’WPCŚ  !‹ĮĖ•¢Uęą#ģ#‚Ńś¶¦WY{·š’˜7ßp˜¤£qPł €T· &ž²n+ć3śUśn½– ®\z’dGŲ~ˆ²JsńÕkn¤½äø,zSŪXĻKŁuŅZU“ćmWżrŒck'}å¬v|¶©Ą’$ѼāöaŗŻY/¹ķ¦Móń©éƒ!'ją\E<ÖÉRJD!iÜmś Æj[Ūżh—mŠ]žA=„€ üB—Ä{rBü3HÅbmz1g먗QÅR"ģ™ģg(ݵ’J¹9‹Ž¤E+ۜō’EvÄ9Ŗ·mē»Ć2eŠz h„ļĢ~›nG›(“eķŪOĢłµśƒ·:Ō¹y}Ę©KµKr!t·*µŻÖīē’CµŲ`X›Óā¾=¤l‹²\”×·lœ;äŖ…oĪĢīnmvBGźĘŁZd=ū@yv?ó漟ÖUĖĻLkŻu9Ó.š7Öń(&bōŗŠŌH=Xež9kx1<¹¶ļ%-M÷ČÖ]‘‡g±·źóT WŻ„8@Ųv2÷ä]šŌØ‹œ>cš}YŹ=Ļ3śµG'{öŠaHB•ω/õP{üJJOó•² qց¹»Ī<Xææ~ 9ƒoéōĶfčśn]#ĮUN× %% 0:+ ^ e wq 4u ‰ ˜ mš ± N¹ E» » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » B½ ˜HP LaserJet 4P,ü,,,,,ü0&Öd9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(ūœ$””ŌUKUS.,Ō‹®g, &bœ+@Ɲ3|x ’U‹’ĄĄĄ  dŻ ƒūœ!ŻŌUKUS.,ŌŻ  ŻŌ_ŌÓ  ÓŌ‡¼’ģ»XXŌņ ņÓ! °įX›X°œX!ÓJAPAN€ó óŌ#†X¾ĄX»¼’ģI#ŌŠ ° ŠÓ  ÓĢĢņ ņCCPR€€A/37/40€Ō_Ō(1982)ó óŌ_ŌŠ œģ ŠĢĢÓ  Ó53.€€The€Committee€considered€the€initial€report€of€Japan€(CCPR/C/10/Add.1)€at€its€319ņņthóó,€320ņņthóó€andŠ ` ° Š324ņņthóó€meetings€held€on€20€and€22€October€1981€(CCPR/C/SR.€319,€320€and€324).Š L œ ŠĢ54.€€The€report€was€introduced€by€the€representative€of€the€State€party€who€pointed€out€that€anyŠ $ t  Šinternational€treaty€concluded€by€Japan€became€part€of€its€legal€framework;€that,€before€JapanŠ `  Šconcluded€any€treaty,€the€authorities€always€conducted€a€thorough€examination€of€its€provisions€and,Š üL  Šif€need€be,€modified€laws€and€regulations€in€accordance€with€the€provisions€of€the€treaty;€that€suchŠ č8  Šan€examination€had€taken€place€in€the€case€of€the€Covenant;€that€the€Japanese€Government€hadŠ Ō$  Šconcluded€that€no€discrepancy€existed€in€its€laws€and€regulations€to€warrant€any€such€amendments;Š Ą  Šand€that€all€the€rights€provided€for€in€the€Covenant€were€guaranteed€by€the€Constitution€and€the€lawsŠ ¬ü  Šand€regulations€in€force.€€The€representative€assured€the€Committee€that€his€delegation€would€do€itsŠ ˜č Šbest€to€co„operate€and€to€answer€all€questions€and€that,€if€it€could€not€do€so,€his€Government€wouldŠ „Ō Šsubmit€its€replies€to€the€Committee€at€a€later€date.Š pĄ ŠĢ55.€€Members€of€the€Committee€thanked€the€Government€of€Japan€for€submitting€its€report€in€timeŠ H˜ Šand€in€conformity€with€its€reporting€obligations.€€They€noted,€however,€that€the€report€was€too€briefŠ 4„ Šand€was€limited€to€questions€relating€to€the€legal€framework,€lacking€in€information€about€actualŠ  p Špractices€in€the€country.€€In€particular€it€was€asked€whether€any€of€the€long€traditions€of€the€countryŠ  \ Šhad€affected€the€implementation€of€the€rights€provided€for€the€by€the€Covenant.€€They€asked€whetherŠ ųH Šthe€Covenant€had€been€translated€into€Japanese;€whether€the€text€was€easily€obtainable;€whetherŠ ä4 Špolice€and€prison€personnel€and€civil€servants€were€apprised€of€the€Covenant€during€their€trainingŠ Š  Šand€of€the€obligations€it€imposed€on€the€State;€and€what€measures€were€being€taken€to€publicize€theŠ ¼  Šcontents€of€the€Covenant€and€to€make€the€general€public€aware€of€the€rights€conferred€by€it,Š Øų Šespecially€as€far€as€minorities€and€women€were€concerned.€€In€this€connection,€information€wasŠ ”ä Šrequested€on€the€role€played€during€the€š šHuman€Rights€Weekšš€by€the€Civil€Liberties€Bureau€and€theŠ € Š ŠCivil€Liberties€Commissioners,€mentioned€in€the€report,€in€promoting€awareness€of€human€rights€inŠ l!¼ Šschools,€universities,€trade€unions€and€political€parties.Š X"Ø  ŠĢ56.€€Commenting€on€the€statement€in€several€articles€of€the€Constitution€that€the€exercise€of€humanŠ 0$€" Šrights€in€Japan€could€be€š šrestricted€on€the€ground€of€the€public€welfarešš,€members€of€the€CommitteeŠ %l # Špointed€out€that€this€statement€was€not€in€accordance€with€the€Covenant€since€š špublic€welfarešš€wasŠ &X!$ Šnot€one€of€the€grounds€on€which€derogations€could€be€made.€€They€requested€explanations€on€theŠ ō&D"% Šconcept€of€š špublic€welfarešš€as€well€as€a€few€examples€of€its€application€where€it€affected€theŠ ą'0#& Šfreedom€of€the€individual.Š Ģ($' ŠĢ57.€€With€reference€to€article€1€of€the€Covenant,€satisfaction€was€expressed€at€the€statement€in€theŠ ¤*ō%) Šreport€to€the€effect€that€Japan€recognized€the€right€of€peoples€to€self„determination€and€workedŠ +ą&* Štowards€its€realization.€€It€was€asked€whether,€in€the€particular€cases€of€Namibia€and€Palestine,€theŠ |,Ģ'+ ŠJapanese€Government€had€done€all€that€it€could€have€done€in€the€international€context€to€ensure€thatŠ h-ø(, Šthe€peoples€concerned€enjoyed€their€right€to€self„determination;€what€steps€it€had€taken€to€discourageŠ ° ŠSouth€Africa€from€maintaining€its€domination€over€Namibia,€and€what€it€had€done€to€prevent€privateŠ œģ Šbusinesses€and€banks€from€collaborating€with€the€ņņapartheidóó€regime€of€South€Africa.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ58.€€Commenting€on€article€2€of€the€Covenant,€members€noted€that€whereas€this€article€stressed€theŠ `° Šobligation€of€States€parties€to€ensure€to€all€individuals€the€rights€recognized€in€the€Covenant,€withoutŠ L œ Šdistinction€of€any€kind,€certain€articles€of€the€Japanese€Constitution€referred€alternately€to€theŠ 8 ˆ Šš špeoplešš,€€š špersonsšš€or€€€š šnationalsšš,€and€it€was€asked€whether€the€difference€in€terminology€was€oneŠ $ t Šof€substance€or€incorrect€translation.€€In€this€connection,€reference€was€made€to€a€disadvantagedŠ  ` Šsocial€group€in€Japan€called€the€Burakumin,€which€was€known€to€have€suffered€from€discriminationŠ ü L  Šbased€on€certain€traditions,€and€it€was€asked€whether€persons€belonging€to€that€group€were€stillŠ č 8  Šdiscriminated€against€with€regard€to€marriage€and€the€education€of€children,€to€what€extent€the€StateŠ Ō$  Šwas€responsible€for€that€discrimination€and€what€it€was€doing€to€remedy€it.Š Ą  ŠĢ59.€€More€information€was€requested€on€the€actual€status€of€the€Covenant€in€the€legal€system€ofŠ ˜č  ŠJapan,€whose€Constitution€dated€from€1946,€on€whether€the€Constitution€contained€provisionsŠ „Ō  Šconcerning€the€relationship€between€national€law€and€treaty€obligations;€whether€the€Covenant€couldŠ pĄ Šbe€invoked€before€a€court,€and€whether€the€courts€and€the€administrative€authorities€were€bound€toŠ \¬ Šobserve€its€provisions€and€to€resort€to€it€in€interpreting€the€provisions€of€the€Constitution€andŠ H˜ ŠJapanese€legislation.€€It€was€observed€that€the€problem€seemed€to€be€more€one€of€how€to€ensure€thatŠ 4„ Šthe€provisions€of€domestic€law€were€actually€implemented€in€the€light€of€the€constraints€imposed€byŠ  p Šthe€countryššs€historical,€social€and€cultural€traditions€which€might€be€incompatible€with€theŠ  \ ŠCovenant.€€In€this€connection,€more€information€was€requested€on€the€remedies€available€in€casesŠ ųH Šof€violation€of€rights€and€it€was€asked€whether€any€conditions€were€attached€to€the€exercise€of€thoseŠ ä4 Šremedies;€whether€an€individual€could€bring€a€complaint€and€institute€criminal€proceedings;€whetherŠ Š  Šthe€authorities€were€bound€to€investigate€all€complaints€and€take€legal€action;€and€whether€anyŠ ¼  Šdispute€between€an€individual€and€the€public€administration€could€be€brought€before€the€courts€orŠ Øų Šwhether€that€remedy€was€available€in€only€certain€€specific€instances.€€It€was€also€asked€whether€theŠ ”ä Šconstitutionality€of€laws€could€be€raised€only€in€connection€with€a€specific€case€or€whether€it€couldŠ €Š Šbe€raised€by€itself.€€More€information€was€requested€on€the€Civil€Liberties€Bureau€and€the€11,000Š l¼ ŠCivil€Liberties€Commissioners€referred€to€in€the€report€and€particularly,€on€their€composition€andŠ X Ø Špowers,€their€relationship€with€the€public€administration,€the€judiciary€and€the€legislature€as€well€asŠ D!” Šon€how€the€Commissioners€were€chosen;€whether€they€were€civil€servants;€what€kind€of€proceduresŠ 0"€  Šthey€followed;€whether€aliens€could€avail€themselves€of€the€protection€of€the€Commissioners;€howŠ #l! Šmany€complaints€they€had€heard€and€what€means€were€available€to€them€for€reaching€a€settlementŠ $X" Šsince€their€decisions€were€not€binding.Š ō$D # ŠĢ60.€€As€regards€article€3€of€the€Covenant,€members€of€the€Committee€requested€information€on€theŠ Ģ&"% Šfactual€status€of€women€in€Japan,€on€the€results€obtained€to€date€under€the€National€Plan€of€ActionŠ ø'#& Šfor€Womenššs€Rights€mentioned€in€the€report,€on€the€deficiencies€that€the€plan€was€designed€toŠ ¤(ō#' Šcorrect,€on€how€the€right€to€equality€between€men€and€women,€particularly€in€relation€to€education,Š )ą$( Šemployment,€wages€and€career€prospects€was€ensured,€on€the€rights€enjoyed€under€the€NationalityŠ |*Ģ%) ŠLaw€by€women€married€to€foreigners€as€compared€with€the€rights€of€men€married€to€foreign€women,Š h+ø&* Šand€on€the€participation€of€women€in€the€conduct€of€public€affairs.Š T,¤'+ ŠŠ @-(, Š61.€€In€relation€to€article€6€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€pointed€out€that€control€of€food€andŠ ° Špharmaceutical€products€was€vitally€important€in€order€to€protect€the€individualššs€enjoyment€of€theŠ œģ Šright€to€life€and€that,€though€Japan€was€one€of€the€countries€where€life€expectancy€was€highest,€theŠ ˆŲ Šreport€should€still€give€information€on€those€subjects,€as€well€as€on€the€economic,€social,Š tÄ Šadministrative€and€other€measures€which€had€been€taken€to€ensure€the€quality€of€life€and€to€protectŠ `° Šthe€health€of€workers€and€the€quality€of€the€environment€in€a€highly€industrialized€country€like€Japan.€Š L œ ŠMore€information€was€requested€on€capital€punishment€in€view€of€the€fact€that€it€was€still€applicableŠ 8 ˆ Što€17€offences,€in€particular€on€the€number€of€cases€since€1974€in€which€the€death€penalty€hadŠ $ t Šactually€been€carried€out€or€commuted,€and€on€whether€the€abolition€of€the€death€penalty€was€beingŠ  ` Šcontemplated.€€It€was€also€asked€whether€there€were€provisions€of€positive€law€concerning€theŠ ü L  Špunishment€of€the€crime€of€genocide.€€Some€members€wished€to€be€enlightened€as€to€whetherŠ č 8  Šabortion€was€legal€in€Japan.Š Ō$  ŠĢ62.€€Commenting€on€articles€7€and€10€of€the€Covenant,€members€asked€how€the€provisions€of€theŠ ¬ü  ŠConstitution€and€the€Penal€Code€concerning€acts€committed€in€violation€of€those€articles€wereŠ ˜č  Šapplied;€whether€the€security€forces€were€trained€to€observe€such€provisions;€whether€there€was€anyŠ „Ō  Šcontrol€system€whereby€special€boards,€independent€of€the€police€or€the€prison€administration,€hadŠ pĄ Šdirect€access€to€detainees€and€prisoners€whose€complaints€they€could€receive€and,€if€not,€whether€theŠ \¬ Šcontrol€system€came€within€the€competence€of€the€judiciary€or€of€the€public€prosecutor;€whether€theŠ H˜ ŠCivil€Liberties€Commissioners€had€access€to€the€prisons€and€whether€the€prisoners€could€contactŠ 4„ Šthem;€what€reforms€had€been€carried€out€since€the€Prison€Law€had€been€enacted€in€1908;€whetherŠ  p Šthe€Standard€Minimum€Rules€for€the€Treatment€of€Prisoners€ņņ9óó/€€were€incorporated€in€the€legal€systemŠ  \ Šand€complied€with€in€Japan;€whether€there€has€been€recent€cases€of€public€officials€being€accusedŠ ųH Šof€abuse€of€power€or€of€maltreatment€of€the€kind€mentioned€in€the€Covenant€and,€if€so,€what€penaltyŠ ä4 Šhad€been€established€to€punish€those€violations.€€It€was€pointed€out€that€there€appeared€to€be€noŠ Š  Špositive€rule€of€Japanese€law€to€ensure€the€implementation€of€article€10,€paragraph€3,€of€theŠ ¼  ŠCovenant€concerning€the€segregation€of€juvenile€offenders€from€adults€and€that€the€absence€of€thisŠ Øų Šguarantee€for€juvenile€offenders€should€be€brought€to€the€attention€of€the€Japanese€Government.Š ”ä ŠĢ63.€€As€regards€article€8€of€the€Covenant,€members€wondered€whether€the€statement€in€the€report€toŠ l¼ Šthe€effect€that€involuntary€€š šservitudešš€could€be€imposed€as€a€punishment€for€a€crime,€was€a€correctŠ X Ø Štranslation€of€the€relevant€provision€in€the€Japanese€Constitution.€€It€was€asked€how€š šforced€labourššŠ D!” Šwas€actually€enforced€in€Japanese€prisons€and€what€happened€if€a€person€refused€to€perform€suchŠ 0"€  Šlabour.€Š #l! ŠĢ64.€€Commenting€on€article€9€in€conjunction€with€article€13,€of€the€Covenant,€members€asked€howŠ ō$D # Šand€under€what€conditions€foreigners€could€be€detained€in€immigration€centres;€whether€the€courtsŠ ą%0!$ Šhad€the€authority€to€examine€the€substantive€reasons€for€the€detention€of€persons€deprived€of€theirŠ Ģ&"% Šliberty€or€whether€their€power€was€limited€to€a€formal€verification€of€the€lawfulness€of€the€detention;Š ø'#& Šwhether€the€relevant€legal€provisions€specified€that€the€family€of€an€arrested€person€must€be€informed€Š ¤(ō#' Šof€his€place€of€detention€and€whether€all€detained€persons€had€the€right€to€a€lawyer€of€their€choice.€Š )ą$( ŠIn€relation€to€the€right€of€compensation€for€victims€of€an€unlawful€arrest€or€detention,€informationŠ |*Ģ%) Šą  ąĢßA€\ )°°? d©2E°S,? Aߊ T,¤'+ Šņņą0  ąą0` (#(#ą9óó/€ņņHuman€Rights:€A€compilation€of€International€Instrumentsóó€(United€NationsŠ c,³', Špublication,€Sales€No.€E.€78.€XIV.2)€pp.65„72.ŠO-Ÿ(-` (#` (# Šwas€sought€on€the€laws€designed€to€implement€that€right.Š ° ŠĢ65.€€As€regards€article€11€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€asked€whether€inability€to€fulfil€a€contractualŠ ˆŲ Šobligation€could€result€in€imprisonment.Š tÄ ŠĢ66.€€In€relation€to€article€12€of€the€Covenant,€clarification€was€requested€on€the€effect€of€theŠ L œ ŠImmigration€Control€Order€on€the€right€of€movement€and€freedom€to€choose€oneššs€residence,€andŠ 8 ˆ Šon€the€extent€to€which€restrictions€on€the€movement€of€aliens€lawfully€residing€in€the€country€wereŠ $ t Šcompatible€with€the€Covenant.Š  ` ŠĢ67.€€With€reference€to€article€13€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€asked€whether€the€Japanese€GovernmentŠ č 8  Šgranted€the€right€of€asylum€for€political€reasons;€whether€a€person€expelled€from€Japan€for€justifiedŠ Ō$  Šreasons€could€appeal€and€whether€a€stay€of€execution€of€the€expulsion€order€could€be€grantedŠ Ą  Špending€a€decision€on€appeal.Š ¬ü  ŠĢ68.€€Commenting€on€article€14€of€the€Covenant,€members€noted€that€more€information€was€neededŠ „Ō  Šon€how€the€guarantees€provided€for€in€this€article€were€implemented€in€the€Japanese€legal€system€andŠ pĄ Šon€the€features€of€the€judicial€system.€€Questions€were€asked€on€who€was€able€to€become€a€judge,Š \¬ Šon€whether,€in€the€event€that€a€judge€was€not€maintained€in€office€after€a€ten„year€term,€the€procedureŠ H˜ Šrequired€the€reasons€for€that€measure€to€be€stated,€whether€the€judges€of€the€Supreme€Court€cameŠ 4„ Šfrom€all€regions€of€Japan€or€from€one€or€two€universities€only,€what€was€the€percentage€of€womenŠ  p Šin€the€Supreme€Court€and€whether€the€independence€of€judges€was€protected€by€specific€provisions.