì  Ðto€the€International€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights,€is€of€the€view€that€the€facts€before€it€doÐ …Õ  Ðnot€disclose€a€violation€of€articles€15€and€26€of€the€Covenant.€Ð n¾  ÐÌÔ_Ôð[ ðAdoptedÔ_Ô€in€English,€French€and€Spanish,€the€English€text€being€the€original€version.€SubsequentlyÐ @ Ðto€be€issued€in€Arabic,€Chinese€and€Russian€as€part€of€the€Committeeððs€annual€report€to€the€GeneralÐ )y ÐÔ_ÔAssembly.ð] ðÔ_ÔÐ b ÐÌ*€€Made€public€by€decision€of€the€Human€Rights€Committee.Ð ä4 ÐÌ**€€The€following€members€of€the€Committee€participated€in€the€examination€of€the€presentÐ ¶ Ðcommunication:€€Mr.€Ô_ÔAbdelfattahÔ_Ô€Amor,€Mr.€Ô_ÔPrafullachandraÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔNatwarlalÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBhagwatiÔ_Ô,€Mr.€AlfredoÐ Ÿï ÐÔ_ÔCastilleroÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔHoyosÔ_Ô,€Mr.€Franco€Ô_ÔDepasqualeÔ_Ô,€Mr.€Maurice€Ô_ÔGllÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔAhanhanzoÔ_Ô,€Mr.€Walter€Ô_ÔKlinÔ_Ô,€Mr.Ð ˆØ ÐAhmed€Ô_ÔTawfikÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔKhalilÔ_Ô,€Mr.€Rafael€Ô_ÔRivasÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPosadaÔ_Ô,€Sir€Nigel€Ô_ÔRodleyÔ_Ô,€Mr.€Martin€Ô_ÔScheininÔ_Ô,€Mr.€IvanÐ qÁ ÐShearer,€Mr.Ô_ÔHipð;ðlitoÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔSolariÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔYrigoyenÔ_Ô,€Ms.€Ruth€Wedgwood,€Mr.€Roman€Ô_ÔWieruszewskiÔ_Ô€and€Mr.Ð Zª ÐMaxwell€Ô_ÔYaldenÔ_Ô.Ð C“ ÐÌÌòòNotesóó:Ð þN ÐÌ*/€€€The€Covenant€and€the€Optional€Protocol€to€the€Covenant€entered€into€force€for€the€State€PartyÐ Ð!   Ðon€23€March€1976€and€25€November€1993€respectively.€Upon€ratification€of€the€Optional€Protocol,Ð ¹" ! Ðthe€State€Party€entered€the€following€reservation€concerning€article€5,€paragraph€2€(a):€"The€FederalÐ ¢#ò" ÐRepublic€of€Germany€formulates€a€reservation€concerning€article€5€paragraph€2€(a)€to€the€effect€thatÐ ‹$Û# Ðthe€competence€of€the€Committee€shall€not€apply€to€communications€Ð t%Ä $ Ða)€which€have€already€been€considered€under€another€procedure€of€international€investigation€orÐ ]&­!% Ðsettlement,€or€Ð F'–"& Ðb)€by€means€of€which€a€violation€of€rights€is€reprimanded€having€its€origin€in€events€occurring€priorÐ /(#' Ðto€the€entry€into€force€of€the€Optional€Protocol€for€the€Federal€Republic€of€GermanyÐ )h$( Ðc)€by€means€of€which€a€violation€of€article€26€of€the€[said€Covenant]€is€reprimanded,€if€and€insofarÐ *Q%) Ðas€the€reprimanded€violation€refers€to€rights€other€than€those€guaranteed€under€the€aforementionedÐ ê*:&* ÐCovenant."Ð Ó+#'+ ÐÌ1/€€Referred€to€as€ð ðmanslaughterðð€in€the€State€partyððs€submissions.Ð ¥-õ(- Ї2/€€The€English€translations€of€these€excerpts€are€based€on€the€translations€provided€by€the€StateÐ ° Ðparty.Ð ™é ÐÌ3/€€Order€no.€80/79€of€6€October€1979€(excerpts).Ð k» ÐÌ4/€€Order€no.€80/81€of€6€October€1981€(excerpts).Ð =  ÐÌ5/€€Order€no.€80/83€of€10€October€1983€(excerpts).Ð  _ ÐÌ6/€€Order€no.€80/84€of€9€October€1984€(excerpts).Ð á 1  ÐÌ7/€€Order€no.€80/85€of€18€October€1985€(excerpts).Ð ³  ÐÌ8/€€Order€no.€80/86€of€15€October€1986€(excerpts).