€Š  \ ŠNoting€that€Japanese€legislation€did€not€expressly€provide€for€the€presumption€of€innocence,Š ųH Šmembers€asked€whether€the€Japanese€Government€considered€that€principle,€which€according€to€theŠ ä4 Šreport€was€nevertheless€affirmed€in€practice,€as€applying€only€to€the€Courts€or€also€to€other€publicŠ Š  Šauthorities€such€as€the€police,€and€whether€legal€costs€and€lawyerššs€fees€were€covered€by€the€StateŠ ¼  Šwhen€a€person€was€found€innocent.€€In€this€connection,€it€was€asked€whether€legal€assistance€wasŠ Øų Šavailable€for€civil€cases€as€well€as€for€criminal€ones,€whether€it€was€costly€to€appoint€lawyers,€inŠ ”ä Šwhat€instances€a€lawyer€was€necessary€and€whether€governmental€authorization€was€needed€in€orderŠ €Š Što€become€a€lawyer.€€It€was€also€noted€that€convicted€persons€seemed€obliged€to€meet€the€cost€ofŠ l¼ Šinterpretation€services€and€that,€if€that€was€so,€it€was€inconsistent€with€the€Covenant.€€ClarificationŠ X Ø Šwas€sought€on€the€kind€of€cases€the€High€Court€had€competence€to€decide€and€in€what€cases€a€rightŠ D!” Šof€appeal€was€provided;€whether€Japanese€legislation€provided€for€special€courts€to€try€juvenileŠ 0"€  Šdelinquents;€whether€the€complete€rehabilitation€of€such€delinquents€was€entrusted€to€theŠ #l! Šadministration€or€to€specialized€institutions.Š $X" ŠĢ69.€€As€regards€article€17€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€asked€whether€there€were€any€laws€regulatingŠ ą%0!$ Šintelligence€activities€or€any€rules€applicable€to€electronic€surveillance€and€telephone€tapping;€whatŠ Ģ&"% Šaction€was€taken€by€the€administrative€authorities€to€ensure€the€protection€of€individuals€against€theŠ ø'#& Šmisuse€of€data;€what€exceptions€were€there€to€the€principle€of€the€inviolability€of€correspondence;Š ¤(ō#' Šand€whether,€from€the€stand€point€of€jurisprudence,€š šhomešš€was€construed€in€a€narrow€sense€inŠ )ą$( ŠJapanese€law€or€in€a€wider€sense€covering,€for€example,€tents,€caravans,€houseboats€and€the€like.Š |*Ģ%) ŠĢ70.€€With€reference€to€article€18€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€asked€whether€the€various€religiousŠ T,¤'+ Šcommunities€in€Japan€had€the€right€to€print€and€distribute€their€writings€and€at€what€age€childrenŠ @-(, Šwere€entitled€to€choose€their€religion€and€beliefs€themselves.Š ° ŠĢ71.€€Commenting€on€the€freedom€provided€for€in€articles€19,€21€and€22€of€the€Covenant,€membersŠ ˆŲ Šnoted€the€brevity€of€the€information€on€the€laws€authorizing€restrictions€of€those€freedoms€and€it€wasŠ tÄ Šasked€what€procedures€had€been€introduced€in€Japan€to€ensure€that€citizens€could€express€opinionsŠ `° Šthrough€the€information€media;€what€was€the€meaning€of€the€term€š šterroristic€subversive€activityššŠ L œ Šused€in€the€Subversive€Activities€Prevention€Law€and€to€what€extent€it€affected€freedom€of€assemblyŠ 8 ˆ Šand€association;€whether€any€trade€unions€had€been€dissolved€on€account€of€terrorist€subversiveŠ $ t Šactivity;€whether€fascist,€revanchist€and€neo„Nazi€organizations€were€allowed€to€operate€and,€if€so,Š  ` Šhow€could€such€tolerance€be€reconciled€with€the€Covenant;€whether€the€provisions€in€the€JapaneseŠ ü L  ŠConstitution€relevant€to€the€freedom€of€assembly€were€applicable€to€foreigners;€which€conditions€aŠ č 8  Šgroup€of€people€had€to€meet,€under€the€law,€in€order€to€form€a€political€party€and€what€politicalŠ Ō$  Šparties€were€banned€in€Japan€and€for€what€reason.Š Ą  ŠĢ72.€€As€regards€article€20€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€observed€that€the€report€stated€that€any€propagandaŠ ˜č  Šfor€war€was€almost€inconceivable€since€the€Constitution€provided€for€the€renunciation€of€war.€€TheŠ „Ō  Šquestion€was€raised€as€to€whether€this€sufficed€to€meet€the€requirement€of€this€article€which€madeŠ pĄ Šit€mandatory€for€States€parties€to€prohibit€any€propaganda€for€war€by€law.€€Reference€was€also€madeŠ \¬ Što€the€obligation€in€the€same€article€concerning€the€advocacy,€ņņinter€aliaóó,€of€racial€hatred,€and€it€wasŠ H˜ Šnoted€that€the€relevant€provisions€of€the€Penal€Code€of€Japan€as€cited€in€the€report€did€not€appear€toŠ 4„ Šmeet€the€requirements€of€this€article.€€Questions€were€asked€as€to€Japanššs€attitude€towards€theseŠ  p Šobligations€and€as€to€whether€there€were€other€provisions€on€this€matter€in€Japanese€law.Š  \ ŠĢ73.€€In€connection€with€articles€23€and€24€of€the€Covenant,€it€was€asked€whether€Japanese€lawŠ ä4 Šprovided€for€family€allowances€and€housing€grants€for€large€families;€what€the€status€of€illegitimateŠ Š  Šchildren€was€in€Japan;€whether€such€children€enjoyed€equal€rights;€which€administrative€and€legalŠ ¼  Šprovisions€ensured€their€protection;€and€whether€adoption€was€the€subject€of€a€judicial€decision.Š Øų ŠĢ74.€€Commenting€on€article€26€in€conjunction€with€article€2€of€the€Covenant,€some€members€pointedŠ €Š Šout€that€the€Constitution€did€not€seem€to€have€entirely€covered€the€provisions€of€this€article€becauseŠ l¼ Šit€spoke€only€of€š šequality€under€the€lawšš€and€they€requested€clarification€of€the€meaning€of€that€term.Š X Ø ŠĢ75.€€Regarding€article€27€of€the€Covenant,€members€noted€the€statement€in€the€report€that€minoritiesŠ 0"€  Šof€the€kind€mentioned€in€the€Covenant€did€not€exist€in€Japan€and€they€asked€what€constituted€aŠ #l! Šminority€according€to€Japanese€legislation;€whether€immigrants€could€acquire€minority€status;€whatŠ $X" Šthe€status€of€Koreans,€Chinese,€the€Ainus,€the€Burakumin€and€the€people€of€Okinawa€was;€whetherŠ ō$D # Šthe€principle€of€equal€treatment€applied€to€them;€whether€their€rights€to€family€reunion€andŠ ą%0!$ Šparticipation€in€national€life€were€recognized,€and€what€guarantees€existed€to€protect€their€rights.Š Ģ&"% ŠĢ76.€€Replying€to€comments€made€and€questions€raised€by€members€of€the€Committee,€theŠ ¤(ō#' Šrepresentative€of€the€State€party€stated€that€the€report€could€not€have€contained€information€onŠ )ą$( ŠJapanese€history,€tradition€and€culture€of€relevance€to€human€rights€problems,€as€suggested€by€someŠ |*Ģ%) Šmembers€of€the€Committee,€because€that€would€have€required€a€very€large€encyclopaedic€volumeŠ h+ø&* Šwhich€it€was€not€possible€to€produce€and€which€it€had€not€been€the€intention€of€the€authors€of€theŠ T,¤'+ ŠCovenant€to€request.€€He€also€stated€that€although€the€Covenant€itself€remained€silent€on€the€matter,Š @-(, Špublicity€to€the€Covenant€had€been€given€by€the€pre„ratification€campaign€carried€out€by€the€MinistryŠ ° Šof€Foreign€Affairs€and€the€press€reports€of€the€parliamentary€debate€on€ratification,€that€afterŠ œģ Šratification€the€full€text€of€the€Covenant€was€published€in€the€Official€Gazette,€and€that€a€pamphletŠ ˆŲ Šwas€then€issued€explaining€the€Covenant€and€the€Governmentššs€position€on€it.€€Knowledge€of€theŠ tÄ ŠCovenant€and€of€human€rights€in€general€was€also€fostered€by€Human€Rights€Week€in€which€lecturesŠ `° Šor€discussion€meetings€were€held,€films€were€shown€and€pamphlets€distributed.€€Various€ministriesŠ L œ Šand€agencies€were€engaged€in€publicizing€the€importance€of€strengthening€human€rights€protectionŠ 8 ˆ Šfor€women,€children,€young€people,€the€disabled€and€the€elderly.€€The€duties€of€the€Civil€LibertiesŠ $ t ŠCommissioners€included€publicity€of€human€rights€and€promotion€of€non„governmental€activitiesŠ  ` Šfor€human€rights€protection.Š ü L  ŠĢ77.€€Responding€to€comments€concerning€the€possible€imposition€of€restrictions€on€the€exercise€ofŠ Ō$  Šhuman€rights€on€the€ground€of€the€š špublic€welfarešš,€he€stated€that€the€concept€of€public€welfare€wasŠ Ą  Šgiven€a€strict€interpretation€and€was€not€abused€to€justify€unreasonable€limitations€on€human€rightsŠ ¬ü  Šand€that,€in€the€Japanese€view,€this€term€meant€the€same€as€public€safety,€order,€health€or€morals.Š ˜č  ŠĢ78.€€As€regards€article€1€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€stated€that€his€country€was€strenuouslyŠ pĄ Šopposed€to€the€ņņapartheidóó€policy€of€South€Africa€and€had€been€consistently€calling€on€it€to€abolishŠ \¬ Šņņapartheidóó€as€soon€as€possible€and€to€respect€human€rights€and€freedoms,€that€Japan€limited€itsŠ H˜ Šrelations€with€South€Africa€to€the€consular€level€and€did€not€allow€direct€investments€by€JapaneseŠ 4„ Šcompanies,€that€it€restricted€cultural,€educational€and€sports€exchanges€and€strictly€observed€theŠ  p ŠUnited€Nations€resolution€on€the€export€of€arms€to€South€Africa.€€However,€Japan€did€not€share€theŠ  \ Šview€that€it€was€necessary€to€resort€to€force€in€order€to€compel€South€Africa€to€abolish€ņņapartheidóó,€norŠ ųH Šdid€it€support€taking€radical€measures€such€as€mandatory€economic€sanctions,€but€that€it€had€beenŠ ä4 Švoting€in€favour€of€other€proposals€designed€to€eliminate€ņņapartheidóó.€€Japanššs€position€on€the€right€toŠ Š  Šself„determination€in€relation€to€Palestine€was€that€this€question€was€not€solely€a€refugee€problem,Š ¼  Šthat€it€was€necessary,€in€addition€to€implementing€Security€Council€resolutions€242€(1967)€and€338Š Øų Š(1973)€to€recognize€and€respect€the€legitimate€rights€of€the€Palestinian€people€under€the€Charter€ofŠ ”ä Šthe€United€Nations,€which€extended€to€the€right€to€self„determination€as€well€as€that€of€equality,€andŠ €Š Šthat€the€right€to€establish€an€independent€State€was€included€in€the€concept€of€the€right€of€self„Š l¼ Šdetermination.Š X Ø ŠĢ79.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€article€2€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€stated€thatŠ 0"€  Šalthough€the€provisions€of€the€Constitution,€dealing€with€the€rights€and€duties€of€the€people,€used€aŠ #l! Šbroad€variety€of€terms,€all€those€terms€should€be€construed€as€having€the€same€effect€and€that€theŠ $X" Šadministrative€and€judicial€authorities€had€abided€by€that€interpretation;€that€the€š šBurakuminšš€wereŠ ō$D # ŠJapanese€nationals,€not€different€from€other€nationals€ethnically,€religiously€or€culturally,€that€anyŠ ą%0!$ Šunequal€treatment€of€those€persons€derived€from€unreasonable€social€prejudices€on€the€part€of€certainŠ Ģ&"% Šindividuals€and€that€the€social€sphere€was€a€delicate€area€in€which€it€was€difficult€for€a€GovernmentŠ ø'#& Što€intervene;€that€aliens€in€Japan€were€on€an€equal€footing€with€Japanese€nationals€in€respect€of€theŠ ¤(ō#' Šrights€enumerated€in€the€Covenant€except€for€the€rights€specifically€intended€therein€for€nationalsŠ )ą$( Šand€that€he€was€not€in€a€position€to€state€whether€there€were€any€aliens€whose€offers€of€marriage€toŠ |*Ģ%) ŠJapanese€citizens€had€been€turned€down€on€account€of€their€nationality.Š h+ø&* ŠĢ80.€€As€regards€the€status€of€the€Covenant€in€the€legal€system,€he€stressed€that,€according€to€theŠ @-(, ŠConstitution€š štreaties€concluded€by€Japan€and€established€laws€of€nations€shall€be€faithfullyŠ ° Šobservedšš,€that€the€administrative€and€judicial€authorities€were€obliged€to€comply,€and€ensureŠ œģ Šcompliance,€with€treaty€provisions€and€that€treaties€were€deemed€to€have€a€higher€status€thanŠ ˆŲ Šdomestic€laws.€€This€meant€that€if€the€court€found€a€conflict€between€domestic€legislation€and€theŠ tÄ Štreaty,€the€latter€prevailed€and€the€relevant€legislation€must€be€either€nullified€or€amended.€€In€respectŠ `° Šof€remedies,€he€explained€that€the€Civil€Liberties€Bureau,€which€consisted€of€a€central€legal€affairsŠ L œ Šoffice€and€regional€legal€affairs€offices,€was€concerned€with€the€investigation€of€cases€of€violationsŠ 8 ˆ Šof€human€rights€and€the€collection€of€information€on€them€and€with€matters€relating€to€ņņhabeasŠ $ t Šcorpusóó,€legal€aid€to€the€poor€and€the€protection€of€human€rights€in€general.€€The€Civil€LibertiesŠ  ` ŠCommissioners€who€had€to€be€well„versed€in€social€conditions,€were€appointed€by€the€Minister€ofŠ ü L  ŠJustice,€on€a€non„remunerative€basis,€on€the€recommendation€of€mayors.€€The€duties€of€theseŠ č 8  Šcommissioners€included€the€investigation€of€cases€of€violation€of€human€rights,€the€collection€ofŠ Ō$  Šinformation€on€such€cases€by€hearing€the€persons€concerned€and€the€submission€of€reports€to€theŠ Ą  ŠMinister€of€Justice.€€They€also€gave€effective€advice€to€the€persons€concerned.€€Any€violation€of€theŠ ¬ü  Šhuman€rights€of€aliens€could€be€redressed€through€the€existing€legal€arrangements.Š ˜č  ŠĢ81.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€article€3€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€gave€a€detailedŠ pĄ Šaccount€of€the€progress€achieved€by€women€in€various€fields€of€activity,€including€the€role€they€nowŠ \¬ Šplayed€in€public€affairs€since€the€revision€of€the€Election€Law€in€1945€which€had€given€equalŠ H˜ Špolitical€rights€to€men€and€women€for€the€first€time.€€He€pointed€out€that€Japan€had€signed€theŠ 4„ ŠConvention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€Discrimination€against€Women€(General€AssemblyŠ  p Šresolution€34/180,€annex)€and€that€measures€were€being€taken€with€a€view€to€ratifying€theŠ  \ ŠConvention€by€1985.€€As€part€of€that€preparatory€work,€the€administrative€authorities€concerned€wereŠ ųH Šconsidering€amendments€to€the€Law€of€Nationality€that€would€ensure€equality€between€husband€andŠ ä4 Šwife€with€regard€to€both€naturalization€procedures€and€acquisition€of€nationality€by€birth.Š Š  ŠĢ82.€€As€regards€article€6€of€the€Covenant,€he€informed€the€Committee€that€the€Legislative€Council,Š Øų Šone€of€the€advisory€bodies€to€the€Minister€of€Justice,€had€recently€studied€the€question€of€capitalŠ ”ä Špunishment€and€had€concluded€that€its€abolition€would€be€unwarranted€in€view€of€the€continuedŠ €Š Šcommission€of€brutal€crimes€and€the€fact€that€a€large€majority€of€Japanese€people€favoured€theŠ l¼ Šretention€of€the€death€penalty.€€However,€the€Council€had€also€concluded€that€the€categories€ofŠ X Ø Šcrimes€for€which€that€penalty€could€be€imposed€should€be€reduced€from€17€to€9.€€The€code€wasŠ D!” Šexpected€to€be€revised€along€the€lines€recommended€by€the€Council.€€He€also€stated€that,€as€a€resultŠ 0"€  Šof€strict€regulations,€the€number€of€executions€had€decreased€in€recent€years€and€that€during€theŠ #l! Šperiod€1975„1980,€only€15€persons€had€been€executed.Š $X" ŠĢ83.€€In€connection€with€questions€raised€under€article€8€of€the€Covenant,€he€noted€that€the€relevantŠ ą%0!$ Šinformation€provided€in€the€report€gave€the€erroneous€impression€that€slavish€bondage€could€beŠ Ģ&"% Šimposed€if€it€was€intended€as€punishment€for€a€crime,€and€drew€attention€to€the€fact€that€theŠ ø'#& ŠConstitution€stated€that€š šno€person€shall€be€held€in€bondage€of€any€kindšš.Š ¤(ō#' ŠĢ84.€€Regarding€questions€raised€under€articles€7€and€10€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€stated€thatŠ |*Ģ%) Šthe€Prison€Law€enacted€in€1908€had€been€revised,€and€its€enforcement€regulations€provided€for€theŠ h+ø&* Štreatment€of€prisoners€with€humanity€and€respect€for€the€inherent€dignity€of€the€human€person;€thatŠ T,¤'+ Šthe€Penal€Code€provided€for€the€imposition€of€severe€punishment€for€any€abuse€of€authority€and€forŠ @-(, Šacts€of€violence€committed€by€prison€officials€against€detainees;€that€inmates€dissatisfied€withŠ ° Šparticular€conditions€existing€in€prison€could€petition€the€competent€Minister€or€an€official€visitingŠ œģ Šthe€prison,€for€the€purpose€of€inspection;€that€the€official€could€take€a€decision€himself€and€note€hisŠ ˆŲ Šdecision€in€the€petition€record,€thus€making€it€mandatory€for€the€Warden€to€notify€the€petitionerŠ tÄ Špromptly€of€its€contents;€that€this€official€could€otherwise€request€the€Minister€of€Justice€to€make€theŠ `° Šdecision;€and€that€Prison€Law€provided€for€the€competent€Minister€to€send€officials€to€inspect€theŠ L œ Šprisons€at€least€once€every€two€years.Š 8 ˆ ŠĢ85.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€article€9€in€conjunction€with€article€13€of€the€Covenant,€theŠ  ` Šrepresentative€explained€that€the€immigration€centres€were€designed€for€detaining€aliens€in€respectŠ ü L  Šof€whom€deportation€orders€had€been€issued€in€accordance€with€the€procedures€provided€for€by€law,Š č 8  Šbut€could€not€be€deported€immediately€(for€example€when€no€country€was€willing€to€accept€them)Š Ō$  Šuntil€such€time€as€deportation€became€possible.€€Detention€in€these€centres,€which€were€under€theŠ Ą  Šsupervision€and€control€of€the€Ministry€of€Justice,€was€meant€to€ensure€that€such€aliens€would€beŠ ¬ü  Šavailable€for€deportation€as€well€as€to€prevent€them€from€engaging€in€economic€or€other€activitiesŠ ˜č  Špermitted€only€to€legal€residents.€€These€centres€differed€fundamentally€from€correctional€institutionsŠ „Ō  Šin€that€detainees,€by€virtue€of€the€Immigration€Control€Order€and€the€relevant€regulations,€wereŠ pĄ Špermitted€the€maximum€liberty€consistent€with€the€proper€functioning€of€the€immigration€centre.€Š \¬ ŠHe€informed€the€Committee€that,€at€present,€detainees€possessing€resident€status€were€very€few€inŠ H˜ Šnumber,€that€in€deciding€whether€to€deport€persons€possessing€such€status,€the€policy€of€the€JapaneseŠ 4„ Šauthorities€was€to€order€deportation€only€when€that€was€absolutely€unavoidable,€for€example,€inŠ  p Šcertain€cases€of€criminals€convicted€of€serious€crimes€of€violence,€and€that€during€the€period€1970„Š  \ Š1979,€the€total€number€of€aliens€deported€from€Japan€had€been€12,509€of€whom€only€11€hadŠ ųH Špossessed€permanent€resident€status.Š ä4 ŠĢ86.€€Commenting€on€questions€asked€under€article€14€of€the€Covenant,€the€representative€informedŠ ¼  Šthe€Committee€that€judgeships€of€the€Summary€Court€were€open€to€persons€of€ability€other€thanŠ Øų Šqualified€professionals;€that€an€assistant€judge€had€to€pass€the€National€Legal€Examination,€completeŠ ”ä Štwo€years€of€training€and€pass€a€final€qualifying€examination€before€he€could€exercise€limited€judicialŠ €Š Špowers;€that€after€not€less€than€10€years€experience€as€an€assistant€judge,€public€prosecutor,Š l¼ Špractising€lawyer,€professor€or€assistant€professor€of€law€at€particular€universities,€a€candidate€couldŠ X Ø Šbe€appointed€a€fully„pledged€judge;€that€with€regard€to€the€Supreme€Court,€10€of€its€15€justices€mustŠ D!” Šbe€selected€from€among€those€candidates€who€had€distinguished€themselves€in€law„related€positions,Š 0"€  Šbut€that€the€remaining€five€need€only€be€experienced€and€have€knowledge€of€law;€and€that€all€judgesŠ #l! Šwere€appointed€by€the€Cabinet,€except€the€Chief€of€Justice€of€the€Supreme€Court,€who€was€appointedŠ $X" Šby€the€Emperor€as€designated€by€the€Cabinet.€€There€were€a€number€of€measures€to€preventŠ ō$D # Šunsuitable€or€incompetent€judges€from€disgracing€the€position,€including€removal€by€anŠ ą%0!$ Šimpeachment€court,€periodic€review€by€the€members€of€the€House€of€Representatives€and€the€voters,Š Ģ&"% Šthe€limiting€of€the€term€of€office€of€lower€court€judges€to€10€years,€compulsory€retirement€for€veryŠ ø'#& Šold€judges€and€disciplinary€action€by€the€High€Court€or€the€Supreme€Court.€€He€also€stated€that€theŠ ¤(ō#' Šassistance€of€a€court„appointed€defence€counsel€where€an€accused€was€unable,€because€of€povertyŠ )ą$( Šor€for€other€reasons,€to€select€his€own€defence€counsel€was€guaranteed€by€the€Constitution€and€theŠ |*Ģ%) ŠCriminal€Procedure€law€and€that€the€latter€law€provided€that€an€accused€person€would€have€theŠ h+ø&* Šassistance€of€an€interpreter€or€translator€where€necessary.Š T,¤'+ ŠŠ @-(, Š87.€€As€regards€article€17€of€the€Covenant,€he€stated€that€the€means€of€regulating€computer€use€forŠ ° Šthe€purpose€of€protecting€privacy€were€currently€being€examined€in€Japan€and€that€the€word€€€š šhomeššŠ œģ Šas€used€in€the€Constitution€meant€š ša€home€habitation€or€the€premises,€structure€or€vessel€guarded€byŠ ˆŲ Ša€personšš€and€that€that€definition€would€apply€to€a€camping€caravan€or€large€boat€with€sleeping€andŠ tÄ Šeating€facilities.Š `° ŠĢ88.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€in€relation€to€the€freedoms€provided€for€in€articles€19,€21€and€22Š 8 ˆ Šof€the€Covenant,€the€representative€pointed€out€that€while€the€Subversive€Activities€Prevention€LawŠ $ t Šheld€out€the€possibility€of€restricting€freedom€of€assembly€and€association,€the€Law€itself€providedŠ  ` Šthat€it€should€not€be€interpreted€broadly€nor€be€imposed€so€as€to€limit€unjustifiably€such€rights€asŠ ü L  Šfreedom€of€assembly€and€association,€and€it€severely€limited€the€kinds€of€restricted€activity€and€theŠ č 8  Šmanner€in€which€they€were€punished.€€He€informed€the€Committee€that€in€fact€no€activity€of€anyŠ Ō$  Šorganization€had€been€prohibited€and€no€declaration€had€been€made€to€dissolve€an€organizationŠ Ą  Šunder€the€Law;€and€that€it€was€impossible€under€the€Japanese€legal€system€to€prohibit€crimes€underŠ ¬ü  Šsuch€general€headings€as€fascist,€revanchist€and€neo„Nazi€and€that€only€specific€crimes€could€beŠ ˜č  Šprohibited.Š „Ō  ŠĢ89.€€Replying€to€a€question€raised€under€article€20€of€the€Covenant,€on€why€propaganda€for€war€wasŠ \¬ Šno€prohibited€in€Japan€by€law€as€stipulated€in€this€article,€the€representative€stated€that€such€lawŠ H˜ Šshould€be€considered€on€the€basis€of€whether€it€was€necessary€for€the€respect€of€other€personsšš€rights,Š 4„ Šnational€security€and€public€order.Š  p ŠĢ90.€€In€connection€with€articles€23€and€24€of€the€Covenant,€he€pointed€out€that,€according€to€JapaneseŠ ųH Šlaws,€childrenššs€allowance€was€granted€to€persons€who€took€care€of€three€or€more€children€under€theŠ ä4 Šage€of€18;€that€permission€of€the€Family€Court€must€be€obtained€in€order€to€adopt€a€minor€child;€andŠ Š  Šthat€the€share€in€the€succession€of€an€illegitimate€child€is€one€half€of€that€of€a€legitimate€child.Š ¼  ŠĢ91.€€Replying€to€questions€raised€under€article€27€of€the€Covenant€the€representative€stated€thatŠ ”ä Šš šminorityšš€meant€a€group€of€nationals€who€ethnically,€religiously€or€culturally€differed€from€mostŠ €Š Šother€nationals€and€could€be€clearly€differentiated€from€them€from€a€historical,€social€and€culturalŠ l¼ Špoint€of€view;€that€the€Ainus,€who€were€more€properly€called€š šUtari€peoplešš,€were€JapaneseŠ X Ø Šnationals€and€treated€equally€with€other€Japanese;€that€the€Koreans€who€had€been€living€in€Japan€forŠ D!” Ša€long€period€of€time€were€not€considered€minorities€but€aliens€and,€as€such,€did€not€have€the€rightŠ 0"€  Što€vote€or€stand€for€election€to€public€office.€€The€representative€gave€a€detailed€account€of€theŠ #l! Štreatment€of€Koreans€residing€in€Japan€and€the€various€rights€and€privileges€enjoyed€or€not€yetŠ $X" Šenjoyed€by€them,€and€stated€that€he€was€not€in€possession€of€data€on€the€number€of€Koreans€livingŠ ō$D # Šin€Japan€in€communities€with€their€own€particular€characteristics€but€that€an€answer€would€beŠ ą%0!$ Šsubmitted€in€writing€at€a€later€date.Š  Ģ&"% Šņ ņCCPR€€A/43/40€Ō_Ō(1988)ó óŌ_ŌŠ ° ŠĢĢ582.€€The€Committee€considered€the€second€periodic€report€of€Japan€(CCPR/C/42/Add.€4€and€Corr.Š tÄ Š1€and€2)€at€its€827ņņthóó€to€831ņņstóó€meetings,€held€from€20€to€22€July€1988€(CCPR/C/SR.€827„831).Š `° ŠĢ583.€€The€report€was€introduced€by€the€representative€of€the€State€party€who€referred€to€legalŠ 8 ˆ Šmeasures€taken€by€Japan€both€at€the€international€and€the€national€level€to€strengthen€human€rightsŠ $ t Šsince€the€consideration€by€the€Committee€of€his€Governmentššs€initial€report€in€1981.€€ThoseŠ  ` Šmeasures€included€ratification€of€the€Convention€on€the€Elimination€of€All€Forms€of€DiscriminationŠ ü L  Šagainst€Women,€accession€to€the€Convention€relating€to€the€Status€of€Refugees€and€the€ProtocolŠ č 8  Šthereto,€modification€or€enactment€of€domestic€legislation€relating€to€human€rights€matters,€such€asŠ Ō$  Šacquisition€of€nationality,€equal€employment€opportunities,€mental€health,€professional€activities€ofŠ Ą  Šforeign€lawyers€and€registration€of€aliens.Š ¬ü  ŠĢ584.€€The€representative€of€Japan€further€explained€the€political€structure€and€the€judicial€system€ofŠ „Ō  Šhis€country€under€the€Constitution€of€1946€which,€ņņinter€aliaóó,€provided€for€the€separation€of€and€aŠ pĄ Šbalanced€relationship€among€the€legislative,€the€executive€and€the€judicial€powers.€€He€emphasized,Š \¬ Šin€particular,€that€the€Constitution€guaranteed€the€independence€of€the€judiciary€and€he€providedŠ H˜ Šinformation€on€the€structure€and€functions€of€the€five€kinds€of€courts€existing€in€Japan€in€accordanceŠ 4„ Šwith€the€Court€Organization€Law€of€1947.€€The€Supreme€Court,€which€was€the€highest€Court€in€theŠ  p Šcountry€was€vested€with€the€power€to€make€rules,€the€High€Courts€had€jurisdiction€over€appealsŠ  \ Šlodged€against€judgements€rendered€by€the€District€Courts€or€the€Family€Courts,€the€District€CourtsŠ ųH Štried€all€cases€in€the€first€instance€except€those€specifically€coming€under€the€original€jurisdiction€ofŠ ä4 Šthe€other€courts,€the€Family€Courts€had€jurisdiction€over€all€disputes€and€conflicts€within€the€familyŠ Š  Šas€well€as€on€all€related€domestic€affairs€of€legal€significance€and€cases€involving€juvenileŠ ¼  Šdelinquents€and€the€Summary€Courts€tried€civil€cases€involving€claims€not€exceeding€900,000€yenŠ Øų Šand€certain€minor€criminal€cases.Š ”ä ŠĢ585.€€The€representative€of€Japan€pointed€out€that€his€countryššs€legislation€was€gradually€and€steadilyŠ l¼ Ševolving€to€deal€with€new€phenomena€emerging€in€Japanese€society,€which€was€becomingŠ X Ø Šincreasingly€aware€of€the€importance€of€human€rights.Š D!” ŠĢņņConstitutional€and€legal€framework€within€which€the€Covenant€is€implementedóóŠ #l! ŠĢ586.€€The€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€have€further€details€on€the€status€of€the€CovenantŠ ō$D # Šin€the€Japanese€legal€system.€€They€asked,€for€example,€whether€the€Covenant€could€be€invokedŠ ą%0!$ Šdirectly€before€the€courts€and,€if€so,€whether€there€had€been€cases€in€which€that€had€been€done.€€TheyŠ Ģ&"% Šalso€asked€for€information€on€the€remedies€available€to€individuals€who€claimed€that€their€rightsŠ ø'#& Šunder€the€Covenant€had€been€violated,€particularly€with€regard€to€the€right€of€access€to€the€courtsŠ ¤(ō#' Šprovided€for€in€article€32€of€the€Japanese€Constitution.€€The€members€of€the€Committee€also€wishedŠ )ą$( Što€know€what€other€measures€had€been€taken€since€the€consideration€of€Japanššs€initial€report€toŠ |*Ģ%) Špublicize€the€Covenant,€what€activities€the€Civil€Liberties€Bureau€and€the€Civil€LibertiesŠ h+ø&* ŠCommissioners€had€carried€out€recently€and€what€factors€and€difficulties,€if€any,€affected€theŠ T,¤'+ Šimplementation€of€the€Covenant€in€Japan.Š @-(, Ї587.€€Some€members€of€the€Committee€expressed€interest€in€knowing€what€would€happen€if,€in€aŠ ° ŠJapanese€court,€one€party€invoked€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant,€while€the€opposing€party€reliedŠ œģ Šon€the€Constitution,€and€in€whose€favour€the€court€would€find.€€They€also€asked€whether€any€caseŠ ˆŲ Šof€conflict€between€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant€and€those€of€domestic€legislation€had€actuallyŠ tÄ Šoccurred€and€whether€Japan€had€any€permanent€procedure€for€challenging€a€law,€before€or€after€itsŠ `° Šadoption,€on€the€grounds€that€it€was€unconstitutional€or,€in€particular,€that€it€was€at€odds€with€aŠ L œ Šfundamental€right€embodied€in€chapter€III€of€the€Constitution€or€in€the€Covenant.€€It€was€also€askedŠ 8 ˆ Šwhether€the€report€submitted€to€the€Committee€by€Japan€was€circulated€nationally€and€whether€it€wasŠ $ t Šwidely€discussed,€whether€there€was€resistance€to€modern€law€on€the€part€of€the€population,€orŠ  ` Šbehaviour€which€ran€counter€to€the€legislation,€whether€the€inmates€of€Japanese€prisons€wereŠ ü L  Šinformed€of€their€rights,€whether€there€was€a€procedure€enabling€them€to€appeal€to€an€independentŠ č 8  Šauthority€and€whether€prison€staff€were€familiar€with€the€relevant€United€Nation€rules.€€FurtherŠ Ō$  Šinformation€was€also€requested€on€the€proportion€of€Civil€Liberties€Commissioners€who€were€fromŠ Ą  ŠAinu,€Chinese€and€other€minorities,€the€nature€of€the€powers€of€investigation€of€national€institutionsŠ ¬ü  Šconcerned€with€the€protection€and€promotion€of€human€rights,€the€relationships€between€suchŠ ˜č  Šinquiries€and€judicial€inquiries€and€the€fundamental€rights€which€were€most€frequently€the€subjectŠ „Ō  Šof€complaints.€€The€Committee€also€wished€to€know€the€reasons€which€had€prevented€Japan€fromŠ pĄ Šratifying€the€Optional€Protocol€to€the€Covenant€and€requested€information€on€the€review€of€existingŠ \¬ Šlegislation€which€the€Japanese€Government€had€conducted€before€ratifying€the€Covenant€and€theŠ H˜ Šinterpretation€of€the€provisions€of€articles€12€and€13€of€the€Japanese€Constitution€under€which€humanŠ 4„ Šrights€could€be€restricted€on€account€of€š špublic€welfarešš.