Ð …Õ  ÐÌ9/€€€See€the€Federal€Constitutional€Courtððs€decision€of€21€July€1997,€at€pp.€4„5€(referring€to€theÐ W§  ÐFederal€Constitutional€Courtððs€decision€of€24€October€1996€ð!ð€Ô_ÔBVerfGEÔ_Ô€95,€96).Ð @ ÐÌ10/€€òòCf.óó€Ministry€of€Justice€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic€(ed.),€òòÔ_ÔStrafrechtÔ_Ô€der€Ô_ÔDeutschenÔ_ÔÐ b ÐÔ_ÔDemokratischenÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔRepublikÔ_Ô:€Ô_ÔKommentarÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔzumÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔStrafgesetzbuchÔ_Ôóó,€Berlin€1987,€p.€475.Ð ûK ÐÌ11/€€òòIbid.óóÐ Í ÐÌ12/€€òòIbid.óó,€p.€474.Ð Ÿï ÐÌ13/€€òòCf.€óóÔ_ÔAlexyÔ_Ô,€Robert,€òòÔ_ÔMauerschtzenÔ_Ô€ð!ð€Ô_ÔzumÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔVerhltnisÔ_Ô€von€Ô_ÔRechtÔ_Ô,€Moral€und€Ô_ÔStrafbarkeitÔ_Ôóó€(1993),Ð qÁ Ðat€p.€11;€Brunner,€G.,€ð?ðÔ_ÔRechtÔ_Ô€auf€Ô_ÔLebenÔ_Ôð ð,€in:€Brunner,€G.€(ed.),€òòÔ_ÔMenschenrechteÔ_Ô€in€der€DDRóó€(1989),Ð Zª Ðat€p.€120;òò€óóÔ_ÔPolakiewiczÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔJrgÔ_Ô,€ð?ðÔ_ÔVerfassungsÔ_Ô„€und€Ô_ÔvlkerrechtlicheÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔAspekteÔ_Ô€der€Ô_ÔstrafrechtlichenÔ_ÔÐ C“ ÐÔ_ÔAhndungÔ_Ô€des€Ô_ÔSchu waffeneinsatzesÔ_Ô€an€der€Ô_ÔinnerdeutschenÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔGrenzeÔ_Ôð ð,€òòÔ_ÔEuropischeÔ_ÔÐ ,| ÐÔ_ÔGrundrechtezeitschriftÔ_Ôóó€1992,€at€p.€179.Ð e ÐÌ14/€€€See€Ô_ÔAlexyÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔMauerschtzenÔ_Ôóó,€at€p.€11.Ð ç 7 ÐÌ15/€€€See€òòibid.óó,€at€pp.€11„12.Ð ¹" ! ÐÌ16/€€€Article€51€of€the€GDR€Constitution€reads:€ð ðParliament€(the€òòÔ_ÔVolkskammerÔ_Ôóó)€approves€StateÐ ‹$Û# Ðtreaties€of€the€German€Democratic€Republic€and€other€international€treaties,€insofar€as€they€modifyÐ t%Ä $ ÐActs€of€Parliament.€It€decides€upon€the€termination€of€such€treaties.ððÐ ]&­!% ÐÌ17/€€€See€Ô_ÔAlexyÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔMauerschtzenÔ_Ôóó,€at€pp.€16„17€(with€further€references).Ð /(#' ÐÌ18/€€€Ô_ÔBVerfGEÔ_Ô€95,€96€(ð ðÔ_ÔMauerschtzenÔ_Ôðð).Ð *Q%) ÐÌ19/€€€Ô_ÔBGHStÔ_Ô€39,€p.€1,€at€pp.€15€òòet€seq.óóÐ Ó+#'+ ÐÌ20/€€€See€pp.€104„106€of€the€Berlin€Regional€Courtððs€judgment€of€10€September€1996.Ð ¥-õ(- Ї21/€€€See€Ô_ÔRadbruchÔ_Ô,€Gustav,€ð ðÔ_ÔGesetzlichesÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔUnrechtÔ_Ô€und€Ô_ÔbergesetzlichesÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔRechtÔ_Ôðð,€òòÔ_ÔSddeutscheÔ_ÔÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔJuristenÔ_Ô„Ô_ÔZeitungÔ_Ôóó€(1946),€p.€105,€at€p.€107.Ð ™é ÐÌ22/€€€Ô_ÔBGHStÔ_Ô€40,€p.€241,€at€pp.€245€òòet€seq.óóÐ k» ÐÌ23/€€€Ô_ÔBVerfGEÔ_Ô€95,€p.€96,€at€pp.€133€òòet€seq.óóÐ =  ÐÌ24/€€See€Human€Rights€Committee,€16òòthóó€session€(1982),€General€Comment€No.€6,€at€para.€3.Ð  _ ÐÌ25/€€€In€this€regard,€the€State€party€refers€to,€òòinter€aliaóó,€Communication€No.€161/1983,€òòJoaquinÐ á 1  ÐÔ_ÔHerreraÔ_Ô€Rubio€v.€Colombiaóó,€views€adopted€on€2€November€1987,€UN€Doc.€Ô_ÔCCPRÔ_Ô/C/31/D/161/1983,Ð Ê   Ðat€paras.€10.3€and€11.Ð ³  ÐÌ27/€€Human€Rights€Committee,€16th€session€(1982),€General€Comment€No.€6:€Article€6,€at€para.€3.Ð …Õ  ÐÌÓ{:Ó