€€Regarding€equality€between€men€andŠ  p Šwomen,€the€Committee€asked€whether€it€was€true€that€a€Japanese€working€woman€was€automaticallyŠ  \ Šdismissed€when€she€married,€whether€she€had€any€administrative€remedy€and€what€attention€wasŠ ųH Šbeing€accorded€by€the€authorities€to€€š šdesertionšš,€which€seemed€to€be€a€fact€of€Japanese€society.Š ä4 ŠĢ588.€€Replying€to€the€questions€raised€by€members€of€the€Committee,€the€representative€of€Japan€saidŠ ¼  Šthat,€under€article€98€of€the€Japanese€Constitution,€in€the€event€of€a€conflict,€treaties€concluded€byŠ Øų ŠJapan€took€precedence€over€national€legislation.€€After€referring€to€the€provisions€of€the€ConstitutionŠ ”ä Šconcerning€the€judiciary,€access€to€the€courts€and€the€procedures€whereby€an€individual€could€applyŠ €Š Što€the€State€for€redress,€he€provided€detailed€information€on€the€various€remedies€available€to€injuredŠ l¼ Šparties€in€Japan€in€the€event€of€violation€of€a€right€by€a€State€authority€or€an€individual€and€in€casesŠ X Ø Šwhere€violation€of€human€rights€constituted€an€offence€under€the€relevant€provisions€of€the€Code€ofŠ D!” ŠCriminal€Procedure.€€He€pointed€out€that€the€State€provided€assistance€to€persons€without€the€meansŠ 0"€  Što€bring€a€civil€suit,€including€aliens.Š #l! ŠĢ589.€€With€regard€to€measures€taken€to€publicize€the€Covenant,€he€said€that€a€human€rights€week€wasŠ ō$D # Šheld€each€year.€€The€Ministry€of€Justice€and€other€bodies€were€making€efforts€to€publicize€theŠ ą%0!$ ŠUniversal€Declaration€of€Human€Rights€and€the€Covenants€and€to€ensure€that€they€were€observedŠ Ģ&"% Šthroughout€the€country.€€Those€activities€had€taken€on€special€significance€in€1983,€with€theŠ ø'#& Šcelebration€of€the€thirty„fifth€anniversary€of€the€adoption€of€the€Declaration.€€Ceremonies€andŠ ¤(ō#' Špublications€were€planned€for€the€end€of€1988€to€commemorate€the€fortieth€anniversary.€€The€mediaŠ )ą$( Šalso€gave€wide€coverage€to€campaigns€to€promote€human€rights,€and€the€press€had€given€specialŠ |*Ģ%) Šattention€to€the€submission€of€the€report€to€the€Committee.€€Human€rights€were€also€taught€inŠ h+ø&* Šprimary€and€secondary€schools.Š T,¤'+ ŠŠ @-(, Š590.€€He€also€explained€that€members€of€the€Bureau€and€the€Civil€Liberties€Commissioners€co„Š ° Šoperated€closely€to€increase€public€awareness€of€human€rights.€€The€Ministry€of€Justice€and€theŠ œģ ŠNational€Federation€of€Consultative€Assemblies€of€Civil€Liberties€Commissioners€organized€yearlyŠ ˆŲ Špublicity€campaigns€with€a€central€theme.€€In€1986€and€1987,€those€campaigns€had€focused€on€theŠ tÄ Šelimination€of€ragging€and€corporal€punishment€in€schools,€the€status€of€women€and€the€rights€of€theŠ `° Šdisabled.€€In€1988,€the€main€themes€of€the€campaign€were€the€internationalization€of€society€andŠ L œ Šhuman€rights,€as€well€as€the€fortieth€anniversary€of€the€Universal€Declaration€of€Human€Rights.€€TheŠ 8 ˆ Šinformation€activities€of€the€Bureau€and€Civil€Liberties€Commissioners€also€took€the€form€ofŠ $ t Šinquiries€into€human€rights€violations€and€advisory€services€to€deal€with€specific€problems.€€In€1986,Š  ` Šmore€than€392,000€cases€had€been€dealt€with€by€the€advisory€services.Š ü L  ŠĢ591.€€He€said€that€the€implementation€of€protection€of€human€rights€was€hampered€in€Japan€by€aŠ Ō$  Šnumber€of€deeply„rooted€prejudices€and€practices,€as€well€as€by€new€problems€such€as€the€influx€ofŠ Ą  Šillegal€foreign€workers,€remunerated€forced€labour€and€prostitution.Š ¬ü  ŠĢ592.€€The€provisions€of€article€9,€paragraph€3,€of€the€Covenant€had€in€fact€been€invoked€inŠ „Ō  Šproceedings€in€which€an€alien€had€applied€for€release€on€bail.€€No€conflict€between€the€provisionsŠ pĄ Šof€the€Covenant€and€Japanese€legislation€had€ever€risen.€€Moreover,€there€existed€in€Japan€a€systemŠ \¬ Šwhereby€any€court€could€pronounce€on€the€constitutionality€of€a€law,€although€the€final€decision€layŠ H˜ Šwith€the€Supreme€Court.€€The€reports€submitted€by€Japan€to€the€Committee€were€circulated€to€theŠ 4„ Šmembers€of€the€Diet€(parliament)€concerned€and€to€interested€individuals.€€While€conflicts€betweenŠ  p Šancient€cultural€traditions€and€current€legislation€were€inevitable,€the€Japanese€authorities€wereŠ  \ Šnevertheless€endeavouring€to€bring€those€traditions€into€harmony€with€the€modern€legal€system.€Š ųH ŠPrison€authorities€and€detainees€were€informed€of€the€rights€embodied€in€the€Covenant,€the€StandardŠ ä4 ŠMinimum€Rules€for€the€Treatment€of€Prisoners€and,€in€general,€the€substance€of€texts€adopted€by€theŠ Š  ŠUnited€Nations€in€the€field€of€human€rights.€€The€role€of€the€Civil€Liberties€Commissioners€was€toŠ ¼  Šendeavour€to€redress€violations€without€it€being€necessary€to€resort€to€judicial€proceedings.€€TheyŠ Øų Šhad€no€judicial€powers€and,€in€order€to€obtain€legal€redress,€individuals€had€to€go€through€the€courts.€Š ”ä ŠThe€grounds€for€the€complaints€made€included€abuse€of€authority,€violence€in€the€home€andŠ €Š Šinvasions€of€privacy€by€the€media.Š l¼ ŠĢ593.€€His€Government€had€undertaken€to€carry€out€a€careful€study€of€the€effect€of€national€legislationŠ D!” Šwith€a€view€to€the€possible€ratification€of€the€Optional€Protocol€to€the€Covenant.€€At€the€time€whenŠ 0"€  Šthe€Covenant€had€been€ratified,€there€had€been€no€conflict€between€its€provisions€and€JapaneseŠ #l! Šlegislation.€€There€was€no€definition€of€š špublic€welfarešš€in€Japanese€legislation,€so€that€it€was€forŠ $X" Šthe€courts€to€adopt€their€own€interpretation€in€each€case.€€Nor€was€there€any€rule€compelling€workingŠ ō$D # Šwomen€to€give€up€their€jobs€when€they€married€or€had€children,€and€any€practice€of€that€kind€wouldŠ ą%0!$ Šbe€opposed€by€the€authorities.Š Ģ&"% ŠĢņņSelf„determinationóóŠ ¤(ō#' ŠĢ594.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€what€Japanššs€positionŠ |*Ģ%) Šwas€with€regard€to€the€struggle€for€self„determination€of€the€South€African,€Namibian€and€PalestinianŠ h+ø&* Špeoples€and€whether€the€authorities€had€taken€any€concrete€measures€against€the€ņņapartheidóó€regimeŠ T,¤'+ Šin€South€Africa.€€They€asked,€in€particular,€whether€consideration€had€been€given€to€dealing€withŠ @-(, Šindirect€investment€in€South€Africa,€whether€any€violations€of€the€regulations€on€direct€investmentŠ ° Šexisted€and,€if€so,€what€action€had€been€taken€and€whether€Japan€was€prepared€to€consider€theŠ œģ Šimposition€of€economic€and€monetary€sanctions€against€South€Africa.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ595.€€The€representative€of€Japan€stated€that€his€Government€co„operated€fully€with€internationalŠ `° Šefforts€to€eradicate€ņņapartheidóó.€€It€had€no€diplomatic€relations€with€South€Africa;€it€had€imposedŠ L œ Šrestrictions€on€sporting,€cultural€and€educational€exchanges€and€suspended€the€issue€of€tourist€visasŠ 8 ˆ Što€South€African€nationals€as€well€as€the€air€links€with€that€country.€€All€direct€investment€in€SouthŠ $ t ŠAfrica€had€been€banned.€€Furthermore,€Japan€provided€humanitarian€and€educational€assistance€toŠ  ` Šthe€victims€of€ņņapartheidóó€in€South€Africa€and€participated€in€the€United€Nations€programmes€ofŠ ü L  Šassistance€to€those€victims.€€His€Government€was€convinced€that€Namibia€should€be€givenŠ č 8  Šindependence€as€soon€as€possible€and€it€supported€the€recognition€of€the€right€of€Palestinians€to€self„Š Ō$  Šdetermination€and€survival€as€a€nation.€€The€banning€of€indirect€investment€in€South€Africa€wasŠ Ą  Šlegally€outside€the€Japanese€Governmentššs€control;€in€the€few€cases€of€contravention€of€the€banningŠ ¬ü  Šof€direct€investment,€the€Government€had€warned€the€firms€in€question€with€successful€results.€€TheŠ ˜č  Šquestion€of€comprehensive€economic€and€monetary€sanctions€against€South€Africa€should€beŠ „Ō  Šdiscussed€in€United€Nations€forums.Š pĄ ŠĢņņState€of€emergencyóóŠ H˜ ŠĢ596.€€On€that€subject,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€what€legal€provisions€relating€toŠ  p Šthe€introduction€of€a€state€of€public€emergency€existed€in€Japan€and€whether€they€conformed€toŠ  \ Šarticle€4,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant.Š ųH ŠĢ597.€€The€representative€of€Japan€stated€that€there€was€no€provision€in€the€Japanese€legal€system€forŠ Š  Šthe€suspension€of€public€rights.€€No€public€emergency€had€in€fact€occurred€in€Japan.€€If€such€anŠ ¼  Šemergency€were€to€threaten€the€life€of€the€nation,€the€Government€would€take€appropriate€measures.Š Øų ŠĢņņNon„discrimination€and€equality€of€the€sexesóóŠ €Š ŠĢ598.€€With€regard€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€what€laws€and€practicesŠ X Ø Šgave€effect€to€the€provisions€of€article€2,€paragraph€1,€of€the€Covenant€relating€to€non„discriminationŠ D!” Šbased€on€colour,€language,€political€and€other€opinion,€national€origin,€property€or€other€status,€andŠ 0"€  Šwhether€the€adoption,€in€1985,€of€the€law€concerning€the€promotion€of€equal€opportunity€andŠ #l! Štreatment€for€men€and€women€in€employment€and€other€welfare€measures€for€women€workers€andŠ $X" Šof€other€reforms€had€led€to€any€measurable€progress.€€They€also€wished€to€receive€informationŠ ō$D # Šconcerning€the€number€and€proportion€of€women€in€parliament€and€in€other€high€public€offices,€theŠ ą%0!$ Šliberal€professions,€the€senior€ranks€of€the€civil€service€and€private€business,€and€asked€forŠ Ģ&"% Šclarification€of€the€special€problems€of€the€residents€of€the€Dowa€districts€and€the€extent€to€whichŠ ø'#& Šthe€measures€being€taken€to€improve€their€circumstances€had€been€successful.€€In€addition,€theyŠ ¤(ō#' Šasked€in€which€respects€the€rights€of€aliens€were€restricted€as€compared€with€those€of€JapaneseŠ )ą$( Šcitizens.Š |*Ģ%) ŠĢ599.€€Questions€were€raised,€in€particular,€with€regard€to€the€situation€of€foreign€women€who€hadŠ T,¤'+ Šemigrated€to€Japan€and€did€not€have€Japanese€nationality,€the€problem€of€prostitution€in€Japan€andŠ @-(, Šmeasures€taken€to€control€it,€the€situation€of€Koreans€living€in€Japan,€the€system€of€registration€ofŠ ° Šaliens,€especially€in€connection€with€compulsory€fingerprinting,€the€legal€measures€for€the€protectionŠ œģ Šof€the€Ainu€and€Okinawan€peoples€against€discriminatory€attitudes€of€society,€the€requirement€ofŠ ˆŲ ŠJapanese€Nationality€for€teaching€in€schools€and€the€existing€legal€measures€concerning€the€mentallyŠ tÄ Šill,€which€seemed€to€allow€certain€forms€of€discrimination.€€Furthermore,€it€was€observed€that€thereŠ `° Šappeared€to€be€a€discrepancy€between€the€Covenant€and€article€14€of€the€Japanese€ConstitutionŠ L œ Šconcerning€equality€as€far€as€the€enumeration€of€the€grounds€for€discrimination€was€concerned€andŠ 8 ˆ Šclarification€was€requested€on€the€subject.Š $ t ŠĢ600.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€Japan€referred€to€provisions€prohibiting€all€forms€ofŠ ü L  Šdiscrimination€in€his€country.€€The€Law€of€1985€concerning€the€promotion€of€equal€opportunity€andŠ č 8  Štreatment€for€men€and€women€in€employment€and€other€welfare€measures€for€women€workersŠ Ō$  Šentailed,€in€particular,€the€inclusion€of€women€in€the€majority€of€jobs.€€Women€and€men€receivedŠ Ą  Šequal€treatment€in€vocational€training.€€The€Equal€Employment€Opportunities€Act€had€inducedŠ ¬ü  Šenterprises€to€facilitate€the€working€conditions€of€women€and,€although€the€Act€did€not€provideŠ ˜č  Šexpressly€for€equal€wages,€it€had€contributed€substantially€to€reducing€the€gap€between€the€startingŠ „Ō  Šwages€for€men€and€women.Š pĄ ŠĢ601.€€The€representative€stated€that€the€number€of€women€members€of€the€Diet€had€increased€fromŠ H˜ Š21€out€of€733€in€1970€to€29€out€of€760€in€1987.€€He€also€provided€figures€showing€the€increasingŠ 4„ Šparticipation€of€women€in€local€assemblies€and€public€service.€€He€added€that€the€Japanese€residingŠ  p Šin€Dowa€districts€had€been€the€subject€of€social€discrimination€since€the€seventeenth€century,€but€theŠ  \ Šsituation€was€now€in€the€process€of€being€rectified€through€legal€and€other€measures€to€improve€theirŠ ųH Šsocial€and€economic€conditions.€€Regarding€the€rights€of€aliens€whose€status€was€not€expresslyŠ ä4 Šmentioned€in€the€Japanese€Constitution,€the€representative€referred,€in€particular,€to€recent€legislationŠ Š  Šimproving€their€situation€and€providing€for€regulation€of€their€immigration€and€residence€in€theŠ ¼  Šcountry.€€With€regard€to€the€immigration€of€women€to€Japan,€especially€from€South„East€AsianŠ Øų Šcountries,€the€representative€explained€that,€in€most€cases,€it€was€illegal€immigration€and€theŠ ”ä Šimmigrants€were€exposed€to€exploitation€and€other€abuses.€€The€Japanese€Government€was€takingŠ €Š Šmeasures€in€consultation€with€the€countries€of€origin€of€the€immigrants€to€solve€the€problem.€Š l¼ ŠForeigners€charged€with€being€in€Japan€illegally€could€appeal€to€the€Minister€of€Justice.€€ProstitutionŠ X Ø Šwas€illegal€in€Japan€and€was€controlled€by€a€prostitution€prevention€law,€due€attention€being€givenŠ D!” Što€protecting€the€human€rights€of€prostitutes.€€As€for€the€Koreans€living€in€Japan,€the€representativeŠ 0"€  Šstated€that€130,000€of€them€had€been€granted€Japanese€nationality€by€the€end€of€1986.€€The€othersŠ #l! Šhad€the€legal€status€of€foreign€nationals€and€those€who€had€been€living€in€Japan€before€August€1945Š $X" Šwere€accorded€special€treatment.€€With€the€exception€of€suffrage€and€other€rights,€which€by€theirŠ ō$D # Šnature€belonged€to€Japanese€nationals€only,€all€fundamental€human€rights€were€guaranteed€toŠ ą%0!$ ŠKoreans€and€other€foreigners€living€in€Japan.€€Alien€registration€and€the€enactment€of€laws€andŠ Ģ&"% Šregulations€governing€the€entry€of€aliens€and€control€of€their€activities€under€reasonable€conditionsŠ ø'#& Šwere€matters€within€the€discretion€of€any€sovereign€State.€€Fingerprinting€had€been€introduced€toŠ ¤(ō#' Šensure€the€accuracy€of€registration€details.€€It€was€applied€without€discrimination€to€all€aliens€of€16Š )ą$( Šyears€or€more€staying€in€the€country€for€one€year€or€more€and€was€in€no€way€designed€to€infringeŠ |*Ģ%) Štheir€human€rights.Š h+ø&* ŠĢ602.€€The€representative€further€stated€that€no€discriminatory€treatment€was€currently€practisedŠ @-(, Šagainst€the€people€of€Okinawa,€although€the€Civil€Liberties€Bureau€in€the€Ministry€of€Justice€hadŠ ° Šreceived€some€complaints€in€relation€to€the€Ainu.€€There€was€an€adequate€legal€framework€to€protectŠ œģ Šthem€at€the€government€level,€but€there€was€some€discrimination€at€the€level€of€society,€which€theŠ ˆŲ ŠCivil€Liberties€Bureau€was€endeavouring€to€eradicate.€€Concerning€the€employment€of€foreigners€inŠ tÄ Šeducation,€the€representative€stated€that€his€Government€considered€that€posts€connected€with€theŠ `° Špublic€service€or€public€activities,€which€involved€the€exercise€of€public€power,€should€be€held€byŠ L œ ŠJapanese€citizens€only.€€Teachers€at€the€elementary,€middle€and€high„school€levels€were€required€toŠ 8 ˆ Štake€part€in€the€management€of€public€activities.€€Except€at€university€level,€therefore,€teachers€hadŠ $ t Što€be€of€Japanese€nationality.€€As€for€the€mentally€handicapped,€efforts€were€being€made€in€JapanŠ  ` Što€ease€their€difficulties€and€help€them€to€become€full€members€of€society.€€With€regard€to€theŠ ü L  Šquestion€of€a€discrepancy€between€article€14€of€the€Constitution€and€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant,Š č 8  Šthe€representative€of€Japan€stated€that,€on€28€December€1978,€the€Supreme€Court€had€ruled€that€theŠ Ō$  Šfundamental€human€rights€guaranteed€in€chapter€III€of€the€Constitution,€with€the€exception€of€rightsŠ Ą  Šwhich€by€their€nature€should€be€restricted€to€Japanese€citizens,€should€be€equally€guaranteed€toŠ ¬ü  Šforeigners€living€in€Japan.Š ˜č  ŠĢņņRight€to€lifeóóŠ pĄ ŠĢ603.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€requested€additional€information€onŠ H˜ Šthe€implementation€by€Japan€of€article€16€of€the€Covenant€in€accordance€with€the€CommitteeššsŠ 4„ Šgeneral€comments€Nos.€6€(16€)€and€14€(€23€).€€They€wished€to€know,€in€particular,€how€many€deathŠ  p Šsentences€had€been€imposed€during€the€period€from€1985€to€1988€and€what€factors€might€accountŠ  \ Šfor€any€increases€or€decreases€in€this€respect€over€earlier€periods.€€They€recalled€that,€under€articleŠ ųH Š6,€paragraph€2,€of€the€Covenant,€the€death€sentence€might€be€imposed€only€for€the€most€seriousŠ ä4 Šcrimes€and€they€asked€what€crimes€fell€within€that€category,€how€many€persons€were€on€death€rowŠ Š  Šcurrently€and€how€much€time€normally€elapsed€between€the€imposition€and€the€execution€of€theŠ ¼  Šdeath€sentence.€€They€also€asked€what€rules€and€regulations€governed€the€use€of€firearms€by€theŠ Øų Špolice€and€security€forces€and€how€the€infant€mortality€rate€of€minority€groups€compared€to€that€ofŠ ”ä Šthe€rest€of€the€population.Š €Š ŠĢ604.€€Some€members€also€asked€how€many€persons€under€sentence€of€death€had€been€pardoned,€hadŠ X Ø Šbenefited€from€an€amnesty€or€had€had€their€sentences€commuted,€which€authority€was€empoweredŠ D!” Što€decide€on€the€legitimacy€of€the€use€of€firearms€by€the€police,€particularly€when€such€use€resultedŠ 0"€  Šin€death,€whether€Japanese€regulations€were€consistent€with€the€principles€set€forth€by€the€UnitedŠ #l! ŠNations€in€the€Code€of€Conduct€for€Law€Enforcement€Officials,€whether€any€decision€had€been€takenŠ $X" Šby€the€Japanese€authorities€to€reduce,€as€envisaged€in€the€initial€report,€from€17€to€9€the€number€ofŠ ō$D # Šcrimes€listed€in€the€Japanese€Criminal€Code€as€being€punishable€by€the€death€penalty€and€in€howŠ ą%0!$ Šmany€cases€€over€the€past€five€years€the€reopening€of€the€trial€of€an€individual€sentenced€to€death€hadŠ Ģ&"% Šresulted€in€a€reversal€of€the€verdict.€€Further€details€were€also€requested€on€the€differences€betweenŠ ø'#& Šthe€treatment€of€prisoners€awaiting€execution€and€the€treatment€of€other€prisoners.Š ¤(ō#' ŠĢ605.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€reporting€State€referred€to€medical€programmes€and€legalŠ |*Ģ%) Šmeasures€taken€in€his€country€to€control€various€categories€of€diseases.€€He€stated€that€the€averageŠ h+ø&* Šlife€expectancy€in€Japan€in€1987€stood€at€75.61€years€for€men€and€81.39€years€for€women.€€UnderŠ T,¤'+ Šthe€Maternal€and€Child€Health€Law,€the€Child€Welfare€Law€and€related€laws,€measures€to€protectŠ @-(, Šthe€health€of€expectant€and€nursing€mothers€and€infants€were€being€implemented.€€The€infantŠ ° Šmortality€rate,€which€had€stood€at€9.3€per€thousand€live€births€in€1976,€had€fallen€to€5.2€per€thousandŠ œģ Šin€1986.€€As€for€the€number€of€death€sentences,€the€representative€stated€that€they€were€steadilyŠ ˆŲ Šdecreasing.€€During€the€decade€from€1965€to€1974,€there€had€been€90€irrevocable€death€sentences.€Š tÄ ŠDuring€the€period€from€1975€to€1984,€the€number€had€fallen€to€30€and,€between€1985€and€17€JuneŠ `° Š1988,€to€15.Š L œ ŠĢ606.€€In€accordance€with€article€9€of€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure,€the€death€sentence€was€appliedŠ $ t Šsparingly€and€only€to€the€most€serious€crimes,€which€fell€into€two€categories.€€The€first€coveredŠ  ` Šcrimes€resulting€in€death,€the€second,€insurrection.€€An€amendment€to€the€Code€of€CriminalŠ ü L  ŠProcedure€was€under€consideration€to€reduce€the€number€of€capital€offences€in€the€first€category€andŠ č 8  Što€eliminate€those€in€the€second€category.€€At€the€end€of€1987,€27€persons€had€been€awaitingŠ Ō$  Šexecution.€€The€average€period€between€the€irrevocable€death€sentence€and€execution€was€sevenŠ Ą  Šyears€and€one€month,€taking€into€account€requests€for€the€reopening€of€proceedings€or€applicationsŠ ¬ü  Šfor€amnesty.€€The€representative€added€that€article€7€of€the€Police€Duties€Execution€Law€allowedŠ ˜č  Špolicemen€to€use€weapons€only€in€circumstances€in€which€there€was€a€reasonable€need€to€do€so.€Š „Ō  ŠDuring€the€past€decade,€there€had€been€only€13€cases€in€which€the€use€of€a€hand„gun€by€a€policemanŠ pĄ Šhad€led€to€death,€and€in€each€case€the€rules€had€been€strictly€applied.Š \¬ ŠĢ607.€€The€representative€explained€the€procedure€by€which€an€amnesty€could€be€granted€in€Japan€andŠ 4„ Šadded€that,€between€1945€and€early€1988,€in€the€cases€of€25€persons€sentenced€to€death,€the€penaltyŠ  p Šhad€been€commuted€to€life€sentences€of€hard€labour.€€The€total€number€of€amnesties€granted€inŠ  \ Šrespect€of€all€sentences,€including€death€sentences,€had€been€187€in€1985,€199€in€1986,€and€96€inŠ ųH Š1987.€€Furthermore,€the€National€Public€Security€Commission€dealt€with€questions€concerning€theŠ ä4 Štraining€and€equipment€of€the€police€and€the€lawfulness€of€the€use€of€force€by€the€police.€€ComplaintsŠ Š  Šcould,€however,€be€submitted€to€the€prosecutor,€which€would€lead€to€the€institution€of€inquiries€inŠ ¼  Šthe€police€force,€and€where€appropriate,€to€the€institution€of€criminal€proceedings€under€the€relevantŠ Øų Šprovisions€of€the€Criminal€Code.€€Prisoners€under€sentence€of€death€received€the€same€treatment€asŠ ”ä Šother€prisoners,€except€that€they€were€held€in€separate€quarters.€€Between€in€1982€and€1986,€the€casesŠ €Š Šof€three€persons€under€sentence€of€death€had€been€reopened.Š l¼ ŠĢņņLiberty€and€security€of€personóóŠ D!” ŠĢ608.€€In€that€connection€the€members€of€the€Committee€asked€for€particulars€concerning€the€practiceŠ #l! Šof€administrative€confinement€pursuant€to€the€Prevention€of€Prostitution€Act,€the€maximum€periodŠ $X" Šduring€which€persons€could€be€held€in€custody€pending€trial,€and€the€time„limit€within€which€theŠ ō$D # Šfamily€of€a€detainee€was€informed.€€Several€questions€were€asked€concerning,€in€particular,€one€ofŠ ą%0!$ Šthe€forms€of€deprivation€of€liberty,€namely,€the€committal€to€an€institution€of€persons€suffering€fromŠ Ģ&"% Šmental€disease.€€It€was€asked€what€safeguards€were€offered€to€such€persons€on€the€occasion€of€anŠ ø'#& Šinvoluntary€committal,€who€made€the€diagnosis,€who€made€the€committal€order,€to€which€court€anŠ ¤(ō#' Šappeal€be€addressed€at€the€time€of€committal€and€subsequently,€whether€the€statutory€remedy€ofņņŠ )ą$( Šhabeas€corpusóó€was€available,€whether€there€was€a€right€to€damages€and€compensation€in€cases€ofŠ |*Ģ%) Širregular€committal,€what€the€function€of€the€court€was€with€regard€to€respect€for€the€rights€of€mentalŠ h+ø&* Špatients,€and€how€many€mental€patients€were€hospitalized.€€It€was€also€asked€what€was€the€ratio€ofŠ T,¤'+ Špersons€in€custody€pending€trial€to€the€total€number€of€persons€being€prosecuted€under€the€criminalŠ @-(, Šlaw.€€Furthermore,€particulars€were€requested€concerning€the€way€in€which€the€detention€procedureŠ ° Šwas€carried€out€and€the€procedure€for€obtaining€damages€and€compensation€on€the€grounds€ofŠ œģ Šmistakes€made€by€the€police€or€the€judicial€authority.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ609.€€In€reply,€the€representative€of€Japan€stated€that€the€Prevention€of€Prostitution€Act,€in€sectionŠ `° Š5,€prescribed€a€penalty€of€imprisonment€for€a€term€not€exceeding€six€months€and€a€fine€not€exceedingŠ L œ Š10,000€yen€for€procuring€on€a€public€thoroughfare€or€incitement€to€prostitution€by€advertisements.€Š 8 ˆ ŠIn€section€17,€paragraph€1,€of€the€same€Act,€the€sentence€of€imprisonment€imposed€under€section€5Š $ t Šcould€be€replaced€by€committal€to€a€re„education€centre.€€He€gave€particulars€concerning€theŠ  ` Šprocedure€for€arrest€and€pre„trial€detention€under€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure.€€He€explained€thatŠ ü L  Šthe€total€time€during€which€a€suspect€could€be€held€without€charge€after€arrest€was€72€hours.€€If€theŠ č 8  Štime„limit€was€not€respected,€the€suspect€was€released.€€The€court€was€empowered€to€order€detentionŠ Ō$  Šfor€a€period€of€10€days,€which€could€be€prolonged€for€a€further€10€days€on€the€application€of€theŠ Ą  Šprosecution.€€If€at€that€point€the€trial€procedure€had€not€been€initiated,€the€suspect€was€released.€€AŠ ¬ü  Šfurther€limit€to€the€period€of€detention€was€that€the€person€concerned€could€be€released€on€bail,Š ˜č  Šwhich€was€generally€granted,€except€in€cases€of€specially€serious€offences€or€if€there€was€a€risk€thatŠ „Ō  Šthe€accused€might€destroy€evidence.€€Under€Japanese€law€there€was€no€provision€requiring€that€theŠ pĄ Šfamily€must€be€informed€after€the€arrest;€in€practice,€however,€the€family€was€informed€immediatelyŠ \¬ Šif€the€detainee€so€requested,€provided€that€the€proper€conduct€of€the€inquiry€was€not€therebyŠ H˜ Šjeopardized.€€He€provided€some€statistical€data€concerning€persons€under€detention€andŠ 4„ Šcompensation€awarded€in€criminal€cases.€€He€added€that€under€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure€noŠ  p Šarrest€could€take€place€without€a€court€order€and€that€the€decision€to€award€compensation€was€aŠ  \ Šmatter€for€the€Prosecutor„General€attached€to€the€highest€court€in€the€district.€€If€the€personŠ ųH Šconcerned€was€not€satisfied€with€the€decision€he€could€institute€civil€proceedings€in€the€courts€toŠ ä4 Šapply€for€additional€compensation.Š Š  ŠĢ610.€€Regarding€the€committal€of€mentally„ill€persons,€under€a€recently€enacted€law,€psychiatristsŠ Øų Šwere€responsible€for€deciding€on€the€need€for€hospitalization€and€for€any€restrictions€on€patientsššŠ ”ä Šactivities.€€A€Psychiatric€Review€Board€had€been€established€in€each€prefecture€to€examine€the€needŠ €Š Šfor€continued€hospitalization€and,€based€on€the€results€of€the€review,€the€Prefectural€Governor€hadŠ l¼ Što€take€the€necessary€action.€€If€appropriate€measures€were€not€then€taken€the€patient€was€entitled€toŠ X Ø Šbring€proceedings€against€the€Prefectural€Governor.€€In€addition€to€ņņhabeas€corpusóó,€the€AdministrativeŠ D!” ŠLitigation€Law,€the€Code€of€Civil€Procedure€and€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure€providedŠ 0"€  Šopportunities€for€patients€to€bring€proceedings€in€cases€of€alleged€violations€of€their€human€rightsŠ #l! Šin€psychiatric€hospitals.Š $X" ŠĢņņTreatment€of€prisoners€and€other€detaineesóóŠ ą%0!$ ŠĢ611.€€In€that€connection,€the€members€of€the€Committee€asked€for€particulars€concerning€theŠ ø'#& Špractices€and€circumstances€of€€š šimprisonment€with€hard€labouršš€and€€€š šdetention€in€a€labour€centreššŠ ¤(ō#' Šmentioned€in€the€report.€€Furthermore,€in€connection€with€the€general€practice€of€holding€personsŠ )ą$( Šawaiting€trial€in€police€cells,€they€asked€what€safeguards€had€been€provided€in€conformity€with€theŠ |*Ģ%) Šprovisions€of€the€Covenant,€whether€the€United€Nations€Standard€Minimum€Rules€for€the€TreatmentŠ h+ø&* Šof€Prisoners€were€applied€and€whether€the€relevant€regulations€and€directives€were€known€and€couldŠ T,¤'+ Šbe€consulted€by€detainees.€€Information€was€also€requested€on€the€current€status€of€the€draftŠ @-(, Šlegislation€concerning€detention€centres€and€institutions€for€holding€persons€awaiting€trial€that€wereŠ ° Šsubject€to€the€authority€of€the€police€of€the€prefecture.Š œģ ŠĢ612.€€Some€members€wondered€whether€the€principle€of€using€police€cells€as€places€for€holdingŠ tÄ Šdetainees€was€not€on€itself€fraught€with€the€risk€of€infringement€of€the€human€rights€of€detainees,Š `° Šparticularly€since€the€information€at€their€disposal€reported€disturbing€practices€regarding€police€cellsŠ L œ Šand€the€conditions€of€detainees€in€general.€€They€pointed€out,€ņņinter€aliaóó,€that€the€regime€of€solitaryŠ 8 ˆ Šconfinement€encouraged€„€according€to€many€sources€of€information€„€physical€and€psychologicalŠ $ t Šmaltreatment€and€they€asked€what€procedure€was€followed€in€cases€where€a€court€found€thatŠ  ` Šconfessions€had€been€extracted€by€coercion,€how€article€38€of€the€Constitution,€which€containedŠ ü L  Šprovisions€on€that€subject,€was€applied,€whether€members€of€the€police€had€been€brought€to€trial€onŠ č 8  Ša€charge€of€having€used€torture,€and€what€action€had€been€taken€as€a€result€of€inquiries€conductedŠ Ō$  Šby€associations€that€endeavoured€to€defend€the€human€rights€of€detainees.Š Ą  ŠĢ613.€€In€reply,€the€representative€of€Japan€referred€in€particular€to€detention€in€a€labour€centre€inŠ ˜č  Špursuance€of€article€18€of€the€Japanese€Criminal€Code.€€He€gave€some€particulars€concerning€the€€Š „Ō  Šš špolice€cellsšš€in€which€persons€might€be€held,€provided€that€they€were€not€kept€there€continuously.€Š pĄ ŠHe€added€that€members€of€the€Japanese€police€force€were€highly€trained€and€had€received€guidelinesŠ \¬ Šconcerning€human€rights.€€Any€complaint€by€a€prisoner€concerning€the€treatment€he€was€receivingŠ H˜ Šwas€promptly€communicated€to€the€chief€of€police€of€the€prefecture,€who€would€then€institute€anŠ 4„ Šinquiry€and€inform€the€prisoner€of€the€results.€€The€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure€itemized€all€theŠ  p Šcases€in€which€confessions€were€not€admissible€in€evidence€and€the€court€could€dismiss€anyŠ  \ Šdeposition€if€it€had€doubts€regarding€the€circumstances€in€which€the€deposition€had€been€made.€Š ųH ŠDraft€legislation€providing€for€greater€protection€of€prisoners€had€been€submitted€to€parliament.€€TheŠ ä4 ŠUnited€Nations€Standard€Minimum€Rules€for€the€Treatment€of€Prisoners€had€been€translated€intoŠ Š  ŠJapanese€and€widely€publicized€in€Japan€and€their€implementation€was€guaranteed€by€administrativeŠ ¼  Šorders.€€Draft€legislation€concerning€centres€for€holding€persons€in€custody€pending€trial,€which€tookŠ Øų Šinto€account€principles€laid€down€in€the€legislation€of€other€countries€and€the€United€NationsŠ ”ä ŠStandard€Minimum€Rules€were€under€consideration€in€parliament.€€The€draft€legislation€containedŠ €Š Šspecific€provisions€concerning€the€treatment€of€any€person€held€in€a€police€cell€after€arrest.Š l¼ ŠĢ614.€€The€representative€pointed€out€that€during€the€period€from€1983€to€1987,€only€one€policeŠ D!” Šofficer€had€been€prosecuted€on€the€grounds€of€abuse€of€power€resulting€in€death€and€there€had€beenŠ 0"€  Šno€prosecution€of€such€officers€on€the€grounds€of€acts€of€violence€or€cruelty.€€In€that€connection,€heŠ #l! Šstated€that,€while€he€could€not€altogether€deny€the€possibility€of€isolated€cases€of€excess€by€policeŠ $X" Šofficers,€he€had€heard€of€no€specific€case€in€which€such€officers€had€tortured€detainees.€€PrisonersŠ ō$D # Šwere€entitled€to€file€a€complaint€with€the€Office€of€the€Public€Prosecutor€who€exercised€strict€controlŠ ą%0!$ Šover€the€police.Š Ģ&"% ŠĢņņRight€to€a€fair€trialóóŠ ¤(ō#' ŠĢ615.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€know€why€the€principle€ofŠ |*Ģ%) Šthe€presumption€of€innocence€had€not€been€reflected€thus€far€in€either€the€Japanese€Constitution€orŠ h+ø&* Šlegislation,€and€how€ņņKokukuóó,€quasi€„ņņKokukuóó€and€extraordinary€ņņKokukuóó€appeals€differed€from€eachŠ T,¤'+ Šother.€€They€recalled€that,€under€article€2,€paragraph€3,€of€the€Covenant,€each€State€party€shouldŠ @-(, Šundertake€to€develop€the€possibility€of€judicial€remedy€and€they€asked€whether€that€requirement€hadŠ ° Šbeen€taken€into€account€when€the€Mental€Health€Law€had€been€revised€in€1987.€€Explanations€wereŠ œģ Šrequested,€in€particular,€with€respect€to€the€right€of€a€prisoner€to€communicate€with€his€counsel€andŠ ˆŲ Šthe€concept€of€š šgrey€and€indecisive€innocensešš,€which€was€expressed€by€the€Chief€of€Justice€afterŠ tÄ Šthe€conclusion€of€a€case€with€a€verdict€of€not€guilty.Š `° ŠĢ616.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€Japan€stated€that€the€presumption€of€innocence€was€firmlyŠ 8 ˆ Šestablished€as€a€fundamental€principle€of€criminal€procedure€and€had€been€fully€respected€in€judicialŠ $ t Špractice.€€He€further€explained€that€under€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure,€sentence€was€pronouncedŠ  ` Šby€court€judgement.€€Other€decisions€by€a€court€of€first€instance€or€by€a€judge€were€generally€madeŠ ü L  Šin€the€form€of€a€ruling€order.€€ņņKokukuóó€appeals€against€a€judgement€rendered€in€the€first€instance€byŠ č 8  Ša€district€court,€family€court€or€summary€court€could€be€lodged€with€the€High€Court;€those€againstŠ Ō$  Ša€judgement€in€the€first€or€second€instance€rendered€by€the€Court€with€the€Supreme€Court€and€thoseŠ Ą  Šagainst€a€ruling€to€which€no€objection€was€allowed€in€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure€with€the€HighŠ ¬ü  ŠCourt.€€An€extraordinary€ņņKokukuóó€could€be€filed€with€the€Supreme€Court€only€on€such€grounds€asŠ ˜č  Šviolation€of€the€Constitution€and€incompatibility€with€judicial€precedent.€€Quasi„ņņKokukuóó€appealŠ „Ō  Šagainst€a€decision€prescribed€in€article€429€of€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure,€which€was€renderedŠ pĄ Šby€a€judge€in€respect€of€such€matters€as€detention€and€release€on€bail,€could€be€lodged€with€the€courtŠ \¬ Što€which€the€judge€was€attached.Š H˜ ŠĢ617.€€The€representative€then€referred€to€the€possibility€of€judicial€remedy€which€had€been€developedŠ  p Šby€the€law€with€regard€to€persons€in€psychiatric€hospitals€and€provided€information€concerning€theŠ  \ Šstructure€and€functions€of€the€Japanese€bar€under€the€Practising€Attorneys€Law€of€1949.€€He€pointedŠ ųH Šout€that€unconvicted€persons€were€given€sufficient€guarantees€to€ensure€that€they€could€receiveŠ ä4 Šdocuments€and€other€material€from€their€counsel.€€As€a€general€rule,€detainees€were€also€permittedŠ Š  Što€see€persons€other€than€their€counsel€and€to€receive€documents€from€them.€€Under€article€39,Š ¼  Šparagraph€3,€of€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure,€if€it€was€essential€for€the€investigation,€the€publicŠ Øų Šprosecutor€or€investigating€magistrate€could€designate€the€date,€place€and€time€at€which€an€interviewŠ ”ä Šwith€the€accused€was€to€be€held,€provided€that€the€ability€of€the€accused€to€prepare€his€defence€wasŠ €Š Šnot€prejudiced€thereby.Š l¼ ŠĢņņFreedom€of€movement€and€expulsion€of€aliensóóŠ D!” ŠĢ618.€€On€that€subject,€members€of€the€Committee€asked€whether€there€were€any€restrictions€on€theŠ #l! Šfreedom€of€movement€of€aliens€within€Japan€other€than€those€which€were€applicable€also€to€citizensŠ $X" Šand€restrictions€relating€to€š šprovisionally€landed€aliensšš€or€special€cases.€€Moreover,€in€the€light€ofŠ ō$D # Šthe€Committeeššs€general€comment€No.€15€(27),€they€requested€additional€information€on€the€positionŠ ą%0!$ Šof€aliens€in€Japan.Š Ģ&"% ŠĢ619.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€reporting€State€referred€to€article€22€of€the€JapaneseŠ ¤(ō#' ŠConstitution,€which€guaranteed€freedom€of€movement€to€both€Japanese€citizens€and€aliens,€andŠ )ą$( Šlegislation€relevant€to€the€requirements€for€entry€of€aliens€in€Japan.€€He€stated€that€an€alien€who€hadŠ |*Ģ%) Šbeen€refused€entry€by€the€immigration€authorities€might€lodge€an€appeal€with€the€Ministry€of€Justice.€Š h+ø&* ŠBy€a€decision€of€the€Supreme€Court€of€28€September€1978€foreigners€living€in€Japan€enjoyed€theŠ T,¤'+ Šsame€fundamental€human€rights€as€Japanese€citizens,€apart€from€voting€and€certain€other€rightsŠ @-(, Šexpressly€reserved€for€Japanese€citizens.€€The€conditions€governing€the€residence€and€activities€ofŠ ° Šforeigners€in€Japan€were€laid€down€by€the€immigration€authorities.€€Investigation€of€offences€carryingŠ œģ Šthe€penalty€of€deportation€was€carried€out€initially€by€the€immigration€control€officer.€€If€grounds€forŠ ˆŲ Šdeportation€were€found,€the€person€concerned€could€request€a€hearing€by€the€special€inquiries€officerŠ tÄ Šand,€in€the€event€of€an€adverse€ruling,€lodge€an€appeal€with€the€Ministry€of€Justice,€which€was€theŠ `° Šfinal€authority€on€deportation.Š L œ ŠĢņņRight€to€privacyóóŠ $ t ŠĢ620.€€With€regard€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€requested€additional€information€onŠ ü L  Šarticle€17,€in€accordance€with€the€Committeeššs€general€comment€No.€16€(€32€),€and€clarification€onŠ č 8  Šthe€concept€of€š šthe€right€to€portraitšš.€€They€also€requested€a€description€of€Japanese€laws€andŠ Ō$  Špractices€relating€to€the€collection€and€use€of€personal€data€by€public€agencies€or€private€entities.€Š Ą  ŠIn€addition,€they€asked€how€the€use€of€electronic€listening€and€viewing€devices€was€regulated,Š ¬ü  Šwhether€an€individual€had€the€right€to€ascertain€in€intelligible€form€whether€personal€data€relatingŠ ˜č  Što€him€were€stored€on€data€files,€and,€if€so,€what€data€and€for€what€purpose,€and€which€publicŠ „Ō  Šauthorities€or€private€firms€controlled€such€data.Š pĄ ŠĢ621.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€the€State€party€said€that,€if€the€infringement€of€privacyŠ H˜ Šconstituted€an€offence,€the€individual€concerned€might€lodge€a€complaint€with€the€public€prosecutorŠ 4„ Šor€investigating€magistrate,€in€accordance€with€the€Code€of€Criminal€Procedure,€requesting€redressŠ  p Šfor€the€damage€caused€and€restoration€of€the€original€condition.€€In€addition,€he€could€request€anŠ  \ Šinvestigation€by€a€civil€liberties€commissioner€on€grounds€of€violation€of€his€human€rights.€Š ųH ŠRegarding€the€concept€of€€€š šthe€right€to€portraitšš,€he€explained€that€the€Supreme€Court€had€ruled€thatŠ ä4 Šthe€photographing€of€a€personššs€face€by€the€police€without€good€reasons€was€contrary€to€article€14Š Š  Šof€the€Constitution.€€With€reference€to€the€other€questions€raised,€he€stated€that€the€Instalment€SalesŠ ¼  ŠAct€relating€to€computerized€information€in€the€private€sector,€amended€in€1984,€provided€thatŠ Øų Šinformation€acquired€in€connection€with€credit€transactions€should€not€be€used€for€any€other€purpose;Š ”ä Šarticle€21€of€the€Constitution€guaranteed€security€of€all€means€of€communication,€while€theŠ €Š ŠTelecommunications€Act€prohibited€any€violation€of€telecommunications€security;€a€Bill€recentlyŠ l¼ Šsubmitted€to€the€Diet€would€cover€the€handling€of€controversial€personal€data€by€public€institutions,Š X Ø Šcombining€the€protection€of€individual€rights€with€efficient€administration.Š D!” ŠĢņņFreedom€of€religion€and€expression,€prohibition€of€propaganda€for€war€and€advocacy€of€racial€orŠ #l! Šreligious€hatredóóŠ $X" ŠĢ622.€€On€that€subject,€members€of€the€Committee€asked€whether€religions€were€officially€recognizedŠ ą%0!$ Šor€registered€in€Japan€and,€if€so,€what€the€relevant€legal€basis€and€procedures€were,€what€controlsŠ Ģ&"% Šwere€exercised€on€freedom€of€the€press€and€mass€media€in€accordance€with€the€law€and€whatŠ ø'#& Šconcrete€measures€had€been€taken€to€ensure€compliance€with€the€provisions€of€article€20€of€theŠ ¤(ō#' ŠCovenant.€€Members€of€Committee€stressed€that€legislative€provisions€against€propaganda€for€warŠ )ą$( Šhad€to€be€enacted€by€a€State€party,€if€it€was€to€fulfil€its€obligations€under€that€article.Š |*Ģ%) ŠĢ623.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€Japan€referred€to€constitutional€and€other€legislativeŠ T,¤'+ Šprovisions€guaranteeing€freedom€of€religion€and€expression€and€regulating€the€press€and€other€massŠ @-(, Šmedia.€€He€stated,€in€particular,€that€no€religious€education€was€imparted€by€the€State,€that€religiousŠ ° Šorganizations€were€not€required€to€be€registered,€that€dissemination€of€war€propaganda€in€his€countryŠ œģ Šwas€virtually€inconceivable€and€therefore€no€need€had€arisen€in€his€country€for€specific€legislationŠ ˆŲ Šon€the€matter.Š tÄ ŠĢņņFreedom€of€assembly€and€associationóóŠ L œ ŠĢ624.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€asked€about€the€relevant€laws€andŠ $ t Špractices€relating€to€the€establishment€of€political€parties,€the€organization€of€trade€unions,€the€sizeŠ  ` Šof€their€membership€and€the€percentage€of€the€labour€force€belonging€to€trade€unions.Š ü L  ŠĢ625.€€The€representative€of€the€reporting€State€replied€that€political€parties€could€be€organized€freelyŠ Ō$  Šin€Japan€without€restrictions.€€However,€the€Political€Funds€Regulation€Law€regulated€expenditureŠ Ą  Šon€political€activities€and€27€organizations€had€been€recognized€as€parties€under€that€law.€€The€mainŠ ¬ü  Špolitical€parties€had€representatives€in€both€houses€of€the€Diet.€€The€representative€also€referred€toŠ ˜č  Šarticles€21€and€28€of€the€Japanese€Constitution€relating€to€trade€unions€and€the€right€to€strike€andŠ „Ō  Šrecalled€that€Japan€was€a€party€to€the€International€Labour€Organisation€Freedom€of€Association€andŠ pĄ ŠProtection€of€the€Right€to€Organise€Convention,€1948€(No.€87)€and€the€Right€to€Organise€andŠ \¬ ŠCollective€Bargaining€Convention,€1949€(No.€98).Š H˜ ŠĢņņProtection€of€the€family€and€children,€including€the€right€to€marryóóŠ  p ŠĢ626.€€With€reference€to€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€asked€how€the€right€of€men€andŠ ųH Šwomen€of€marriageable€age€to€marry€and€to€found€a€family€was€recognized€in€Japan,€what€measuresŠ ä4 Šthe€Government€was€taking€to€eradicate€child€prostitution€and€what€the€position€was€in€Japan€withŠ Š  Šregard€to€corporal€punishment.Š ¼  ŠĢ627.€€The€representative€replied€that€article€24€of€the€Japanese€Constitution€affirmed€that€marriageŠ ”ä Šwas€based€on€the€mutual€consent€of€the€intending€spouses.€€In€1986,€a€total€of€967€female€juvenilesŠ €Š Šunder€20€years€of€age€had€been€counselled€for€prostitution.€€Relevant€laws€were€the€Child€WelfareŠ l¼ ŠLaw€and€the€Prostitution€Prevention€Law,€and€the€police€endeavoured€to€locate€and€protect€juvenileŠ X Ø Švictims€of€prostitution.€€Corporal€punishment€in€school€was€prohibited€by€law.Š D!” ŠĢņņRight€to€participate€in€the€conduct€of€public€affairsŠ #l! Šóó€ņņŠ $X" Šóó628.€€In€respect€to€that€subject,€members€of€the€Committee€wished€to€receive€information€concerningŠ ō$D # Šthe€exercise€of€and€restrictions€on€political€rights.€€They€also€asked€how€equitable€access€of€membersŠ ą%0!$ Šof€ethnic,€religious€or€linguistic€minorities€to€public€services€was€ensured.Š Ģ&"% ŠĢ629.€€In€his€reply€the€representative€of€Japan€referred€to€the€Public€Offices€Election€Law,€whichŠ ¤(ō#' Šcontained€provisions€regarding€the€election€of€members€of€the€two€houses€of€the€Diet€and€membersŠ )ą$( Šof€the€assemblies€of€local€public€bodies,€and€the€National€Public€Service€Law€and€the€Local€PublicŠ |*Ģ%) ŠService€Law,€which€guaranteed€that€the€recruitment€of€public€officials€was€based€on€fair€andŠ h+ø&* Šcompetitive€examinations.€€He€stated€that€equal€access€to€the€conduct€of€public€affairs€wasŠ T,¤'+ Šguaranteed€to€everybody€under€law.Š @-(, ЇņņRights€of€minoritiesóóŠ ° ŠĢ630.€€Regarding€that€issue,€members€of€the€Committee€asked€whether€there€were,€in€Japan,€anyŠ ˆŲ Šspecial€factors€and€difficulties€concerning€the€effective€of€enjoyment€by€minorities€of€their€rightsŠ tÄ Šunder€the€Covenant€and,€in€particular,€what€the€situation€was€in€regard€to€Koreans,€Chinese,€the€UtariŠ `° Špeople€and€the€Dowa€people.Š L œ ŠĢ631.€€In€his€reply,€the€representative€of€Japan€provided€figures€concerning€the€composition€of€theŠ $ t Šgroups€of€persons€referred€to€in€the€question€and€stated€that€in€Japan€no€one€was€denied€the€right€toŠ  ` Šenjoy€his€own€culture,€to€practise€his€own€religion,€or€to€use€his€own€language.Š ü L  ŠĢņņGeneral€CommentsóóŠ Ō$  ŠĢ632.€€The€members€of€the€Committee€expressed€satisfaction€with€the€thorough,€constructive€andŠ ¬ü  Šfruitful€dialogue€which€had€taken€place€between€the€representatives€of€Japan€and€the€Committee.€Š ˜č  ŠThey€noted€with€appreciation€that€the€report€had€already€been€publicly€discussed€in€Japan€and€thatŠ „Ō  Šmany€non„governmental€organizations€and€groups€had€been€involved;€in€their€opinion€thatŠ pĄ Šdemonstrated€the€keen€interest€in€human€rights€matters€that€existed€in€Japan.€€They€noted€that€manyŠ \¬ Šelements€of€traditional€law€existed€in€Japanese€society;€they€had€the€impression€that€in€the€currentŠ H˜ Šstate€of€affairs,€Japanese€legislation€was€an€amalgam€of€various€legal€concepts€and€was€expected€toŠ 4„ Ševolve€further.€€Hence€it€was€sometimes€difficult€to€determine€with€certainty€whether€someŠ  p Šprovisions€of€the€legislation€were€compatible€with€the€Covenant.€€They€noted€that€someŠ  \ Šimprovements€in€the€Japanese€legal€system€from€the€point€of€view€of€human€rights€could€already€beŠ ųH Šseen,€in€particular€with€regard€to€the€ban€on€war€propaganda,€the€human€rights€of€mental€patients,Š ä4 Šthe€management€of€penitentiary€establishments€and€the€use€of€police€cells€for€holding€personsŠ Š  Šawaiting€trial€in€custody.€€They€also€referred€to€the€comments€made€in€the€course€of€the€considerationŠ ¼  Šof€the€report€concerning€the€difficulties€in€obtaining€naturalization€in€Japan,€allegations€ofŠ Øų Šmaltreatment€of€prisoners,€the€application€of€the€death€penalty,€and€certain€forms€of€discriminationŠ ”ä Šagainst€certain€ethnic€groups€and€certain€communities€of€the€Japanese€population€as€well€as€againstŠ €Š Šwomen€and€aliens.€€The€members€expressed€the€view€that€the€measures€needed€to€deal€with€theŠ l¼ Šquestions€raised€related€to€both€legislation€and€practice,€and€they€expressed€the€hope€that€theŠ X Ø ŠJapanese€Government€would€take€the€Committeeššs€comments€into€account.Š D!” ŠĢ633.€€On€the€conclusion€of€consideration€of€Japanššs€second€periodic€report,€the€Chairman€alsoŠ #l! Šthanked€the€Japanese€delegation€for€its€contribution€to€a€fruitful€dialogue€with€the€Committee€andŠ $X" Šexpressed€the€hope€that€all€questions€left€in€abeyance€at€the€current€session€would€be€dealt€with€inŠ ō$D # ŠJapanššs€next€periodic€report.€Š  ą%0!$ ŠŌUSUK.,Ōņ ņCCPR€€A/49/40€Ō_Ō(1994)ó óŌ_ŌŠ ° ŠĢĢ98.€€The€Human€Rights€Committee€considered€the€third€periodic€report€of€Japan€(CCPR/C/70/Add.1Š tÄ Šand€Corr.1€and€2)€at€its€1277th€to€1280th€meetings,€held€on€27€and€28€October€1993,€and€adoptedŠ `° Šņņ23óó/€the€following€comments:Š L œ ŠĢ1.€€ņņIntroductionóóŠ $ t ŠĢ99.€€The€Committee€commends€the€Government€of€Japan€on€its€excellent€report,€which€has€beenŠ ü L  Šprepared€in€accordance€with€the€Committee's€guidelines€for€the€presentation€of€State€party€reportsŠ č 8  Šand€submitted€on€schedule.€€The€Committee€appreciates,€in€particular,€the€participation,€in€itsŠ Ō$  Šconsideration€of€the€report,€of€a€competent€delegation€from€the€Government€of€Japan,€whichŠ Ą  Šconsisted€of€experts€in€various€fields€relating€to€the€protection€of€human€rights.€€The€Committee€isŠ ¬ü  Šof€the€view€that€the€detailed€information€provided€by€the€delegation€in€its€introduction€of€the€report,Š ˜č  Šas€well€as€the€comprehensive€replies€furnished€to€the€question€raised€by€the€Committee€members,Š „Ō  Šcontributed€greatly€to€making€the€dialogue€fruitful.Š pĄ ŠĢ100.€€The€Committee€notes€with€appreciation€that€the€Government€of€Japan€gave€wide€publicity€toŠ H˜ Šits€report,€thus€enabling€a€great€number€of€non-governmental€organizations€to€become€aware€of€theŠ 4„ Šcontents€of€the€report€and€to€make€known€their€particular€concerns.€€In€addition,€some€of€them€wereŠ  p Špresent€during€the€Committee's€consideration€of€the€report.Š  \ ŠĢ2.€€ņņFactors€and€difficulties€affecting€the€implementation€of€the€CovenantóóŠ ä4 ŠĢ101.€€The€Committee€notes€that€the€Government€of€Japan€sometimes€experiences€difficulties€inŠ ¼  Štaking€measures€to€implement€the€Covenant€owing€to€various€social€factors,€such€as€the€traditionalŠ Øų Šconcept€of€the€different€roles€of€the€sexes,€the€unique€relationship€between€individuals€and€the€groupŠ ”ä Šthey€belong€to€and€the€unconscious€particularities€owing€to€the€homogeneity€of€the€population.Š €Š ŠĢ3.€€ņņPositive€aspectsóóŠ X Ø ŠĢ102.€€The€Committee€takes€note€with€satisfaction€of€the€serious€approach€that€the€Government€ofŠ 0"€  ŠJapan€has€taken€in€dealing€with€issues€relating€to€civil€and€political€rights,€and€of€its€commitmentŠ #l! Što€fulfil€its€obligations€under€the€Covenant.Š $X" ŠĢ103.€€The€Committee€is€of€the€view€that€the€human€rights€situation€in€Japan€has€improved€since€theŠ ą%0!$ Šconsideration€of€the€second€periodic€report€of€that€State€party€in€1988,€and€that€there€is€generally€aŠ Ģ&"% Šgood€regard€for€human€rights€in€the€country.Š ø'#& ŠĢ104.€€Furthermore,€the€Committee€notes,€with€appreciation,€that€Japan€actively€assists€in€theŠ )ą$( Špromotion€of€human€rights€at€the€international€level.€€It€also€notes€that€there€is€awareness€in€theŌUK.,US.,ŌŌUSUK.,ŌŠ |*Ģ%) ŠĢĢßA€\ )°°? dE°?-? Aߊ @-(, Šą  ąņņ23óó/€€At€its€1290ņņthóó€meeting€(forty„ninth€session),€held€on€4€November€1993.Š O-Ÿ(- ЇJapanese€society€of€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant;€this€awareness€is€confirmed€by€the€interestŠ ° Šexpressed€by€many€Japanese€non-governmental€organizations€in€the€Committee's€consideration€ofŠ œģ Šthe€third€periodic€report€of€Japan.Š ˆŲ ŠĢ€4.€€ņņPrincipal€subjects€of€concernóóŠ `° ŠĢ105.€€The€Committee€believes€that€it€is€not€clear€that€the€Covenant€would€prevail€in€the€case€ofŠ 8 ˆ Šconflict€with€domestic€legislation€and€that€its€terms€are€not€fully€subsumed€in€the€Constitution.€Š $ t ŠFurthermore,€it€is€also€not€clear€whether€the€"public€welfare"€limitation€of€articles€12€and€13€of€theŠ  ` ŠConstitution€would€be€applied€in€a€particular€situation€in€conformity€with€the€Covenant.Š ü L  ŠĢ106.€€The€Committee€expresses€concern€at€the€continued€existence€in€Japan€of€certain€discriminatoryŠ Ō$  Špractices€against€social€groups,€such€as€Korean€permanent€residents,€members€of€the€BurakuŠ Ą  Šcommunities,€and€persons€belonging€to€the€Ainu€minority.€€The€requirement€that€it€is€a€penal€offenceŠ ¬ü  Šfor€alien€permanent€residents€not€to€carry€documentation€at€all€times,€while€this€does€not€apply€toŠ ˜č  ŠJapanese€nationals,€is€not€consistent€with€the€Covenant.€€Moreover,€persons€of€Korean€andŠ „Ō  ŠTaiwanese€origin€who€serve€in€the€Japanese€Army€and€who€no€longer€possess€Japanese€nationalityŠ pĄ Šare€discriminated€against€in€respect€of€their€pensions.Š \¬ ŠĢ107.€€In€addition,€the€Committee€expresses€concern€at€other€discriminatory€practices€that€appear€toŠ 4„ Špersist€in€Japan€against€women€with€regard€to€remuneration€in€employment,€and€notes€that€de€factoŠ  p Šproblems€of€discrimination€more€generally€continue€to€exist.€€The€situation€regarding€mentally€illŠ  \ Špersons€has€significantly€improved,€but€problems€continue€regarding€access€to€employment.€€TheŠ ųH ŠCommittee€acknowledges€the€fact€that€legal€measures€have€been€taken€by€the€Japanese€authoritiesŠ ä4 Što€forbid€those€practices€and€that€there€are€comprehensive€programmes€to€promote€equal€opportunity.€Š Š  ŠHowever,€it€appears€that€a€certain€gap€exists€in€Japan€between€the€adoption€of€legislation€and€theŠ ¼  Šactual€behaviour€of€certain€sectors€of€society.€€The€Committee€notes€that€recourse€for€settlement€ofŠ Øų Šclaims€of€discrimination€against€trade-union€activists€is€very€protracted.Š ”ä ŠĢ108.€€The€Committee€is€particularly€concerned€at€the€discriminatory€legal€provisions€concerningŠ l¼ Šchildren€born€out€of€wedlock.€€In€particular,€provisions€and€practices€regarding€the€birth€registrationŠ X Ø Šforms€and€the€family€register€are€contrary€to€articles€17€and€24€of€the€Covenant.€€The€discriminationŠ D!” Šin€their€right€to€inherit€is€not€consistent€with€article€26€of€the€Covenant.Š 0"€  ŠĢ109.€€The€Committee€is€disturbed€by€the€number€and€nature€of€crimes€punishable€by€death€penaltyŠ $X" Šunder€the€Japanese€Penal€Code.€€The€Committee€recalls€that€the€terms€of€the€Covenant€tend€towardsŠ ō$D # Šthe€abolition€of€the€death€penalty€and€that€those€States€which€have€not€already€abolished€the€deathŠ ą%0!$ Špenalty€are€bound€to€apply€it€only€for€the€most€serious€crimes.€€In€addition,€there€are€matters€ofŠ Ģ&"% Šconcern€relating€to€conditions€of€detainees.€€In€particular,€the€Committee€finds€that€the€undueŠ ø'#& Šrestrictions€on€visits€and€correspondence€and€the€failure€of€notification€of€executions€to€the€familyŠ ¤(ō#' Šare€incompatible€with€the€Covenant.Š )ą$( ŠĢ110.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€that€the€guarantees€contained€in€articles€9,€10€and€14€are€not€fullyŠ h+ø&* Šcomplied€with,€in€that€pre-trial€detention€takes€place€not€only€in€cases€where€the€conduct€of€theŠ T,¤'+ Šinvestigation€requires€it;€the€detention€is€not€promptly€and€effectively€brought€under€judicial€controlŠ @-(, Šand€is€left€under€the€control€of€the€police;€most€of€the€time€interrogation€does€not€take€place€in€theŠ ° Špresence€of€the€detainee's€counsel,€nor€do€rules€exist€to€regulate€the€length€of€interrogation;€and€theŠ œģ Šsubstitute€prison€system€(Daiyo€Kangoku)€is€not€under€the€control€of€an€authority€separate€from€theŠ ˆŲ Špolice.€€In€addition,€the€legal€representatives€of€the€defendant€do€not€have€access€to€all€relevantŠ tÄ Šmaterial€in€the€police€record,€in€order€to€enable€them€to€prepare€the€defence.Š `° ŠĢ111.€€The€Committee€regrets€that€there€appears€to€be€a€restrictive€approach€in€certain€laws€andŠ 8 ˆ Šdecisions€as€to€respect€for€the€right€to€freedom€of€expression.Š $ t Š€Ģ112.€€The€Committee€notes€with€concern€the€exclusion€of€Koreans€from€the€Government's€conceptŠ ü L  Šof€minorities.€€This€is€not€justified€by€the€Covenant,€which€does€not€limit€the€concept€of€minority€toŠ č 8  Šthose€who€are€nationals€of€the€State€concerned.Š Ō$  ŠĢ5.€€ņņSuggestions€and€recommendationsóóŠ ¬ü  ŠĢ113.€€The€Committee€recommends€that€Japan€become€a€party€to€both€Optional€Protocols€to€theŠ „Ō  ŠInternational€Covenant€on€Civil€and€Political€Rights€and€to€the€Convention€against€Torture€and€OtherŠ pĄ ŠCruel,€Inhuman€or€Degrading€Treatment€or€Punishment.Š \¬ ŠĢ114.€€The€Committee€also€recommends€that€the€Japanese€legislation€concerning€children€born€outŠ 4„ Šof€wedlock€be€amended€and€that€discriminatory€provisions€contained€therein€be€removed€to€bringŠ  p Šit€into€line€with€the€provisions€of€articles€2,€24€and€26€of€the€Covenant.€€All€discriminatory€laws€andŠ  \ Špractices€still€existing€in€Japan€should€be€abolished€in€conformity€with€articles€2,€3€and€26€of€theŠ ųH ŠCovenant.€€The€Government€of€Japan€should€make€an€effort€to€influence€public€opinion€in€thisŠ ä4 Šrespect.Š Š  ŠĢ115.€€The€Committee€further€recommends€that€Japan€take€measures€towards€the€abolition€of€theŠ Øų Šdeath€penalty€and€that,€in€the€meantime,€that€penalty€should€be€limited€to€the€most€serious€crimes;Š ”ä Šthat€the€conditions€of€death€row€detainees€be€reconsidered;€and€that€preventive€measures€of€controlŠ €Š Šagainst€any€kind€of€ill-treatment€of€detainees€should€be€further€improved.Š l¼ ŠĢ116.€€With€a€view€to€guaranteeing€the€full€application€of€articles€9,€10€and€14€of€the€Covenant,€theŠ D!” ŠCommittee€recommends€that€pre-trial€procedures€and€the€operation€of€the€substitute€prison€systemŠ 0"€  Š(Daiyo€Kangoku)€should€be€made€compatible€with€all€requirements€of€the€Covenant€and,€inŠ #l! Šparticular,€that€all€the€guarantees€relating€to€the€facilities€for€the€preparation€of€the€defence€shouldŠ $X" Šbe€observed.ŌUK.,US.,¶‹ŌŠ  ō$D # ŠŌUSUK.,Ōņ ņCCPR€€A/54/40€Ō_Ō(1999)ó óŌ_ŌŠ ° ŠĢĢ143.€€The€Committee€considered€the€fourth€periodic€report€of€Japan€(CCPR/C/115/Add.3€and€Corr.1)Š tÄ Šat€its€1714th€to€1717th€meetings€(CCPR/SR.1714-1717)€held€on€28€and€29€October€1998€andŠ `° Šadopted€the€following€concluding€observations€at€its€1726th€and€1727th€meetingsŠ L œ Š(CCPR/C/SR.1726-1727)€held€on€5€November€1998.€Š 8 ˆ ŠĢ1.€€ņņIntroductionóóŠ  ` ŠĢ144.€€The€Committee€expresses€its€appreciation€for€the€frank€and€forthright€replies€given€by€theŠ č 8  Šdelegation€to€the€issues€raised€by€the€Committee€and€the€clarifications€and€explanations€given€inŠ Ō$  Šanswer€to€the€oral€questions€put€by€the€members€of€the€Committee.€€The€Committee€is€alsoŠ Ą  Šappreciative€of€the€presence€of€the€large€delegation€representing€various€branches€of€the€Government,Š ¬ü  Šwhich€demonstrates€the€seriousness€of€the€State€party€in€meeting€its€obligations€under€the€Covenant.€Š ˜č  ŠThe€Committee€also€commends€the€State€party€for€having€given€wide€publicity€to€its€report€and€toŠ „Ō  Šthe€work€of€the€Committee.€€It€welcomes€the€large€number€of€lawyers€and€non-governmentalŠ pĄ Šorganizations€present€during€the€discussion€of€the€report.€Š \¬ ŠĢ2.€€ņņPositive€aspectsóóŠ 4„ ŠĢ145.€€The€Committee€commends€the€Government€for€the€ongoing€process€of€bringing€its€legislationŠ  \ Šinto€line€with€the€provisions€of€the€Covenant.€€It€welcomes€the€enactment€of€the€Law€on€theŠ ųH ŠPromotion€of€Measures€for€Human€Rights€Protection,€as€well€as€amendments€to€other€laws€such€asŠ ä4 Šthe€Equal€Employment€Opportunities€Law,€the€Standard€Labour€Law,€the€Immigration€Control€andŠ Š  ŠRefugee€Recognition€Act,€the€Penal€Code,€the€Child€Welfare€Law,€the€Election€Law€and€theŠ ¼  ŠEntertainment€Business€Law,€and€the€draft€bill€aimed€at€punishing€Japanese€nationals€involved€inŠ Øų Šchild€prostitution€and€child€pornography.€Š ”ä ŠĢ146.€€The€Committee€notes€with€satisfaction€the€establishment,€at€Cabinet€level,€of€the€Council€forŠ l¼ Šthe€Promotion€of€Gender€Equality,€aimed€at€investigating€and€developing€policies€for€theŠ X Ø Šachievement€of€a€gender-equal€society€and€its€adoption€of€the€Plan€for€Gender€Equality€2000.€€TheŠ D!” ŠCommittee€also€notes€the€measures€being€taken€by€the€human€rights€organs€of€the€Ministry€of€JusticeŠ 0"€  Što€deal€with€the€elimination€of€discrimination€and€prejudice€against€students€at€Korean€schools€inŠ #l! ŠJapan,€children€born€out€of€wedlock€and€children€of€the€Ainu€minority.€Š $X" ŠĢ147.€€The€Committee€welcomes€the€abolition€of€restrictions€on€women's€eligibility€to€take€theŠ ą%0!$ Šnational€public€service€examination,€the€abolition€of€discriminatory€compulsory€retirement,€and€ofŠ Ģ&"% Šdismissals€on€grounds€of€marriage,€pregnancy€or€childbirth.€Š ø'#& ŠĢ3.€€ņņPrincipal€subjects€of€concern€and€recommendationsóóŠ )ą$( ŠĢ148.€€The€Committee€regrets€that€its€recommendations€issued€after€the€consideration€of€the€thirdŠ h+ø&* Šperiodic€report€have€largely€not€been€implemented.€Š T,¤'+ ŠŠ @-(, Š149.€€The€Committee€stresses€that€protection€of€human€rights€and€human€rights€standards€are€notŠ ° Šdetermined€by€popularity€polls.€€It€is€concerned€by€the€repeated€use€of€popularity€statistics€to€justifyŠ œģ Šattitudes€of€the€State€party€that€may€violate€its€obligations€under€the€Covenant.€Š ˆŲ ŠĢ150.€€The€Committee€reiterates€its€concern€about€the€restrictions€which€can€be€placed€on€the€rightsŠ `° Šguaranteed€in€the€Covenant€on€the€grounds€of€"public€welfare",€a€concept€which€is€vague€andŠ L œ Šopen-ended€and€which€may€permit€restrictions€exceeding€those€permissible€under€the€Covenant.€Š 8 ˆ ŠFollowing€upon€its€previous€observations,€the€Committee€once€again€strongly€recommends€to€theŠ $ t ŠState€party€to€bring€its€internal€law€into€conformity€with€the€Covenant.€Š  ` ŠĢ151.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€about€the€lack€of€institutional€mechanisms€available€forŠ č 8  Šinvestigating€violations€of€human€rights€and€for€providing€redress€to€the€complainants.€€EffectiveŠ Ō$  Šinstitutional€mechanisms€are€required€to€ensure€that€the€authorities€do€not€abuse€their€power€and€thatŠ Ą  Šthey€respect€the€rights€of€individuals€in€practice.€€The€Committee€is€of€the€view€that€the€CivilŠ ¬ü  ŠLiberties€Commission€is€not€such€a€mechanism,€since€it€is€supervised€by€the€Ministry€of€Justice€andŠ ˜č  Šits€powers€are€strictly€limited€to€issuing€recommendations.€€The€Committee€strongly€recommendsŠ „Ō  Što€the€State€Party€to€set€up€an€independent€mechanism€for€investigating€complaints€of€violations€ofŠ pĄ Šhuman€rights.€Š \¬ ŠĢ152.€€More€particularly,€the€Committee€is€concerned€that€there€is€no€independent€authority€to€whichŠ 4„ Šcomplaints€of€ill-treatment€by€the€police€and€immigration€officials€can€be€addressed€for€investigationŠ  p Šand€redress.€€The€Committee€recommends€that€such€an€independent€body€or€authority€be€set€up€byŠ  \ Šthe€State€party€without€delay.€Š ųH ŠĢ153.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€about€the€vagueness€of€the€concept€of€"reasonable€discrimination"Š Š  Šwhich,€in€the€absence€of€objective€criteria,€is€incompatible€with€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€€TheŠ ¼  ŠCommittee€finds€that€the€arguments€advanced€by€the€State€party€in€support€of€this€concept€are€theŠ Øų Šsame€as€had€been€advanced€during€the€consideration€of€the€third€periodic€report€and€which€theŠ ”ä ŠCommittee€found€to€be€unacceptable.€Š €Š ŠĢ154.€€The€Committee€continues€to€be€concerned€about€discrimination€against€children€born€out€ofŠ X Ø Šwedlock,€particularly€with€regard€to€the€issues€of€nationality,€family€registers€and€inheritance€rights.€Š D!” ŠIt€reaffirms€its€position€that€pursuant€to€article€26€of€the€Covenant,€all€children€are€entitled€to€equalŠ 0"€  Šprotection,€and€recommends€that€the€State€party€take€the€necessary€measures€to€amend€its€legislation,Š #l! Šincluding€article€900,€paragraph€4,€of€the€Civil€Code.€Š $X" ŠĢ155.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€about€instances€of€discrimination€against€members€of€theŠ ą%0!$ ŠJapanese-Korean€minority€who€are€not€Japanese€citizens,€including€the€non-recognition€of€KoreanŠ Ģ&"% Šschools.€€The€Committee€draws€the€attention€of€the€State€party€to€general€comment€No.€23€(1994)Š ø'#& Šwhich€stresses€that€protection€under€Article€27€may€not€be€restricted€to€citizens.€Š ¤(ō#' ŠĢ156.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€about€the€discrimination€against€members€of€the€Ainu€indigenousŠ |*Ģ%) Šminority€in€regard€to€language€and€higher€education,€as€well€as€about€non-recognition€of€their€landŠ h+ø&* Šrights.€Š T,¤'+ ŠŠ @-(, Š157.€€With€regard€to€the€Dowa€problem,€the€Committee€acknowledges€the€acceptance€by€the€StateŠ ° Šparty€of€the€fact€that€discrimination€persists€vis--vis€members€of€the€Buraku€minority€with€regardŠ œģ Što€education,€income€and€the€system€of€effective€remedies.€€The€Committee€recommends€that€theŠ ˆŲ ŠState€party€take€measures€to€put€an€end€to€such€discrimination.€Š tÄ ŠĢ158.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€that€there€still€remain€in€the€domestic€legal€order€of€the€State€partyŠ L œ Šdiscriminatory€laws€against€women,€such€as€the€prohibition€on€women€remarrying€within€six€monthsŠ 8 ˆ Šfollowing€the€date€of€the€dissolution€or€annulment€of€their€marriage€and€the€different€age€of€marriageŠ $ t Šfor€men€and€women.€€The€Committee€recalls€that€all€legal€provisions€that€discriminate€againstŠ  ` Šwomen€are€incompatible€with€articles€2,€3€and€26€of€the€Covenant€and€should€be€repealed.€Š ü L  ŠĢ159.€€The€Committee€reiterates€the€comment€made€in€its€concluding€observations€at€the€end€of€theŠ Ō$  Šconsideration€of€Japan's€third€periodic€report€that€the€Alien€Registration€Law,€which€makes€it€a€penalŠ Ą  Šoffence€for€alien€permanent€residents€not€to€carry€certificates€of€registration€at€all€times€and€imposesŠ ¬ü  Šcriminal€sanctions€for€failure€to€do€so€is€incompatible€with€article€26€of€the€Covenant.€€ItŠ ˜č  Šrecommends€once€again€that€such€discriminatory€laws€be€abolished.€Š „Ō  ŠĢ160.€€Article€26€of€the€Immigration€Control€and€Refugee€Recognition€Act€provides€that€only€thoseŠ \¬ Šforeigners€who€leave€the€country€with€a€permit€to€re-enter€are€allowed€to€return€to€Japan€withoutŠ H˜ Šlosing€their€residents€status€and€that€the€granting€of€such€permits€is€entirely€within€the€discretion€ofŠ 4„ Šthe€Minister€of€Justice.€€Under€this€law,€foreigners€who€are€second-€or€third-generation€permanentŠ  p Šresidents€in€Japan€and€whose€life€activities€are€based€in€Japan€may€be€deprived€of€their€right€to€leaveŠ  \ Šand€re-enter€the€country.€€The€Committee€is€of€the€view€that€this€provision€is€incompatible€withŠ ųH Šarticle€12,€paragraphs€2€and€4,€of€the€Covenant.€€The€Committee€reminds€the€State€party€that€theŠ ä4 Šwords€"one's€own€country"€are€not€synonymous€with€"country€of€one's€own€nationality".€€TheŠ Š  ŠCommittee€therefore€strongly€urges€the€State€party€to€remove€from€the€law€the€provision€requiringŠ ¼  Ša€permit€to€re-enter€to€be€obtained€prior€to€departure,€in€respect€of€permanent€residents€like€personsŠ Øų Šof€Korean€origin€born€in€Japan.€Š ”ä ŠĢ161.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€about€allegations€of€violence€and€sexual€harassment€of€personsŠ l¼ Šdetained€pending€immigration€procedures,€including€harsh€conditions€of€detention,€the€use€ofŠ X Ø Šhandcuffs€and€detention€in€isolation€rooms.€€Persons€held€in€immigration€detention€centres€mayŠ D!” Šremain€there€for€periods€of€up€to€six€months€and,€in€some€cases,€even€up€to€two€years.€€TheŠ 0"€  ŠCommittee€recommends€that€the€State€party€review€the€conditions€of€detention€and,€if€necessary,€takeŠ #l! Šmeasures€to€bring€the€situation€into€compliance€with€articles€7€and€9€of€the€Covenant.€Š $X" ŠĢ162.€€The€Committee€is€gravely€concerned€that€the€number€of€crimes€punishable€by€the€death€penaltyŠ ą%0!$ Šhas€not€been€reduced,€contrary€to€what€was€indicated€by€the€delegation€at€the€consideration€of€Japan'sŠ Ģ&"% Šthird€periodic€report.€€The€Committee€recalls€once€again€that€the€terms€of€the€Covenant€tend€towardsŠ ø'#& Šthe€abolition€of€the€death€penalty€and€that€those€States€which€have€not€already€abolished€the€deathŠ ¤(ō#' Špenalty€are€bound€to€apply€it€only€for€the€most€serious€crimes.€€The€Committee€recommends€thatŠ )ą$( ŠJapan€take€measures€towards€the€abolition€of€the€death€penalty€and€that,€in€the€meantime,€that€penaltyŠ |*Ģ%) Šshould€be€limited€to€the€most€serious€crimes,€in€accordance€with€article€6,€paragraph€2,€of€theŠ h+ø&* ŠCovenant.€Š T,¤'+ ŠŠ @-(, Š163.€€The€Committee€remains€seriously€concerned€at€the€conditions€under€which€persons€are€heldŠ ° Šon€death€row.€€In€particular,€the€Committee€finds€that€the€undue€restrictions€on€visits€andŠ œģ Šcorrespondence€and€the€failure€to€notify€the€family€and€lawyers€of€the€prisoners€on€death€row€of€theirŠ ˆŲ Šexecution€are€incompatible€with€the€Covenant.€€The€Committee€recommends€that€the€conditions€ofŠ tÄ Šdetention€on€death€row€be€made€humane€in€accordance€with€articles€7€and€10,€paragraph€1,€of€theŠ `° ŠCovenant.€Š L œ ŠĢ164.€€The€Committee€is€deeply€concerned€that€the€guarantees€contained€in€articles€9,€10€and€14€areŠ $ t Šnot€fully€complied€with€in€pre-trial€detention€in€that€pre-trial€detention€may€continue€for€as€long€asŠ  ` Š23€days€under€police€control€and€is€not€promptly€and€effectively€brought€under€judicial€control;€theŠ ü L  Šsuspect€is€not€entitled€to€bail€during€the€23-day€period;€there€are€no€rules€regulating€the€time€andŠ č 8  Šlength€of€interrogation;€there€is€no€State-appointed€counsel€to€advise€and€assist€the€suspect€inŠ Ō$  Šcustody;€there€are€serious€restrictions€on€access€to€defence€counsel€under€article€39€(3)€of€the€CodeŠ Ą  Šof€Criminal€Procedure;€and€the€interrogation€does€not€take€place€in€the€presence€of€the€counselŠ ¬ü  Šengaged€by€the€suspect.€€The€Committee€strongly€recommends€that€the€pre-trial€detention€system€inŠ ˜č  ŠJapan€should€be€reformed€with€immediate€effect€to€bring€it€into€conformity€with€articles€9,€10€andŠ „Ō  Š14€of€the€Covenant.€Š pĄ ŠĢ165.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€that€the€substitute€prison€system€(ņņDaiyo€Kangokuóó),€althoughŠ H˜ Šunder€the€authority€of€a€branch€of€the€police€which€does€not€deal€with€investigation,€is€not€under€theŠ 4„ Šcontrol€of€a€separate€authority.€€This€may€increase€the€chances€of€abuse€of€the€rights€of€detaineesŠ  p Šunder€articles€9€and€14€of€the€Covenant.€€The€Committee€reiterates€its€recommendation,€made€afterŠ  \ Šconsideration€of€the€third€periodic€report,€that€the€substitute€prison€system€should€be€madeŠ ųH Šcompatible€with€all€requirements€of€the€Covenant.€Š ä4 ŠĢ166.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€that€rule€4€of€the€Habeas€Corpus€Rules€under€the€Habeas€CorpusŠ ¼  ŠLaw€limits€the€grounds€for€obtaining€a€writ€of€habeas€corpus€to€(a)€the€absence€of€a€legal€right€toŠ Øų Šplace€a€person€in€custody€and€(b)€manifest€violation€of€due€process.€€It€also€requires€exhaustion€ofŠ ”ä Šall€other€remedies.€€The€Committee€is€of€the€view€that€rule€4€impairs€the€effectiveness€of€the€remedyŠ €Š Šfor€challenging€the€legality€of€detention€and€is€therefore€incompatible€with€article€9€of€the€Covenant.€Š l¼ ŠThe€Committee€recommends€that€the€State€party€repeal€rule€4€and€make€the€remedy€of€habeas€corpusŠ X Ø Šfully€effective€without€any€limitation€or€restriction.€Š D!” ŠĢ167.€€The€Committee€is€deeply€concerned€about€the€fact€that€a€large€number€of€the€convictions€inŠ #l! Šcriminal€trials€are€based€on€confessions.€€In€order€to€exclude€the€possibility€that€confessions€areŠ $X" Šextracted€under€duress,€the€Committee€strongly€recommends€that€the€interrogation€of€the€suspect€inŠ ō$D # Špolice€custody€or€substitute€prisons€be€strictly€monitored,€and€recorded€by€electronic€means.€Š ą%0!$ ŠĢ168.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€that€under€the€criminal€law,€there€is€no€obligation€on€theŠ ø'#& Šprosecution€to€disclose€evidence€it€may€have€gathered€in€the€course€of€the€investigation€other€thanŠ ¤(ō#' Šthat€which€it€intends€to€produce€at€the€trial,€and€that€the€defence€has€no€general€right€to€ask€for€theŠ )ą$( Šdisclosure€of€that€material€at€any€stage€of€the€proceedings.€€The€Committee€recommends€that,€inŠ |*Ģ%) Šaccordance€with€the€guarantees€provided€for€in€article€14,€paragraph€3,€of€the€Covenant,€the€StateŠ h+ø&* Šparty€ensure€that€its€law€and€practice€enable€the€defence€to€have€access€to€all€relevant€material€so€asŠ T,¤'+ Šnot€to€hamper€the€right€of€defence.€Š @-(, Ї169.€€The€Committee€is€deeply€concerned€at€many€aspects€of€the€prison€system€in€Japan,€which€raiseŠ ° Šserious€questions€of€compliance€with€articles€2,€paragraph€3€(a),€7€and€10€of€the€Covenant.€Š œģ ŠSpecifically,€the€Committee€is€concerned€at€the€following:€Š ˆŲ ŠĢ(a)€€Harsh€rules€of€conduct€in€prisons€that€restrict€the€fundamental€rights€of€prisoners,€includingŠ `° Šfreedom€of€speech,€freedom€of€association€and€privacy;€Š L œ ŠĢ(b)€€Use€of€harsh€punitive€measures,€including€frequent€resort€to€solitary€confinement;€Š $ t ŠĢ(c)€€Lack€of€fair€and€open€procedures€for€deciding€on€disciplinary€measures€against€prisoners€accusedŠ ü L  Šof€breaking€the€rules;€Š č 8  ŠĢ(d)€€Inadequate€protection€for€prisoners€who€complain€of€reprisals€by€prison€warders;€Š Ą  ŠĢ(e)€€Lack€of€a€credible€system€for€investigating€complaints€by€prisoners;€and€Š ˜č  ŠĢ(f)€€Frequent€use€of€protective€measures,€such€as€leather€handcuffs,€that€may€constitute€cruel€andŠ pĄ Šinhuman€treatment.€Š \¬ ŠĢ170.€€The€Committee€is€concerned€that€the€Central€Labour€Relations€Commission€refuses€to€hear€anŠ 4„ Šapplication€of€unfair€labour€practices€if€the€workers€wear€armbands€indicating€their€affiliation€to€aŠ  p Štrade€union.€€Such€an€action€contravenes€articles€19€and€22€of€the€Covenant.€€The€Committee's€viewŠ  \ Šshould€be€brought€to€the€attention€of€the€Central€Labour€Relations€Commission.€Š ųH ŠĢ171.€€Despite€the€amendment€to€the€Business€Entertainment€Law,€traffic€in€women€and€insufficientŠ Š  Šprotection€for€women€subject€to€trafficking€and€slavery-like€practices€remain€serious€concerns€underŠ ¼  Šarticle€8€of€the€Covenant.€€In€light€of€information€given€by€the€State€party€on€planned€new€legislationŠ Øų Šagainst€child€prostitution€and€child€pornography,€the€Committee€is€concerned€that€such€measuresŠ ”ä Šmay€not€protect€children€under€the€age€of€18€when€the€age€limit€for€sexual€consent€is€as€low€as€13.€Š €Š ŠThe€Committee€is€also€concerned€about€the€absence€of€specific€legal€provisions€prohibiting€theŠ l¼ Šbringing€of€foreign€children€to€Japan€for€the€purpose€of€prostitution,€despite€the€fact€that€abductionŠ X Ø Šand€sexual€exploitation€of€children€are€subject€to€penal€sanctions.€€The€Committee€recommends€thatŠ D!” Šthe€situation€be€made€to€comply€with€the€State€party's€obligations€under€articles€9,€17€and€24€of€theŠ 0"€  ŠCovenant.€Š #l! ŠĢ172.€€The€Committee€continues€to€be€gravely€concerned€about€the€high€incidence€of€violence€againstŠ ō$D # Šwomen,€in€particular€domestic€violence€and€rape,€and€the€absence€of€any€measures€to€eradicate€thisŠ ą%0!$ Špractice.€€The€C